[color=red]每日一星[/color][color=red]Joseph Stalin[/color]
全文比较长啊，大家就当泛读材料看好啦，语言很好懂的~ 个人各取所需的看相关部分吧Joseph Stalin, was a Bolshevik revolutionary and the second leader of the Soviet Union. Under Stalin, who replaced the New Economic Policy (NEP) of the 1920s with five year plans (introduced in 1928) and collective farming, the Soviet Union was transformed from a peasant society to a major world industrial power; meanwhile Stalin consolidated his personal power and eliminated effective political opposition during the 1930s through ruthless purges and repression. Victory in World War II (1945) laid the groundwork for the formation of the Warsaw Pact and established the USSR as one of the two major world powers, a position it maintained for nearly four decades following Stalin's death in 1953.
Childhood and early years
Stalin in exile, 1915 Stalin's involvement with the socialist movement began at seminary school, from which he was expelled in 1899 after failing to appear at scheduled examinations. He worked for a decade with the political underground in the Caucasus, facing repeated arrest and exile to Siberia between 1902 and 1917. He adhered to Vladimir Lenin's doctrine of a strong centralist party of "professional revolutionaries". His practical experience made him useful in Lenin's Bolshevik party, gaining him a place on its Central Committee in January 1912. Some historians have argued that, during this period, Stalin was actually a Tsarist spy, who was working to infiltrate the Bolshevik party. In 1913 he adopted the name Stalin, which means "man of steel" in Russian.
His only significant contribution to the development of Marxist theory at this time was a treatise written while briefly exiled in Vienna, Marxism and the national question. It presents an orthodox Marxist position on this important debate; see Lenin's article On the right of nations to self-determination for comparison. This treatise may have contributed to his appointment as People's Commissar for Nationalities Affairs after the revolution.
Rise to power
Initially opposed to the overthrow of Alexander Kerensky's Provisional Government in the Russian Revolution of 1917, Stalin was won over to Lenin's position following the latter's return from exile in April, but only played a minor role in the Bolsheviks' seizure of power on November 7. He was political commissar of the Soviet Army (Western front) during the Russian Civil War and Polish-Soviet war. Stalin's first government position was as People's Commissar of Nationalities Affairs. He held a number of senior administrative posts within the Soviet government and party apparatus, becoming in April 1922 general secretary of the ruling Communist Party, a post which he subsequently built up into the most powerful in the country. This concentration of personal power increasingly alarmed the dying Lenin, and in Lenin's Testament he famously called for the removal of the "rude" Stalin. However, this document was later suppressed by members of the Central Committee, many of whom were also criticised by the Bolshevik leader.
After Lenin's death in January 1924, a triumvirate of Stalin, Kamenev, and Zinoviev governed the party, placing themselves ideologically between Trotsky (on the left wing of the party) and Bukharin (on the right).
During this period, Stalin abandoned the traditional Bolshevik emphasis on international revolution in favor of a policy of building Socialism in One Country, in contrast to Trotsky's theory of Permanent Revolution. Stalin would quickly switch sides and join with Bukharin. Together, they fought a new opposition of Trotsky, Kamenev, and Zinoviev. By 1928 (the first year of the Five-Year Plans) Stalin was supreme among the leadership, and the following year, Trotsky was exiled. Having also outmaneuvered Bukharin's Right Opposition and now advocating collectivisation and industrialisation, Stalin can be said to have exercised control over the party and the country. However, as the popularity of other leaders such as Sergei Kirov and the so-called Ryutin plot were to demonstrate, Stalin did not achieve absolute power until the Great Purge of 1936-1938.
Stalin and changes in Soviet society
World War I and the Russian Civil War had a devastating effect on the country's economy; industrial output in 1922 was 13% of that in 1914. Under Stalin's direction, the New Economic Policy, which allowed a degree of market flexibility within the context of socialism, was replaced by a system of centrally-ordained Five-Year Plans in the late 1920s. These called for a highly ambitious program of state-guided crash industrialisation and the collectivisation of agriculture. In spite of early breakdowns and failures, the first two Five-Year Plans achieved rapid industrialisation from a very low economic base. Russia, generally ranked as the poorest nation in Europe in 1922, now industrialized at a phenomenal rate, far surpassing Germany's pace of industrialisation in the 19th century and Japan's earlier in the 20th.
With no seed capital, little foreign trade, and barely any modern industry to start with, Stalin's government financed industrialisation by both restraining consumption on the part of ordinary Soviet citizens, to ensure capital went for re-investment into industry, and by ruthless extraction of wealth from the peasantry, both processes effectively amounting to the primitive accumulation of capital described by Karl Marx in Das Kapital. Collectivisation was instrumental in depriving peasants of the fruits of their labor. 感觉表达比较精彩哦~
In specific but common cases, the industrial labor was knowingly underpaid. First, there was the usage of the almost free labor of prisoners in forced labor camps. Second, there was frequent "mobilization" of communists and Komsomol members for various construction projects.
Collectivisation
Stalin's regime moved to force collectivisation of agriculture. The theory behind collectivisation was that it would replace the small-scale un-mechanised and inefficient farms with large-scale mechanised farms that would produce food far more efficiently.
Collectivisation meant the destruction of a the way of life introduced after abolition of serfdom in 1861, and alienation from control of the land and its produce. Collectivisation also meant a drastic drop in living standards for many peasants, and it faced widespread and often violent resistance among the peasantry, and actually the productivity of agriculture dropped.
Stalin blamed this drop in food production on kulaks (Russian: fist; rich peasants), who he believed were capitalistic parasites who were organising resistance to collectivisation. Those who resisted collectivisation were to be shot, transported to Gulag labour camps or deported to remote areas of the country. In reality however, the term "kulak" was a loose term to describe anyone who opposed collectivisation, which included many peasants who were anything but rich.
Many historians agree that the disruption caused by forced collectivisation was largely responsible for major famines which caused up to 5 million deaths in 1932-33, particularly in Ukraine and the lower Volga region.
Science 这部分应该是重点啦~
Under Stalin's rule, sciences suffered from heavy ideological pressure. In the middle of the 1930s, the agronomist Trofim Lysenko started a campaign against genetics and was supported by Stalin. Between 1934 and 1940, many geneticists were executed (including Agol, Levit, Nadson) or sent to labor camps (including the most well-known Soviet geneticist, Nikolai Vavilov, who died in prison in 1943). Genetics was stigmatized as a "fascist science". Some geneticists, however, survived and continued to work in genetics, dangerous as it was. In 1948, genetics was officially declared "a bourgeois pseudoscience"; all geneticists were fired from work (some were also arrested), and all genetic research was discontinued. The taboo on genetics continued even after Stalin's death. Only in the middle of 1960s was it completely waived.
Cybernetics was also outlawed. It was officially declared that "a machine cannot think", and any research in computer-related fields was prohibited. As with genetics, the taboo continued for several years after Stalin's death.
In the late 1940s, there were also attempts to outlaw special and general relativity, as well as quantum mechanics. However, top Soviet physicists made it clear that without using these theories, they would be unable to create a nuclear bomb.
In fact, scientific research in nearly all areas was hindered by the fact that many scientists were sent to labor camps (including Lev Landau, later a Nobel Prize winner, who spent a year in prison in 1938-1939), or executed (like Lev Shubnikov, who was shot in 1937). They were persecuted for their (real or imaginary) dissident views, and seldom for "politically incorrect" research.
Prohibition of genetics and cybernetics caused serious harm to Soviet science and economics. Soviet scientists never won a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine or Turing Award. (In comparison, they received seven Nobel Prizes in Physics.) The USSR always suffered from severe lag in the fields of computers, microelectronics and biotechnology.
Social services
Stalin's government placed heavy emphasis on the provision of basic medical services. Campaigns were carried out against typhus, cholera, and malaria; the number of doctors was increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and death and infant mortality rates steadily decreased. Education was also dramatically expanded, with many more Russians learning to read and write, and higher education expanded. The generation that grew up under Stalin also saw a major expansion in job opportunities, especially for women.
World War II
In his speech on August 19, 1939, Stalin prepared his comrades on the general turn in Soviet policy, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany which divided Central Europe into the two powers' respective spheres of influence. In June 1941, however, Hitler broke the pact and invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Stalin had not expected this and the Soviet Union was largely unprepared for this invasion. Until the last moment, Stalin had sought to avoid any obvious defensive preparation which might provoke German attack, in the hope of buying time to modernise and strengthen his military forces. Even after the attack commenced Stalin appeared unwilling to accept the fact and, according to some historians, was too stunned to react appropriately for a number of days. A controversial new theory put forward by Victor Suvorov asserts that Stalin had been preparing an invasion of Germany and that the lack of preparations for defensive warfare left Soviet forces vulnerable despite their heavy concentration near the border.
The Nazis initially made huge advances, capturing or killing hundreds of thousands of Soviet troops. The earlier execution of many of the Red Army's experienced generals had a severely negative effect on Russia's ability to organise defenses. In response on November 6, 1941, Stalin addressed the Soviet Union for only the second time during his three-decade rule (the first time was earlier that year on July 2). He claimed that even though 350,000 troops were killed in German attacks so far, that the Germans have lost 4.5 million soldiers (a gross over-estimation) and that Soviet victory was near. The Soviet Red Army did in fact put up fierce resistance, but during the war's early stages was largely ineffective against the better-equipped and trained Nazi forces until the invaders were halted and then driven back before Moscow (December 1941).
Stalin's Order No. 227 of July 27, 1942 illustrates the ruthlessness with which he sought to stiffen army resolve: all those who retreated or otherwise left their positions without orders to do so were to be summarily shot. In the war's opening stages, the retreating Red Army also sought to deny resources to the enemy through a scorched earth policy of destroying the infrastructure and food supplies of areas before the Germans could seize them. Unfortunately, this, along with abuse by German troops, caused starvation and suffering among the civilian population that was left behind.
The Soviets bore the brunt of civilian and military losses in World War II. Between 21 and 28 million Soviets, most of them civilians, died in the "Great Patriotic War", as the Soviets called the German-Soviet conflict. The Nazis considered Slavs to be "sub-human", ranking the killings of them in the eyes of many as ethnically targeted mass murder, or genocide. This concept of Slavic inferiority was also the reason that Hitler did not accept many Russians who wanted to free their country from the Stalinist regime into his army until 1944 when the war was lost for Germany. In Russia, the conflict left a huge deficit of men of the wartime fighting-age generation. As a result of this huge struggle, to this day World War II is remembered very vividly in Russia, and May 9, Victory Day, is one of its biggest national holidays.
Post-war era
Following World War II, the Red Army occupied much of the territory that had been formerly held by the Axis countries: there were Soviet occupation zones in Germany and Austria, and Hungary and Poland were under practical military occupation, despite the fact that the latter was formally an Allied country. Soviet-friendly governments were established in Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and homegrown communist regimes existed in Yugoslavia and Albania. Finland retained formal independence, but was politically isolated and economically dependent on the Soviet Union. Greece, Italy and France were under the strong influence of local communist parties, directed from Moscow. Stalin hoped that the withdrawal of Americans from Europe would lead to Soviet hegemony over whole continent. The foundation of Trizonia and American help for the non-communist side in the Greek Civil War changed the situation. East Germany was proclaimed a separate country in 1949, ruled by German communists. Moreover, Stalin made a decision to switch to direct control over his satellites in Central Europe: all of the countries were to be ruled by local communists parties that tried to implement the Soviet template locally.
This decision lead to Stalinist turn of 1948 in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria, the later "Communist Bloc". Communist Albania remained an ally, but Yugoslavia under Josip Broz Tito broke with the USSR. Stalin's friends in Western Europe explained Soviet consolidation of power in the region as a necessary step to protect itself by ensuring that it was surrounded by countries with friendly governments, to act as a buffer against any future invaders, a reversal of inter-war western hopes for a sympathetic Eastern European cordon sanitaire against Communism.
But this action confirmed the fears of many in the west that the Soviet Union still intended to spread communism across the world. The relations between the Soviet Union and its former World War II western allies soon broke down, and gave way to a prolonged period of tension and distrust between east and west known as the Cold War.
At home Stalin presented himself as a great wartime leader who had led the USSR to victory against the Germans. By the end of 1940s, an increase in Russian nationalism was noted. Some scientific discoveries were "reclaimed" by ethnic Russian researchers, for example, Watt's boiler engine - by father and son Cherepanovs, Edison's electric bulb - by Yablochkov and Lodygin, Marconi's radio - by Popov, Wright brothers' airplane - by Mojaisky, etc.
Stalin's internal (including newly acquired territories) repressive policies continued and intensified, but never reached the extremes of the 1930s.
On March 1, 1953, after an all-night dinner with interior minister Lavrenty Beria and future premiers Georgi Malenkov, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev, Stalin collapsed, having suffered a stroke that paralyzed the right side of his body. He died four days later, on March 5, 1953, at the age of 73. Officially, the cause of death was listed as a cerebral hemorrhage. His body was left in state in Lenin's Mausoleum until October 31, 1961, when de-Stalinisation was taking place in the Soviet Union. Stalin's body was then buried by the Kremlin walls. The political memoirs of Vyacheslav Molotov, published in 1993, claimed Beria had boasted to Molotov that he poisoned Stalin.
Unless an autopsy is performed (his corpse is embalmed), the facts about his death will probably never be known with certainty. But in 2003, a joint group of Russian and American historians announced their view that Stalin ingested warfarin, a powerful rat poison that thins the blood and causes strokes and hemorrhages. Since it is flavorless, warfarin is a plausible murder weapon.
Policies and accomplishments
Under Stalin the Soviet Union was industrialised to the point that by the time of World War II the Soviet industrial-military complex was able to help resist the German invasion, though at a great cost in human lives.
While the social and economic transformations over which he presided laid the foundations for the USSR's emergence as a global superpower, much of Stalin's conduct of Soviet affairs was subsequently repudiated by his successors in the Communist Party leadership, notably in his denunciation by Khrushchev in February 1956. His immediate successors, though, continued to follow the basic principles on which Stalin based his rule -- the political monopoly of the Communist Party presiding over a command economy. Thank you！！
原来是joseph...我看一下:) sara是个好孩子啊~~~`
hug一下~~~~~~~~~ hehe,谢谢~ 应该的，总是从这儿取东西，也应该放点回来啊
也//hug 你一下 好材料！ 奉献的model！
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