8 段落的逻辑顺序问题
一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
1.按重要程度排（升序、降序、43125）
2.按时间先后排(历史、事物发展顺序)
以下为引用部分：
１．１．并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２．实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
1.3W法
2.文章地图法
TIPS
3.背景(历史或传记、理论总结或批评、关键词的定义)（第一段）
4.假想敌（对于反方观点的驳斥或复合论述）可视情况安放在每一段内
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关于段落排序的个人看法。
段落间的逻辑顺序没有那么单纯，我认为通常我们有一个THESIS，每一段都是支撑THESIS的REASON（TOPIC SENTENCE）
Thesis-3~4Reasons/Aspects-Conclusion
有可能我偏激了。。请原谅。。但是500-700字的ISSUE的确不允许我们做过复杂的排序。 AW INTRO中的作文段落顺序也不见得复杂，比如专才通才5分那篇，直接两个例子解决，什么顺序都不考虑。
6分那篇则是两部分则比较复杂，第一部分说专才好（1正着说，2然后反证），第二部分说过度专才不好此时通才有价值（按3Logical,4moral,5personal展开）这篇比较复杂值得参考。
第一部分就是正着说倒着说的顺序，第二部分就是按REASON分。
Specialist(1)à Without specialist(2)à Over-specialization(3)(4)à Generalist(4)à Over-specialization(5)à Without generalist(6C)
括号内是正文段落
这实际是有个论证的顺序，所谓的思维习惯吧。。。
9 段落内部的句子结构和句子连接
颜色标明部分其实已经异常清晰
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
l
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
l
一个合理的逻辑顺序
l
没有无关细节
１．The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
（其实以前总想着TS可以放在段落最后一句，但是脚趾头想想都知道，阅卷官尽管会稍微关注段里最后一句，但是更关键他们竖着比较下来，总是头1，2句话描述的观点代表那段的意思，很难突然打岔去看最后一句。）
２．Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
（平衡。。我经常平衡不了，要么把论据（例子）写得老长老长，要么论证过程就绕来绕去。。。）好好想，记下一笔，待解决问题。。。TS-Evidence-Analysis-Conclusion
３．The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
TIPS:
1）USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
用绍一些熟悉的概念，即通过介绍“熟人”再来介绍与之相关的“陌生人”
2）LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：
新旧对比，如果重点是新的而就的仅仅作为参照，那么就应该新的打头，紧记你为什么写这句话。
3）ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：
越复杂的观点，就要越多的解释材料。不要以为的观众熟悉你的观点和材料。
记得某K前辈说过，“你不说，读者就不知道”
最常用的方法就是加“修饰语”，就算是爱因斯坦也要，说明为什么这个例子能很好地证明你的观点。
段内句子连接
l
UnUnity-所有句子讲同一个主题
l
CoCoherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
l
CoConnection－适当的连接句子
逻辑连接词 (按功能重新分类)
转折：However, although, yet, nevertheless, instead
结果：Therefore, thus, accordingly
平行除外：Moreover, furthermore, besides, next
平行类似：Also, meanwhile, likewise
平行相异：In contrast
次要情况：incidentally,
通常情况：Usually, whatever, generally
举例：For example
(按时间先后分)
First, secondly, finally,
(Secondly: later, then,)
(Finally: ultimately, eventually, lastly)
Once, previously, formerly; Now; Then, soon;
When, Meanwhile
利用重复
1 利用代词，让读者无意识将核心词放进思想里（看到代词会回想指代物）
记得IBT阅读里专门就有Reference代词的考题，问指代物是什么。。说明这是一种非常实用的写作技巧。
2 改写重复 （代词合成、同义词。。。反正换种说法。）
强调词
好好珍惜，重点才用
比如说为了突出鲸鱼有多大，就用比较级、最高级等强对比的语气
练习
·
Although Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year, Global Airlines carried astonishing three-million passengers.
·
In contrast, Only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago and this record has been accident-free since 1950.
·
Why does it dramatically change?
·
Because they expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada.
·
Meanwhile, Older, unprofitable routes were dropped as passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing.
·
Moreover, The new DC-12 aircraft proved by far more fuel-efficient than the older 737's.
·
Therefore, Profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.
10 如何有效论证
1．
如何使用论据论证？
（１）
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.正面论据
（２）
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position反面论据(假想敌)
（３）
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition 论据出处
（４）
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence 引用
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph
(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
对应功能句
Topic SentenceàEvidenceàAnalysis (àConclusion)
例子：
1)
Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Everything is about what we want
试改：
Today, we are too self-centered. We can see that in our modern families. Members do not care about each other as much as before. Instead, Individual business are placed too much emphasis. For instance, most American families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Many people seldom have sit-down meals and share a close talk with parents, brothers or sisters now. We are always busy with others which could bring direct benefits to us. That means, we are more likely to be interested in ourselves now.
参考答案：
1)
Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence
任何论据，都是为了你的Claim(TS)服务，举的例子必须在后面建分析立起联系说明你的这个例子是如何支撑你的结论。（反例同理）
而下面这个例子，则是没有明确自己举例子的目的。即只是按时间顺序写，而不是为了说明你想说明的ts而举的例子。或者说是没把TS写上来
（引用GEOGE的例子：救火车。。）https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/thread-783960-1-1.html
“大家先看我PS中的一个逻辑。我一直做A工作——（换段了）在A工作之外，我也做B和C工作——我有着一个绰号叫救火车——意思就是我啥都能干。
不知道大家看到这个逻辑如何？如果觉得有问题，并且知道这个逻辑错在哪里的话，就不用往下看了。反正我那时觉得这个逻辑很正常。
但是我同学说，他是中国人，能够看明白。但是如果是一个外国人就看不明白了。用他们的逻辑表述应该是
我一直做A工作——（换段）我还能干很多工作——比如在A工作之外，我也做B和C工作——于是我有着一个绰号叫救火车。
他说“比如在A工作之外，我也做B和C工作——于是我有着一个绰号叫救火车”这两个是用来举证“我还能干很多工作”。
可是我当时的思考就是，多有契口啊，我一直做A工作——（换段了）在A工作之外，在每一段开头，用上一段的东西来开头。多有连贯性。但是在外国人看来这样的逻辑就出了明显的问题。”
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Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?
是否有错误归纳？ 合理解决方法：several relevant examples or by a single extended example
是否有论据证明观点？
是否结实了论据如何支撑TS？
论据是否不仅肯定了TS，而且还（定义/限定）了TS，并且升华了TS？
是否有说明论据出处？
举手发问：
4）中QUALIFY是什么意思？
本帖最后由 海王泪 于 2009-11-22 09:40 编辑
11 怎么写Conclusion
Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！） and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
经常有这么一种感觉，写完文章后，感觉结尾没什么好写，匆匆了事。
而偏偏结尾又是阅卷人印象最深刻的一段。（都结尾了，还不赶紧提醒文章内容，很容易让读者脑袋空空）
所以，结尾必须写得漂亮！
A conclusion should
[*]stress the importance of the thesis statement, （强调主题句）[*]give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）[*]leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）May be we can conclude as these steps:
Restate thesisàMain ideas(TS)àImpressed words(Why important)
Suggestions
[*]Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）"So What?" 、"Why should anybody care?"
[*]Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize [*]Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
举手发问：怎么去表达自己的观点和论证是一个整体？不是仅仅按文章顺序罗列MAIN IDEAS吧？
[*]Redirect your readers建议、提问、具体à抽象。
目的：让读者思索或使用你的观点和信息
[*]Create a new meaning[*]You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.举手发问：同第二点Synthesize，怎么表达自己的观点论证是一个整体？然后升华？
Strategies
[*]Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）End with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding. [*]Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） [*]Looking to the future:（展望未来） Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.
[*]Posing questions:（提出问题） 提醒文章要点，并且Bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
Strategies to Avoid·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
天啊。。。In sum, all in all之类的原来不应该用？。。。。是因为最后一段本来就是结论，不必要做这样的指示词吗？
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
第一种单纯的restates the thesis应该是大多数人用得最多的结尾。
实际上，结尾有很多事情等着我们去做。
Repeat the stpes again~
Restate thesisàMain ideas(TS)àImpressed words(Why important)
举手发问：至于如何Synthesize，Create a new meaning ，还望斑竹详细解答。。。我看例子有一点点感觉，但不知道怎么去实施。。
要怎么去demonstrating how your ideas work together？
（8）段落的逻辑顺序问题
逻辑顺序的排列
一、
principles of organization based on emphasis
1.
Climactic Order: items are arranged from least important to most important . Ascending or climactic order adds power to a paper by leading the reader into increasing tension.
2.
psychological order: you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle.
3.
general-to-specific order
4.
specific-to general order
5.
most-familiar-to-least-familiar
6.
simplest-to-most-complex
7.
order of frequency
8.
order of familiarity
9.
连接词：
a.
more importantly
b.
best of all
c.
still worse
d.
a more effective approach
e.
even more expensive
f.
even more painful than passing a kidney stone
g.
the least wasteful
h.
occasionally,
i.
frequently
j.
regularly
二、
comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints
1.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.
2.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science
before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation,
you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn
三、
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
四、
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
五、
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
六、
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution.
处理复杂顺序
一、
What? How? Why
二、
Mapping an Essay
（9）段落内部的句子结构和句子连接
要让读者知道你的下一步怎么写，方法：
1.
use orienting words and phrases: of course/as you know/until now/obviously/normally/previously/everyone is familiar with/remember that
2.
let the old amplify the new
3.
add explanatory words and phrases, where necessary
（10）如何有效论证
充分表现论据与论点之间的逻辑关系。
（11）怎么写conclusion
A conclusion should
•
stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
•
give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
•
leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
综合全面的观点，而不是简单的总结：
1.
Echoing the introduction
2.
Challenging the reader
3.
Looking to the future
4.
Posing questions
nvligre的笔记8
段落间的关系
一.常见的逻辑顺序
1.Climactic order（递进的顺序）
*Climactic order：tems are arranged from least important to most important。（从最什么到最什么）
*psychological order： In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle。
*principles of organization based on emphasis：general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity
二 按时间顺序
you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factor。
If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints：If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.结构就是introduction----- The Go Ahead Position------The Wait A Minute Position-----Conclusion
*But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated： you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn。
*Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings（副标题，分目）, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper， How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings? You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.
三 逻辑顺序
*Order your examples in a paragraph
*use appropriate transitions
*Another way to organize is by cause and effect
* problem then solution
反之可以使用一下顺序：
一.重要性递减的顺序
二.复杂性的增加
三.步骤和进程
四.空间顺序
五.时间短暂性顺序
六.逻辑顺序
写作方面要注意：
• Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors （信息是否精确，明朗，没有错误）
• Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
• There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors（没有语法 和单词的滥用的错误）
• A businesslike（条理性的）, courteous（谦虚的）, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
• The writing style flows smoothly （写作风格是否顺利的转换）
• The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
如何处理复杂顺序：
三“W”法
What-----The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim，But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay。
How----A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument。Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section。
Why---- Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you?
文章地图法：
Try making your map like this
*State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim.
* Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . .
* Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
一.段落的基本概念
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
一个合理的逻辑顺序
没有无关细节
段落长度要适中不可过短也不能过长。
二、段落的组成结构：
T：一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用。
D：.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡。
C：结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
三.段落组成的内容
Orient your reader to the subject.
Tie your ideas together.
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
四.段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
Connection－适当的连接句子
利用逻辑词 重复词 强调词
笔记10
（１） Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.$（提供支持观点的论据）
（２） Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position提出相反的观点
（３） Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition（论据是否全面能反对观点）
（４） Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence引用
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into you
Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly （彻底地）explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve（进展） my ideas, rather than to just confirm them？（使用证据测试和展开本人的观点而不是证实他们）？？？？
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?（引用是否彻底和正确）
笔记11
Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
A conclusion should
•stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
•give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
•leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
Suggestions
•Answer the question "So What?
•Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
•Redirect your readers
•Create a new meaning
•Point to broader implications
Strategies
•Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）
•Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）
•Looking to the future:（展望未来）
•Posing questions:（提出问题）
Strategies to Avoid
• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
•Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
•Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
•Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
•Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
•Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper
每一个都是备考的绝佳资料
谢谢
写作16讲学习体会 11
Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！） and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
A conclusion should
• stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
• leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
总而言之，就是要升华主体（不能简单重复，也不能另起炉灶）
Suggestions
• Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.
Play the "So What" Game. If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:
You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.
Friend: So what?
You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.
Friend: Why should anybody care?
You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.
You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.
升华的方法：在个体和集体的层面上追问文章结论的意义
• Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
o Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
• Redirect your readers
o Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.
• Create a new meaning
o You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
与第一点有重复之嫌
• Point to broader implications.
For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.
可与第二点整合为，即从另一个（一般更加广阔或更贴近实践的）层面审视文章的主体
升华的方式：1.整合原文，塑造一个整体形象 2.从另一个层面审视文章的主体
Strategies
• Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.
Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）
为了呼应而不重复，一般在游记等顺序感强的文章中使用。
• Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.
• Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）
• Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
Posing questions:（提出问题）（改换到作者自己看问题的角度），Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）（改换到读者角度）和Looking to the future:（展望未来）（改换到未来的角度）可归为改变角度一类
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?
Strategies to Avoid
• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
• Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1. The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
2. The "Sherlock Holmes: Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" her with your main idea, much like a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.
3. The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero. （避免喊话，这是中国人的写作习惯之一）
4. The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.
第10讲学习体会
1． 如何使用论据论证？
（１） Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, and then add to it with ideas of your own.
（２） Present evidence that contradicts your stance（position） in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
（３） Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel（专门讨论小组） discussing your proposition
（４） Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
联想：evidence有三类1.Something you feel right(日常经验所得) 2.something experts say（有权威性的） 3.somthing logical（逻辑上正确的）
举例：
Weak Use of Evidence
1) Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content
缺陷：论证和题目结合不紧密，不是论据无关，而是作者没有表现这种合理的关系在哪里，其实就是却一句话或者是一个逻辑连接词的问题．
Stronger Use of Evidence
2) Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim
大家其实可以看出来这段的论证好在哪里：划线的部分首先是首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子，让你知道你在读什么，然后就是后边的几乎每个句子都有逻辑的连接词汇连接了起来．
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence
Strong use 的本质在于补充例子与论点的逻辑关系（陈述例子成立的前提和对例子的主观解读），好处是加长和扩展篇幅
Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
重要！例证的弱点就在与一般性不强
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
不一定！有些显而易见的论断不需要例子，还有一些可以通过逻辑论证得出
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
关乎文章的流畅
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
容易做到，例子本身就有很强的直观性
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
难做到，需要水平，尤其是在模板化的文章中
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?
第九讲体会
段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
１． 段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
一个合理的逻辑顺序
没有无关细节
文章的从上到下三层结构
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.
２． 段落的长短问题：
首先原因一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
感觉这个要看经验了，做好不容易，做差也不容易
一、 段落的组成结构：
１． The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２． Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３． The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before. Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors. Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,划双线的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.
二、 段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：
• Orient your reader to the subject.
• Tie your ideas together.
• Take it easy through technically dense passages.
• Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
１． 为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them, not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.
２．怎么做？
Whenever you introduce a new idea, your readers will appreciate definitions, examples and comparisons with things they already know. They will feel more comfortable with your new information if they have a familiar reference to hang on to. Three ways to do this are with orienting words and phrases, by letting the old amplify the new, and by adding explanatory words and phrases, where necessary.
（１） USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
• of course
• as you know
• until now
• obviously
• normally
• previously
• everyone is familiar with
• remember that
（２） LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
Isn't this version much more informative than one that would begin by listing the undesirable characteristics of the old machines, then told you what the latest ones are like? How often do you begin your news with a long historical background? Such background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
（３） ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：
Often, when you are introducing new ideas, you will have to expand and clarify them with definitions and explanatory material. Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
To decide how much explanatory material you need, you have to form a clear picture of your audience and how familiar they are with what you're saying. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
文章如同做证明题要从已知条件出发，推出未知结论，更进一步，还要讨论已知结果与原来条件的关系才算把问题完全说清楚
三、 段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
Connection－适当的连接句子
（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Even though the connections between your sentences may be clear to you, you can't count on your readers to supply those links. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit. If it doesn't create a single idea in your readers' minds, it's not doing its job.
English supplies us with useful linking words called connectives, （逻辑连接词）which form the logical bridges between ideas. If you keep these verbal guideposts in mind and use them as you write, you will almost automatically provide the interrelations among ideas that every reader looks for.
Here is a list of some connectives. Like the subordinating conjunctions, these are the good guys; use them liberally (but correctly and appropriately), and I guarantee that your writing will become more effective. They are hard to overuse.
Connective words that describe relationships:
ALSO HOWEVER ALTHOUGH
INCIDENTALLY THEREFORE BESIDES
LIKEWISE THUS MEANWHILE
MOREOVER USUALLY FURTHERMORE
NEXT WHATEVER GENERALLY
YET ACCORDINGLY NEVERTHELESS
INSTEAD IN CONTRAST FOR EXAMPLE
Connectives that give a sense of time:
FIRST SECONDLY
FINALLY NOW
ONCE WHEN
ULTIMATELY EVENTUALLY
LASTLY LATER
MEANWHILE PREVIOUSLY
THEN SOON
FORMERLY SOMETIMES
Other Connective phrases:
TO BEGIN WITH ON THE OTHER HAND
IN BRIEF IN GENERAL
IN SUMMARY MORE SPECIFICALLY
INSTEAD OF IN ADDITION TO
IN OTHER WORDS ANOTHER WAY TO
FOR THE SAME REASON NO MATTER WHAT
SUCH A THAT'S WHAT (WHY)
IN FACT WHAT'S MORE
IN THE SAME WAY ON THE CONTRARY
CONVERSELY AS A RESULT
SUMMING UP IF SO / NOT
All of these words and phrases link ideas and assure continuity in your writing. (具体的这些连接词我在写作语言里边有更详细的总结)
都是些短小精悍的，客观性强的词语。最好不要用as far as I am concerned之类的又臭又长的词
（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:
TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.
这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:
THIS THAT
THESE WHICH
THEIR HIS
ITS HER
利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）
For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
If you try to use these connective devices in your own writing, but have difficulty, be suspicious that the ideas that you're trying to link together in a single paragraph are merely a sequence (that is, a catalog) of logically unrelated ideas. Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
要做到这一点，需要熟练掌握各种抽象名词的使用
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
Another way to tie ideas together is with intensives. Intensives help you emphasize what's important and to set the important apart from the incidental -- a major goal of all scientific and technical writing. Compare the following two sentences, the first without intensives and the second with intensives added:
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives:
ESPECIALLY AS MUCH AS EVEN IF/THOUGH
INCREASINGLY BY FAR SO...THAT
MORE IMPORTANTLY HIGHLY ONLY
PARTICULARLY IN FACT VERY
SIGNIFICANTLY QUITE SUCH
MOST UNIQUE AT ALL
ABOVE ALL INDEED IN ANY CASE
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly. Eliminate intensives that are thrown in gratuitously or that don't make a definite contribution by emphasizing an important fact or idea. Littering your writing with intensives where they are not needed makes your writing sound trite and strains your credibility.
Here is an exercise to give you practice linking your ideas together. Add connectives, intensives (from the lists above, or make up your own) and repeated words to the following sentences to make a coherent paragraph:
• Global Airlines carried three-million passengers last year.
• They expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada.
• The new DC-12 aircraft proved more fuel-efficient than the older 737's.
• Older, unprofitable routes were dropped.
• Passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing.
• Only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago.
• Their record has been accident-free since 1950.
• Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year.
• Profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.
强调词本身隐含了强调部分是对原有问题的进一步陈述这一逻辑关系
关于段间和段落的逻辑顺序问题和如何有效论证论点的问题请参见相关总结。
段落间的关系
一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
说明：本人由于不小心在网站上看到了所谓的ascending order或者是climactic order,然后发现它和我们固有的一些思维由所冲突，我就几乎找遍了能搜到的类似的网站，我搜索到以下论据：
关于权重排序的资料：
支持论据１：
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
A third common principle of organization is climactic order or order of importance. In this pattern, items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions(转折) would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, and description.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern or organization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention to what is in the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
psychological order的方法很有新意，将来习作一定要试一试，不管是中文还是英文
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include
general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly
支持论据２：
In a historically-oriented paper (e.g. "The Early Conquests of Alexander the Great"), you might simply want to move the paper along chronologically.
In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…" Ascending or climactic order adds power to a paper by leading the reader into increasing tension, much like an action movie builds to a climax. Resist giving away the most exciting parts of your paper early on – if you use up the good stuff early, you’ll have little left to keep the reader interested in the rest of what you have to say.
不知道有没有这种写作顺序的范文
If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing?
Your outline might look like this:
Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion
You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation, you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
Introduction
Is All Science Legitimate?
Yes
Maybe not
Can We Trust The Scientists?
Yes
Not always
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Risks?
Yes
Maybe not
Conclusion
Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.
Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper (just like leading someone down a winding path creates more confusion than leading the same person down a short city block with sights to see on all sides). How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings? You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them. Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail. This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper. See the outlines above for examples of useful ways to do this.
这种使用对比的行文方式我们外教讲过！
支持论据３：
After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order that is, ascending from least to most important. You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.
支持论据４：
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.
Ascending order 文章的三种展开方式：Compare and contrast, cause and effect, problem and solution
反例一：
DECREASING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: when you want to tell your readers that something new has happened and why they should be interested -- then fill them in on the details
INCREASING COMPLEXITY: a sequence that leads your readers gently into a complex subject
STEPS OF A PROCESS: when you want to focus on a process itself, not the end result
A SPATIAL SEQUENCE: when you want your reader to see the way different aspects of your subject are spatially interrelated or lie in contrast
A TEMPORAL SEQUENCE: for emphasizing the time relations among things or events
反例２：
反例３：
• Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors
• Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
• There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors
• A businesslike, courteous, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
• The writing style flows smoothly
• The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
反例４：you have for each in a logical order and one that most effectively organizes your argument:
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
反例5：
A possible outline template for an analytical paper
This is for an essay that happens to have three main answers, again listed in ascending order as in our argumentative paper template. How you order them will entirely depend on which ones you feel, given all the evidence, are the most or least convincing. If we take our research question example from before, perhaps the first answer would be from researchers who believe music has no effect on studying, the second about studies that show how detrimental it is, and the third one pointing out the positive aspects. In your conclusion, you might point out how certain conditions (e.g., absence of lyrics, tempo, volume, type of studying student is engaged in etc.) appear to be incredibly important.
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
• What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
• Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")
• _________________________
• (You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
• Answer #3 = _________________________
• one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
• strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
• another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
• best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
• why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
• sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
• critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
• look at the implications
通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１． 并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２． 实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods - Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions: The Parts of an Essay
A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.
It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim.)
"What?" The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay. If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.
"How?" A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.
"Why?" Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular
站在读者的角度看问题，使文章更有说服力
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一、 文章地图法：
Mapping an Essay
Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in understanding your idea.
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:
* State your thesis in a sentence or two, and then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.
* Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)
* Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . .” Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.
Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what, how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.
Essay maps 与 3W法相符相成，核心都是把握读者心理。
与模板式写作相比，ascending order更合乎人的心理活动规律，但是也更难把握
注意不要写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").