【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（13）-（15）Proofreading
本帖最后由 草木也知愁 于 2009-4-12 17:17 编辑sorry 前两天没有带着笔记本 没有办法更新 这次一下放3个
都是proofreading的 内容很多 大家慢慢看~
Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:
She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.
Comma Splices
1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.
3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
[*]reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses) [*]add a coordinating conjunction after the comma [*]replace the comma with a semicolon [*]replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.
Introductory Commas
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:
While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.
Other introductory commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase . . .
·
ends in -ing
·
is an infinitive (to + verb)
·
is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)
3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples:
To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.
4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:
On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.
Disruptive Commas
General guidelines
1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.
2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs
1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.
disruptive comma: That man sitting in the train station, is the person I'm supposed to meet.
correct: That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm supposed to meet.
Series Commas
1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.
2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause). Examples:
People who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat, and tropical oils.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
Commas with Nonessential Elements
1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it. (See also our handout, Commas With Nonessential Elements.)
2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
Proofreading Your WritingThis resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by Jaclyn M. Wells, Morgan Sousa, and Mia Martini.
Last edited by Allen Brizee on September 15th 2008 at 10:47AM
Summary: Proofreading is primarily about searching your writing for errors, both grammatical and typographical, before submitting your paper for an audience (a teacher, a publisher, etc.). Use this resource to help you find and fix common errors.
Where do I begin?Though everyone has a unique proofreading process, there are some general strategies that can be helpful to most writers. Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines listed below.
General Strategies ·
Take a break! Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
·
Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
·
Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
·
Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
·
Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
Personalizing ProofreadingIn addition to following the general guidelines above, individualizing your proofreading process to your needs will help you proofread more efficiently and effectively. You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
·
Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
·
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
·
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
Finding Common ErrorsProofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
Spelling ·
Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!
·
Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under each line of text helps you to see each word.
·
If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
·
Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.
Left-out and doubled wordsReading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
Fragment Sentences ·
Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at the OWL website.
·
Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills.
·
See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.
Run-on Sentences ·
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
·
If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.
·
Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Comma Splices ·
Look at the sentences that have commas.
·
Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
·
If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
·
Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball, because it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Subject/Verb Agreement ·
Find the subject of each sentence.
·
Find the verb that goes with the subject.
·
The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.
Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.
Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.
Mixed constructionRead through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.
ParallelismLook through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement ·
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
·
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
·
If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
·
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
Apostrophes ·
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
·
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
·
Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."
Suggestions for Proofreading Your PaperOne of the most difficult parts of the writing process is proofreading. It is easy for us to see what we want to see, not necessarily what our readers will see. These suggestions should help you take a step back and view your writing more objectively.
Suggestions for Editing (Proofreading) your PaperRead your Paper AloudAny time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread your text, revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for your reader.
Examine your ParagraphsExamine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
Track Frequent ErrorsKeep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab for assistance in eliminating these errors.
Revising for CohesionThis material (adapted from Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace, by Joseph Williams) will help students revise sentences for cohesion.
Two Principles ·
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
·
In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Exercise: Diagnosis, Analysis, RevisionDiagnosis
1.
Underline the first few words of every sentence in a paragraph, ignoring short introductory phrases such as "In the beginning," or "For the most part."
2.
If you can, underline the first few words of every clause.
Analysis
1.
Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?
2.
Will your reader see these connections among the topics?
3.
Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.
4.
Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be the topics of most of the sentences.
Revision
1.
In most sentences, make the topics the subject of verbs.
2.
Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.
Sample Passage
Topics are crucial for readers because readers depend on topics to focus their attention on particular ideas toward the beginning of sentences. Topics tell readers what a whole passage is "about." If readers feel that a sequence of topics is coherent, then they will feel they are moving through a paragraph from a cumulatively coherent point of view. But if throughout the paragraph readers feel that its topics shift randomly, then they have to begin each sentence out of context, from no coherent point of view. When that happens, readers feel dislocated, disoriented, and out of focus.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You ReviseSentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"
1.
Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence "coheres" with the one before and after it.
2.
Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are unified with each other.
Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
Paragraphs
Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?
Note: it is easier to see coherence and clarity in other people's writing. Why? Because by the time we reach a final draft, everything we write seems old to us. Improving on this takes practice.
Steps for Revising Your PaperWhen you have plenty of time to revise, use the time to work on your paper and to take breaks from writing. If you can forget about your draft for a day or two, you may return to it with a fresh outlook. During the revising process, put your writing aside at least twice - once during the first part of the process, when you are reorganizing your work, and once during the second part, when you are polishing and paying attention to details.
Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts. You can use your responses to revise your papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, by adding needed information, by eliminating irrelevant information, and by clarifying sections or sentences.
Find your main point.What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?
Identify your readers and your purpose.What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
Evaluate your evidence.Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
Save only the good pieces.Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
Tighten and clean up your language.Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk to a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-CenteredTry to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved?
资源来源地http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
推荐大家可以去看看
恩...要是想省事呢，呵呵，我每次做的都是一个帮大家整理分析的过程啦 本帖最后由 米饭袜子 于 2009-4-21 23:33 编辑
学习笔记8
这个有些地方米饭就直接翻译总结成中文了，额，。。老大表怪米饭，那个英文看着太啰嗦咧~另外关于写作格式的注意事项给个GTER的连接~
https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/thread-396659-1-1.html
（13）-（15）Proofreading
Compound Sentence Commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:
She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:
While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Disruptive Commas
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
Commas with Nonessential Elements
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
Proofreading的建议：
休息下先 修改要有充足时间 大声读 找别人改 角色互换把自己当读者
找出自己常犯的典型错误 找出原因坚决避免
Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
拼写：逐字检查，不要依赖电脑的自动纠错，还可以大声读出来
句子：检查主谓是否完整，从句是否写成了独立句式，注意单复数
顺便提一哈~啊，这个建议以后筒子们把作文丢上来之前一定把这些基本错误自己认真改一哈，既提高你的作文质量又不浪费改的童鞋的时间，最主要的是改作文老碰到这种错误卡壳，难受不说还影响对你文章的理解和逻辑分析~再次提醒一哈昂~
Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts
Find your main point.What are you trying to say in the paper?
try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point
Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?
Identify your readers and your purpose.What are you trying to do in the paper?
In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
Evaluate your evidence.Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
Save only the good pieces.Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
Tighten and clean up your language.Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling?（咳咳，再顺便提醒一哈） If you think something is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it.
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-CenteredTry to detach yourself from what you've written; What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved?
https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/thread-396659-1-1.html
cicialice学习笔记
本帖最后由 cicialice 于 2009-11-9 21:59 编辑Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.Comma Splices[*]reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses) [*]add a coordinating conjunction after the comma [*]replace the comma with a semicolon [*]replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.Introductory Commas
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.Other introductory commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase . . .·
ends in -ing ·
is an infinitive (to + verb) ·
is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.) To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:
On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.Disruptive CommasFor disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.（共享一个主语，所以不用逗号隔开~）For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs
1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.
disruptive comma: That man sitting in the train station, is the person I'm supposed to meet.
correct: That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm supposed to meet.Series Commas（这个很简单，大家都知道~）Commas with Nonessential ElementsAs an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.逗号要不没有，要不对称~以下内容撷取我觉得对自己来说最关键的：Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything! 考试的时候没法用word~所以平常练习的时候也是先用模考软件写，之后再复制粘贴到word里面找错误~Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at the OWL website. Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills. Two Principles ·
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader. ·
In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases. Date: 11/14/2009
Topic: 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（13-15）Proofreading
Reference:
https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/thread-940023-1-1.html
逗号的用法：并列、复合句Comma SpliceIntroductory Commas改正disruptive commasseries commasCommas with Nonessential Elements 包括了附加说明部分需要加两个逗号的一些情况。 关于Proofreading的summary1.留出足够的时间间隔，也就是文章要放一放2. Find out what errors you typically make. Learn how to fix those errors.避免常犯的错误要靠总结3. Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses Two principlesBegin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, orb) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent. Questions to Ask Yourself as You ReviseSentencesDo your sentences "hang together?"1.Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence "coheres" with the one before and after it. 2.Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are unified with each other.Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?ParagraphsWill your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph? Find your main point. What are you trying to say in the paper?Evaluate your evidence. Does the body of your paper support your thesis?Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered 这条的问题很重要What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved? Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas 复合句的逗号见到and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.判断是否存在独立的分句，若复合连接词前后结构或内容不一致（如主语不同），加逗号
Comma SplicesIntroductory commas after dependent clauses状语从句、介词短语Disruptive Commas看啊看啊看。。我的脑袋里充满着逗号。。They are disruptive commas which split my head.
Series CommasCommas with Nonessential Elements作为从句部分，如果是无关紧要的信息，需加逗号（类似插入语的格式）
判断方法：try saying "by the way" before it，合适的即为Nonessential Elements
General Strategies for Proofreading
Read slowly
Read aloud 大声读出来，能强迫自己不放过任何一个词，而且能凭语感发现不通顺的地方
Role-play 忘掉这篇文章是自己写的，想象成是自己是ETS的考官，会如何按照AW INTRO来审视自己的文章。。 THESIS-TOPIC SENTENCE-CONCLUSION
Get others involved 英语老师、互改小组、外国朋友、同班同学
Summarize typical errors 语法、拼写错误可以建立EXCEL库存起来，其他的只能以提醒的方式写下来。。比如说可数还是不可数名词经常分不清等等
Spelling
Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!
拼写错误可以建立EXCEL库存起来
Fragment Sentences
Run-on Sentences
Subject/Verb Agreement
主谓一致？ 这在另外语法中的每天一贴～呵呵。。经常就给WORD的SPELLCHECK抓出这个错误
Mixed construction
Parallelism
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
代词不可乱用，还记得以前就经常一段话甚至一个句子里IT或THEY出现了两次以上
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
Apostrophes
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
更简单的方法，直接拆开,统一不用省略号。。以前好像在哪看过说AW过程中不要用省略的形式。这样也好，省掉了省略号可能引发的错误
Proofreading TIPS
其实还应包括检验Thesis和各Topic Sentence （看是否清晰）
另外看每段所占篇幅 （看是否充分展开）
然后再看看每句长短 （看是否有变化，长短句并用）
Examine your Paragraphs
Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence.
Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
注意句子与句子间的连接（见EFFECTIVE WRITINGLEESON 9），注意提供背景知识
Diagnosis, Analysis, Revision
Exercise: Diagnosis, Analysis, Revision
注意！！！
Avoid hiding your topic by opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.
Role-play 忘掉这篇文章是自己写的，想象成是自己是ETS的考官，会如何按照AW INTRO来审视自己的文章。。 THESIS-TOPIC SENTENCE-CONCLUSION 并且注意每一句是否连贯
Questions to Ask Yourself as You Revise
Sentences & Paragraphs
其实还是这些问题。贯穿全篇文章。
Proofreading Your Writing
Summary: Proofreading is primarily about searching your writing for errors, both grammatical and typographical, before submitting your paper for an audience (a teacher, a publisher, etc.). Use this resource to help you find and fix common errors.
Where do I begin?Though everyone has a unique proofreading process, there are some general strategies that can be helpful to most writers. Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines listed below.
General Strategies
·
Take a break! Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
·
Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
·
Read aloud. （在很多关于proofreading的资料中都提到了这一点，看来应该是很有效的方法。）Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
·
Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
·
Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
Personalizing Proofreading
In addition to following the general guidelines above, individualizing your proofreading process to your needs will help you proofread more efficiently and effectively. You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
·
Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
·
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
·
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
Finding Common Errors
Proofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
Spelling
·
Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!
·
Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under each line of text helps you to see each word.
·
If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
·
Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.
Left-out and doubled words
Reading the paper aloud (and slowly)（又一遍。） can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
Fragment Sentences
·
Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at the OWL website.
·
Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills.
·
See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.
Run-on Sentences ·
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
·
If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.
·
Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
Comma Splices （看来逗号的使用很关键）
·
Look at the sentences that have commas.
·
Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
·
If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
·
Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
Subject/Verb Agreement ·
Find the subject of each sentence.
·
Find the verb that goes with the subject.
·
The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.
Mixed construction
Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.
Parallelism
Look through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
·
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
·
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
·
If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
·
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
Apostrophes ·
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
·
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
·
Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."
Suggestions for Proofreading Your Paper
One of the most difficult parts of the writing process is proofreading. It is easy for us to see what we want to see, not necessarily what our readers will see. These suggestions should help you take a step back and view your writing more objectively.
Suggestions for Editing (Proofreading) your Paper
Read your Paper Aloud（第三遍提到）
Any time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread your text, revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for your reader.
Examine your Paragraphs
Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
Track Frequent Errors
Keep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab for assistance in eliminating these errors.
Revising for Cohesion
This material (adapted from Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace, by Joseph Williams) will help students revise sentences for cohesion.
Two Principles
·
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
·
In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Steps for Revising Your Paper
When you have plenty of time to revise, use the time to work on your paper and to take breaks from writing（这一点也是被反复提到的）. If you can forget about your draft for a day or two, you may return to it with a fresh outlook. During the revising process, put your writing aside at least twice - once during the first part of the process, when you are reorganizing your work, and once during the second part, when you are polishing and paying attention to details.
Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts. You can use your responses to revise your papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, by adding needed information, by eliminating irrelevant information, and by clarifying sections or sentences.
Find your main point.What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?
Identify your readers and your purpose.What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
Evaluate your evidence.Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
Save only the good pieces.Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
Tighten and clean up your language.Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk to a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered. Try to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved? （13）-（15）Proofreading
Compound Sentence Commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:
She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:
While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Disruptive Commas
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
Commas with Nonessential Elements
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
Proofreading的建议：
修改要有充足时间
大声读
找别人改
角色互换把自己当读者
找出自己常犯的典型错误(要记下）
找出原因坚决避免
Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
拼写：逐字检查，不要依赖电脑的自动纠错，还可以大声读出来
句子：检查主谓是否完整，从句是否写成了独立句式，注意单复数 Rushtosumer的学习笔记（13）Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas
（并列句中，并列连词前需加逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction.
Comma Splices （一句话中，两并列句间如用逗号隔开，则必须使用并列连词，或将逗号分号或其它）
1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.
3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
·
reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses)
·
add a coordinating conjunction after the comma
·
replace the comma with a semicolon
·
replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause
Introductory Commas
·
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
（引导的从句后需加逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc.
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause.
·
Other introductory commas
（现在分词，动词不定式，较长的介词短语充当句子引导和其他引导词后，需加逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase
ends in -ing
is an infinitive (to + verb)
is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)
3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase.
4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause.
Disruptive Commas
·
General guidelines
1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.
2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
·
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
（动词与宾语间割裂的逗号）
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
·
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs
（主语和动词间割裂的逗号）
1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.
Series Commas
（并列的连续多项单词、短语或句子间使用逗号）
1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.
2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause).
Commas with Nonessential Elements
（插入语前后都使用逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it.
2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. Rushtosummer的学习笔记（14）
Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines listed below
General Strategies
·
Take a break! Allow yourself sometime between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
·
Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
·
Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
·
Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
·
Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
Find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually
·
Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
·
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
·
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
Error patterns
·
Spelling
Do NOT rely on your computer's spell check—it will not get everything!
Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully.
If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.
·
Left-out and doubled words Reading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
·
Fragment Sentences
Make sure each sentence has a subject.
Make sure each sentence has a complete verb.
See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own.
·
Run-on Sentences
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
If there is more than one independent clause, make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.
Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
·
Comma Splices
Look at the sentences that have commas.
Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
·
Subject/Verb Agreement
Find the subject of each sentence.
Find the verb that goes with the subject.
The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.
·
Mixed construction
Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another.
·
Parallelism
Look through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
·
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
·
Apostrophes
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe.
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s." Rushtosummer的学习笔记（15）
Suggestions for Proofreading Your Paper
1.
Read your Paper Aloud
Any time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread your text, revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for your reader.
2.
Examine your Paragraphs
Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
3. Track Frequent Errors
Keep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab for assistance in eliminating these errors.
4. Revising for Cohesion
Two Principles
·Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
·In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You Revise
·
Sentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"
Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
·
Paragraphs
Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?
Steps for Revising Your Paper
·
Find your main point.
What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?
·
Identify your readers and your purpose.
What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
·
Evaluate your evidence.
Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
Save only the good pieces.
Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
·
Tighten and clean up your language.
Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
·
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.
Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk to a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.
·
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered
Try to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved? Noah学习笔记 Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.(两个独立句子间用逗号就要有这些连词)
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:
She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.
Comma Splices
1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.（逗号两边是独立句时，）
3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
[*]reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses) （将一句改为从句）[*]add a coordinating conjunction after the comma （加连词）[*]replace the comma with a semicolon （逗号改为分号）[*]replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause （逗号改为句号、问号、感叹号，后句首字母大写）[*]comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.
Introductory Commas
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).（像我这种逗号万能者一定要记住并利用这些词）
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:
While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.
Other introductory commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase . . .
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ends in -ing
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is an infinitive (to + verb)
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is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)
3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples:
To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.
4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:
On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.
Disruptive Commas
General guidelines
1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.
2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet（再次强调）.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs
1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
Series CommasPeople who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat, and tropical oils.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
Commas with Nonessential Elements
1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it. (See also our handout, Commas With Nonessential Elements.)
2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.Students only harm themselves.（错）
Fred is just harming himself.（可以）
Students by the way who cheat only harm themselves.（错）
Fred, by the way who often cheats, is just harming himself.(可以)
Summary: Proofreading is primarily about searching your writing for errors, both grammatical and typographical, before submitting your paper for an audience (a teacher, a publisher, etc.). Use this resource to help you find and fix common errors.
Where do I begin?Though everyone has a unique proofreading process, there are some general strategies that can be helpful to most writers. Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines listed below.
General Strategies
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Take a break! Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
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Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
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Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
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Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
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Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
Personalizing ProofreadingIn addition to following the general guidelines above, individualizing your proofreading process to your needs will help you proofread more efficiently and effectively. You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
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Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
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Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
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Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
Finding Common ErrorsProofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
Spelling （EXCEL）·
Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!
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Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under each line of text helps you to see each word.
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If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
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Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.
Left-out and doubled wordsReading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
Fragment Sentences ·
Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at the OWL website.
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Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills.
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See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.
Run-on Sentences ·
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
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If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.
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Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Comma Splices ·
Look at the sentences that have commas.
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Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
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If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
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Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball, because it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Subject/Verb Agreement ·
Find the subject of each sentence.
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Find the verb that goes with the subject.
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The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.（不要犯you is错误）
Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.
Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.
Mixed constructionRead through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.
ParallelismLook through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement ·
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
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Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
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If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
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If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
Apostrophes ·
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
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Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe. （不用省略号避免错误还增加字数）
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Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."
Two Principles ·
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous （承上）sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader. （新内容）
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In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Exercise: Diagnosis, Analysis, RevisionDiagnosis
1.
Underline the first few words of every sentence in a paragraph, ignoring short introductory phrases such as "In the beginning," or "For the most part."
2.
If you can, underline the first few words of every clause.
Analysis
1.
Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?
2.
Will your reader see these connections among the topics?
3.
Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.
4.
Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be the topics of most of the sentences.
Revision
1.
In most sentences, make the topics the subject of verbs.
2.
Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.
Sample Passage
Topics are crucial for readers because readers depend on topics to focus their attention on particular ideas toward the beginning of sentences. Topics tell readers what a whole passage is "about." If readers feel that a sequence of topics is coherent, then they will feel they are moving through a paragraph from a cumulatively coherent point of view. But if throughout the paragraph readers feel that its topics shift randomly, then they have to begin each sentence out of context, from no coherent point of view. When that happens, readers feel dislocated, disoriented, and out of focus.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You ReviseSentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"
1.
Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence "coheres" with the one before and after it.
2.
Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are unified with each other.
Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
Paragraphs
Make reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph.
原来下载了Fundamental course of writing 1-16，这么好的东西我居然没看完。我真是菜鸟。
现在开始好好研读。 这个好多，不过很详细
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