Steps in Essay Writing
From:http://www.aibf.com.au

Whilst everyone will approach essay writing in their own way, certain fundamental steps should be appreciated, if not followed.

Analyse the Topic.
Analyse the wording of a question to work out what is required. Familiarise yourself with what is required by words such as describe, discuss, explain, analyse, summarise, outline, evaluate. All require different approaches, for example, describe requires a detailed account of the characteristics of a subject, discuss means examine the pros and cons of an argument or position before stating a conclusion. If you are not sure what is required, speak to your lecturer or tutor.

Research the Topic.
Use libraries to find material on your topic as well as your own notes, texts and handouts. Extract only relevant material by skimming, scanning and speed-reading a range of material. Make detailed notes of any relevant concepts, arguments and information once you've identified the useful reading.

Plan the Essay.
Essay writing requires some degree of planning. Jotting down main points, stating a main idea and writing around it, even just thinking about the topic, are examples of the planning process.

The following ideas are more structured ways of approaching this planning process:


Sorting and categorising the material you have collected in your research (notes, marked photocopies, articles) in response to the topic can help you identify the main points to be covered.


Jotting down the main points you've identified against relevant sections of your notes and other research material can be a constructive next step.


Producing a series of headings and sub headings based on the main points, arguments and supporting evidence you've identified can provide an initial structure for your essay.

Prepare a Draft.
Whilst you may be able to produce an essay without a detailed plan, you will need to make a first draft. This should:


formalise the structure of the essay;


ensure there is continuity between the various sections of the essay;


state your ideas or case as clearly as possible.

During the drafting process, you may well depart from your original outline. The process of writing in itself helps to clarify your ideas and gives you new perspectives on the topic.

There is no best writing sequence for an essay. One practical approach is to start with the main body which contains your arguments about, or discussions of, the topic. It can make sense to formalise the introduction and conclusion last, since your initial ideas may well be modified during the writing process.

Redraft and Edit.
Once you've written a first draft, you will need to produce another version (quite often the final one). In this redrafting phase you need to look at your writing as though you were a critical reader.

It may be useful to:


set your work aside for a day or so you are more likely to view it critically and with detachment after a break; and


read your first draft aloud to yourself (or to someone else) to help you detect a lack of sense and flow and to pick up obvious errors.

Check when you redraft that:


the question has been answered;
all essential material is covered;
the structure is clear and logical;
the various parts are linked;
there is no irrelevant material;
the language is direct and clear;
spelling, grammar and punctuation are correct;
all references are properly cited;
all material "borrowed" from other sources is acknowledged;
an adequate referencing system has been included;
the length is within the guidelines; and
the presentation is appropriate (for example, it is typed on a word processor if required).

[ Last edited by 蜻蜓切 on 2005-6-14 at 17:47 ]

READING EFFICIENTLY

Tertiary courses require you to read widely and in depth in a number of subject areas. To cope with these demands you need to develop reading fitnessan important skill for all people in business.

Reading Techniques

The efficient reader reads at the fastest rate possible for the level of comprehension required. Reading speeds and levels of comprehension vary with different reading techniques. There are four common reading techniques tertiary students need to use.

Scanning for Information.
Scanning is a reading technique used to search rapidly for some important point, for example, a title or key word or some very specific piece of information. The essential thing is to concentrate, deliberately ignoring everything but that one thing for which you are scanning.

Skim Reading.
Skim reading is used to get the gist of an article or text and also to select material for in-depth reading. You may quickly preview the material in a text by scanning the contents and index pages for key sections and ideas, and then flick through the text looking for relevant headings, sub headings, illustrations, charts and summaries. Having identified relevant sections you can gain an idea of the author's main points and concepts by reading the key sentences in paragraphs (often the first and the last) and skimming through the conclusion (which is often in the last paragraph) of a chapter or section.

Always note the bibliographical details of books and articles you use and record brief comments to remind you later of what you found useful.

Speed Reading.
Speed reading techniques aim to provide a general overview of information without too much attention to detail. With speed reading you don't concentrate on each and every word; instead you read whole phrases and even whole lines of print. (To read quickly avoid saying words to yourself this sub vocalising slows your reading down markedly.)

Speed reading is best suited to material that requires only one reading such as a newspaper article.

To increase your reading speed try reading under pressure (at a speed where you still understand the text but which is fast enough to make you uncomfortable) for at least ten minutes every day.

Study Reading.
Study reading is the technique used for effective and purposeful reading of study materials. The following process can be useful:


First, survey the material before beginning in-depth reading. At this stage, scan and skim read to get a general idea of the main concepts or arguments.


Formulate questions as a focus for your detailed reading (these may arise as you survey the material or they may evolve out of your analysis of a set essay or research topic).


Now read the material, concentrating on understanding the author's intentions and concepts, looking for answers to the questions you've formulated. As you read, be critical underline major points and concepts or note them in your own words.


When you finish a significant chapter or section, you may find it helpful to put it aside and review the main points.


Check through the material and your notes to see if you've missed or misunderstood important points.


Record points missed, and reread material you misunderstood.


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Reading Difficult Material

When reading material which is difficult to understand, try some of the following:


Begin with a basic or general introduction to the topic a book or article in your reading list which provides an overview of the topic or a relevant section in an encyclopedia.


Jot down new terms which keep occurring, making sure you spell them properly.


Look up their meaning in a dictionary or reference book and try to explain the meaning in your own words. If you still don't fully understand, ask a tutor or fellow student to explain the term to you.


If the language of a specified reading is too difficult, ask your lecturer or study skills staff for help. Lecturers may be able to suggest a simpler introduction to get you started.


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Recording Your Reading

Always record the full details of your reading source and when you take notes, record page and chapter numbers in the left margin against the relevant notes.

It is important to be rigorous in doing this because it will enable you to locate material again and you need this information in order to include reference details in your essays, assignments and reports. These are always required.

The following examples show you how to record the bibliographic details of a book and of an article in a journal or newspaper. They show the detail you should provide and the order in which you provide it.


For a book, provide in the order set out below:
author, date of publication, title, edition, publisher, place.
For example:Fuori, W. M. & Gioia, L. V., 1991, Computers and Information Processing, 3rd edn, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.


For an article in a journal or newspaper, provide in the order shown: author, date, "title of article", journal title, volume and issue number (or name of newspaper), pages.
For example: Bahamid, Idir, 1994, "Participative Change: The Creation of a Social Dynamic Conducive to Improvement", Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, No. 3.

Note that the titles of books and journals are in italics. (If you are handwriting, these items should be underlined.)


Whatever system you use to cite references - be consistent

TAKING NOTES

Your notes are your personal response to a lecture or to reading material. Make them as useful as possible so they help you think about, organise and recall relevant points and ideas. Making notes helps you concentrate on what you are reading, listening to, or watching. How you do it is a matter of personal style but some of the following suggestions may be useful for you.

Lecture Notes


Write down the lecturer's name, the topic, subject and date. Number all pages in your lecture notes.


Leave a wide margin (or even one on each side) so you can note key words or ideas and list relevant books and articles.


Jot down any reading or main points which your lecturer outlines at the start of the lecture.


Don't try to take word-for-word notes write phrases or points rather than whole sentences.


Use consistent abbreviations where possible.


If possible, spend time at the end copying detailed diagrams and notes so you don't lose the thread of the argument during the lecture.


Make sure you include enough information so you can understand your notes later.


Revise your notes, underlining or highlighting key points as soon as possible after the lecture. If you do this, you will remember and understand material more effectively than if you just look at it before an examination.


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Research Notes

When you are taking notes for an assignment, an essay or some other research topic, be selective. Analyse what is required and focus your notetaking on that.

Consider the following points when you are taking notes from a book, an article or some other written source.


Always record full details of any book or article you are taking notes from. (For example, include author/s, date of publication, title, edition, publisher and place, for a book.)


Leave a margin and good spacing for later comment and highlighting.


Note page and chapter numbers as you progress through the text.


Wherever possible, use your own words and keep notes to a minimum.


If you need to use an exact, short quotation, copy it down accurately and record the bibliographical details (including the page number).


Try to make your notes clear and concise enough to be useful to other people.


Organise and file your notes under subject and topic headings.


Take care of your notes they may be irreplaceable.

Studying Effectively

You can with patience and effort improve your study methods. By analysing the way you study at present and experimenting with different study methods, you will find methods which suit you.  

Active Learning

Active learning has been identified by educationists as very effective. It is characterised by the idea that learning which is seen as a positive and pleasant experience and which uses a variety of our senses, really works.

Research has shown that each individual has a dominant way of taking in information. Information may be absorbed best by seeing (the visual learner), by hearing (the auditory learner) or while being physically active (the movement-oriented learner).

If you can identify your dominant learning style, you can consciously use methods which capitalise on it. For example, the visual learner may find drawing charts, box summaries and sketches useful; the auditory learner may put summaries on tape and play them back at convenient times; the movement-oriented learner may walk around while reciting or rehearsing material.

Whatever your dominant learning style, you will usually combine all three, thereby enhancing your learning.

The following are suggestions to help you become a more active and effective learner. While some of them may seem inappropriate to you, they are ideas which have helped a variety of people to learn. Why not select some that strike you as valuable and try them out.


Relax at the start of a study session and breathe deeply. (Brain function is enhanced when you are relaxed, getting plenty of oxygen and are healthily fit.)


Put on some music, but not too loudly. (Baroque music by Handel, Vivaldi or Bach has been shown to help the brain achieve a calm but alert state. If you hate it, try something else.)


When reading, jot down main ideas, make sketches or draw cartoons which help you to remember them.


Reread material, using a highlighter, jot ideas in a margin, make summary cards.


Record main ideas or summaries on a tape. Play these when you have time. (While travelling in the car or doing household tasks can be useful times.)


Sing, chant or repeat out loud main ideas. (You may need a tolerant household!)


Walk around while thinking and rehearsing.


Keep a notebook and pen handy to record ideas which come to you when you are at work, in bed, in the shower, gardening, washing the dishes, playing golf etc. Your mind often subconsciously solves problems and, at unexpected times, comes up with insights about something you've been working on.


Get plenty of sleep allow your subconscious to process ideas.


Put aside your writing for some days. You will come back to it with a fresher and more critical mind.


Revise frequently and actively so you remember and recall important concepts efficiently. This can save time in the long run.


Take time to do those things you enjoy and which help you keep physically and mentally fit and relaxed.