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写在前面：经常看到阿狗的习作中出现类似“However, there are some fallacies in the argument.”模板也好，定式也罢，恐怕很少有人真正去考虑过到底fallacy是个什么东西吧？其实，简简单单一个词，囊括了几乎所有阿狗题目的纰漏。接下来鄙人根据此文详解fallacy的深层涵义。
What are fallacies?
Fallacies are defects in an argument - other than false premises - which cause an argument to be invalid, unsound or weak. Fallacies can be separated into two general groups: formal and informal. A formal fallacy is a defect which can be identified merely be looking at the logical structure of an argument rather than any specific statements. Informal fallacies are defects which can be identified only through an analysis of the actual content of the argument.
这一段就fallacy的准确定义，重点是informal fallacies，为什么呢？请看intro的相关内容：
Because the Argument task is meant to assess analytical writing and informal reasoning skills that you have
developed throughout your education
ETS要求的是informal的逻辑能力，所以逻辑谬误按理也应该是informal的，咱们可以通过以下分析来证明这个论断。这里要解释一下formal与informal，引用一段说明（转自前XDF李笑来老师网站http://www.lixiaolai.com/index.php/archives/category/english-learning/awa-basic-instruction）这也算是我的AW启蒙教程之一，对intro进行了一个比较详细的解析，建议大家进行参阅，一共11篇。
严格意义上来讲，AWA考核的更多的并非中国学生所熟悉的“形式逻辑”（Formal Logic），而是国内教材基本上从未涉及到的“非形式逻辑”（Informal Logic）。其实把“Informal Logic”翻译为“非形式逻辑”多少有些不伦不类。之前在“八卦无所不在：（5）这世界就没有绝对的事物？” 这篇文章中就抱怨过这事。当初把“Formal Logic”翻译成“形式逻辑”的时候，因为那时候还没办法预见将来要发展出一个“Informal Logic”，所以，那个翻译也就显得相当恰当。而后，出现了“Informal Logic”，就只能很尴尬地把它从字面上翻译成“非形式逻辑”——搞得人看不出所以然来。如若不嫌罗嗦的话，“formal logic”也许应该翻译成“必须遵守形式的逻辑”，而“informal logic”则是“不拘泥于形式的逻辑”。
Formal Fallacies
Formal fallacies are only found only in deductive arguments with identifiable forms. One of the things which makes them appear reasonable is the fact that they look like and mimic valid logical arguments, but are in fact invalid. Here is an example:
1. All humans are mammals. (premise)
2. All cats are mammals. (premise)
3. All humans are cats. (conclusion)
Both premises in this argument are true but the conclusion is false. The defect is a formal fallacy, and can be demonstrated by reducing the argument to its bare structure: 1. All A are C 2. All B are C 3. All A are B
It does not matter what A, B and C stand for — we could replace them with "wines," "milk" and "beverages." The argument would still be invalid and for the exact same reason. As you see, it can be helpful to reduce an argument to its structure and ignore content in order to see if it is valid.
Formal Fallacy是根据固定的推论形式来判断的。我们关键是看那3个公式和例子，仔细想想，貌似阿狗题目中确实没有这种类型的谬误存在。说起来倒是可以结合我的专业谈一下，这个有点儿像热力学第零定律：如果物体A和物体B各与自处在同一状态的物体C达到热平衡，若令A与B进行接触，它们也将处在热平衡。那么，关键是看下面。
Informal Fallacies
Informal fallacies are defects which can be identified only through an analysis of the actual content of the argument rather than through its structure. Here is an example:
Informal fallacy是通过对argument的内容的分析来判断的，而非结构。这点可以从intro中看到一些相关的内容：
• carefully read the argument—you might want to read it over more than once
• identify as many of its claims, conclusions, and underlying assumptions as possible
• think of as many alternative explanations and counterexamples as you can
• think of what additional evidence might weaken or lend support to the claims
• ask yourself what changes in the argument would make the reasoning more sound
这些具体的方法显然就是致力于内容的分析。
1. Geological events produce rock. (premise)
2. Rock is a type of music. (premise)
3. Geological events produce music. (conclusion)
The premises in this argument are true, but clearly the conclusion is false. Is the defect a formal fallacy or an informal fallacy? To see if this is actually a formal fallacy, we have to break it down to its basic structure: 1. A = B 2. B = C 3. A = C
This structure is valid; therefore the defect cannot be a formal fallacy and must instead be an informal fallacy identifiable from the content. When we examine the content we find that a key term, "rock," is being used with two different definitions (the technical term for this sort of fallacy is Equivocation).
关于这种情况在阿狗的题库里比比皆是，码几个例子来说明一下：
35The following appeared in the summary of a study on headaches suffered by the residents of Mentia.
"Salicylates are members of the same chemical family as aspirin, a medicine used to treat headaches. Although many foods are naturally rich in salicylates, for the past several decades food-processing companies have also been adding salicylates to foods as preservatives. This rise in the commercial use of salicylates has been found to correlate with a steady decline in the average number of headaches reported by participants in our twenty-year study. Recently, food-processing companies have found that salicylates can also be used as flavor additives for foods. With this new use for salicylates, we can expect a continued steady decline in the number of headaches suffered by the average citizen of Mentia."
这个题目有两个明显的fallacies:
The first one：
1. Aspirin can treat headaches.(premise) 2. Salicylates are members of the same chemical family as aspirin.(premise) 3. Salicylates can treat headaches. (conclusion)
这个结构似乎没有什么问题，那么就不是formal fallacy，问题出在哪里呢？应该是这个chemical family上。这里有个概念性的问题，同一类的化学族通常是指一些分子结构相似的化学物质，但是我们知道，往往这些物质的不同作用体现在那些微小的结构差别上，这点学化学的筒子们应该比俺清楚，那些有机物什么的，在下就不班门弄斧了。那么这个fallacy正是问题出在这里，是同一个化学族未必就有同样的功能，所以说conclusion是错误的。
The second one:
1. Adding salicylates to foods as preservatives could help with treating headache.(premise) 2. Salicylates can also be used as flavor additives for foods. (premise) 3. Salicylates as flavor additives could help with treating headache.(conclusion)
同样的问题，结构没有问题，还是因为内容的概念性问题。 当然，我这里只提及两点并不意味着这个题目只有这两点错误，我只是就fallacy来举例，所以仅指出两点明显的informal fallacies. 还有我们常见的题目，比如那些两地问题
1.A采取一些措施可以解决一些问题。(premise) 2.B面临同样的问题。(premise) 3.B可以采取同样的措施来解决。(conclusion)
89The following appeared in a newspaper published in the state of Celera.
"Speed limits on our state's highways should be eliminated in order to increase our state's prosperity. Because greater speed means more efficient travel, commercial deliveries will be faster, increasing business profits. Elimination of speed limits will also make driving more attractive to motorists, so that more people will use the highways, providing more highway toll revenues for the state. At the same time, safety on our highways will not be affected: daytime speed limits were eliminated last year in the western states of our country, and no significant increase in the number of accidents in these states has been reported."
26The following appeared in a memo from the chairperson of the school board in the town of Saluda.
"For the past five years, Mr. Charles Schade has been the music director at Steel City High School, and during that time the school band from Steel City High has won three regional band competitions. In addition, the quality of the music rehearsal facilities and musical instruments at Steel City High has improved markedly over the past five years. Because of such successes at Steel City High, the Saluda school board should hire Mr. Schade to plan and direct the general music education programs for the entire Saluda school system."
大多数题目都是这种informal fallacy，这里就列这么几个，大家在分析的时候留意一下。
Informal fallacies can work in several ways. Some distract the reader from what is really going on. Some, like in the above example, make use of vagueness or ambiguity to cause confusion. Some appeal to emotions rather than logic and reason.
这里就详细指出了informal fallacies在阿狗中的作用，我们能够找到fallacies就找到了题目比较重要的突破口。有些题目正是因为我们对formal和informal的概念没有区分开来，导致分析上出现瓶颈。而且，这也不是简简单单拿到题目就找错误的XDF式方法可以解决问题的，你必须对题目的整体逻辑有一个把握，否则无法分清fallacy的类型，找起来就困难许多。希望大家可以通过这篇文章再次对阿狗的逻辑分析有个深刻的理解，并加以重视，正如irvine666 斑竹提到的：heaven in flowers“一花一世界，一草一天堂”，意思就是在很不起眼的地方都可能隐藏着大智慧，同时建议大家仔细阅读一下斑竹的"【heaven in flowers汇总贴】-- 带你认识不一样的Argument"（https://bbs.gter.net/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=963476&highlight=）系列讲解，这也是我受益匪浅的启蒙教程。
——紫陌纤尘 | 
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发表于 2010-3-20 10:46:39
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发表于 2010-3-20 11:04:17
除了第一个问题是英文回答，其余都是用中文，时间大概十分钟左右。1.为什么来香港读书2.会粤语吗3.根据专业...
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