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发表于 2012-2-18 11:09:16
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TPO13
Types of Social Groups
Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.
People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.
Endow: to give a college, hospital etc a large sum of money that provides it with an income===provide
4. Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2?
○ Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate.
○ Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties.
○ Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance.
○ Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant.
Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.
典型
6. Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships?
○ Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships.
○ A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship.反了
○ Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society.
○ Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships.
A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.
7. The phrase “size up” in the passage is closest in meaning to
○ enlarge
○ evaluate
○ impress
○ accept
size something/somebody ↔ up phrasal verb
to look at or consider a person or situation and make a judgment about them
Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.
Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.
Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them
Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group.
错因：should=if注意这里表示奖励无用的时候，用shunning
11. According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning?
○ To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the group
○ To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the group
NM
○ To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the group
XF
○ To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation
NM
这道题不用推断的，应该是细节信息题，只要把定位句找对，然后理解正确就可以了。%定位句 Some social groups employ shunning as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. c: M E2 ~! K
这句话可以看出，shunning的功能就是把个人一致化。
再看其他选项：2，让不受欢迎的个人离开群体，从括弧里这半句a person can remain in the community可以看出，这些个人是留在群体里的。所以，这个选项是错误的。" l) ` h3 ~& x D/ m3，用这个来奖励和惩罚成员。从这句话：Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance,----也就是说，一旦奖励制度不起作用了，就用shuning了，所以，这个选项也是错误的。8 |9 \0 X$ w8 n7 j
4，这个很明显了，就不多说了。/ x3 s) U
2-2.51
A 00:48
2 B 03:27
3 D 02:17
4 C 00:07
5 B 02:27
6 C 04:15
7 A 00:37
8 B 01:31?
9 A 00:15
10 B 00:28?
11 A 00:54
12 B 00:13
13 B 01:21
14 -1
15 +4
Survival and successful reproduction usually require the activities of animals to be coordinated with predictable events around them. Consequently, the timing and rhythms of biological functions must closely match periodic events like the solar day, the tides, the lunar cycle, and the seasons. The relations between animal activity and these periods, particularly for the daily rhythms, have been of such interest and importance that a huge amount of work has been done on them and the special research field of chronobiology has emerged. Normally, the constantly changing levels of an animal's activity—sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example—are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal's schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms. Almost universally, biologists accept the idea that all eukaryotes (a category that includes most organisms except bacteria and certain algae) have internal clocks. By isolating organisms completely from external periodic cues, biologists learned that organisms have internal clocks. For instance, apparently normal daily periods of biological activity were maintained for about a week by the fungus Neurospora when it was intentionally isolated from all geophysical timing cues while orbiting in a space shuttle. The continuation of biological rhythms in an organism without external cues attests to its having an internal clock.
2. In paragraph 1, the experiment on the fungus Neurospora is mentioned to illustrate
○the existence of weekly periods of activity as well as daily ones
○the finding of evidence that organisms have internal clocks
○the effect of space on the internal clocks of organisms
○the isolation of one part of an organism's cycle for study
时间长，目的题目：先从例子前面看，找出（节省时间）
3. According to paragraph 1, all the following are generally assumed to be true EXCEPT:
○It is important for animals' daily activities to be coordinated with recurring events in their environment.
○Eukaryotes have internal clocks.
○The relationship between biological function and environmental cycles is a topic of intense research.
○Animals' daily rhythms are more dependent on external cues than on internal clocks. Nm
长时间，注意先选项？后选项？不确定，体会中
When crayfish are kept continuously in the dark, even for four to five months, their compound eyes continue to adjust on a daily schedule for daytime and nighttime vision. Horseshoe crabs kept in the dark continuously for a year were found to maintain a persistent rhythm of brain activity that similarly adapts their eyes on a daily schedule for bright or for weak light. Like almost all daily cycles of animals deprived of environmental cues, those measured for the horseshoe crabs in these conditions were not exactly 24 hours. Such a rhythm whose period is approximately—but not exactly—a day is called circadian. For different individual horseshoe crabs, the circadian period ranged from 22.2 to 25.5 hours. A particular animal typically maintains its own characteristic cycle duration with great precision for many days. Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. Further evidence for persistent internal rhythms appears when the usual external cycles are shifted—either experimentally or by rapid east-west travel over great distances. Typically, the animal's daily internally generated cycle of activity continues without change. As a result, its activities are shifted relative to the external cycle of the new environment. The disorienting effects of this mismatch between external time cues and internal schedules may persist, like our jet lag, for several days or weeks until certain cues such as the daylight/darkness cycle reset the organism's clock to synchronize with the daily rhythm of the new environment.
6. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about the circadian periods of animals deprived of environmental cues?
○They have the same length as the daily activity cycles of animals that are not deprived of such cues.
○They can vary significantly from day to day.
○They are not the same for all members of a single species.
○They become longer over time.
细看，目前的方法，就是浪费时间>2minutes
8. In paragraph 2, the author provides evidence for the role of biological clocks by
○listing the daily activities of an animal's cycle: sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones
○describing the process of establishing the period of a biological clock
NM
○presenting cases in which an animal's daily schedule remained stable despite lack of environmental cues
○contrasting animals whose daily schedules fluctuate with those of animals whose schedules are constant
NM
错因：
Like almost all daily cycles of animals deprived of environmental cues首先是这句话，我理解错了一个词deprive: to prevent someone from having something, especially something that they need or should have 恰好对应lack of environmental cues
不要因为一个你认为是错的，就否定一个基本上就要正确的选项，记住，这个时候一定要小心
10. In paragraph 2, why does the author mention that the period for different horseshoe crabs ranges from 22.2 to 25.5 hours?
○To illustrate that an animal's internal clock seldom has a 24-hour cycle
○To argue that different horseshoe crabs will shift from daytime to nighttime vision at different times
○To illustrate the approximate range of the circadian rhythm of all animals
○To support the idea that external cues are the only factors affecting an animal's periodic behavior
错因，是这个such a rhythm 恰好说明了A
Animals need natural periodic signals like sunrise to maintain a cycle whose period is precisely 24 hours. Such an external cue not only coordinates an animal's daily rhythms with particular features of the local solar day but also—because it normally does so day after day-seems to keep the internal clock's period close to that of Earth's rotation. Yet despite this synchronization of the period of the internal cycle, the animal's timer itself continues to have its own genetically built-in period close to, but different from, 24 hours. Without the external cue, the difference accumulates and so the internally regulated activities of the biological day drift continuously, like the tides, in relation to the solar day. This drift has been studied extensively in many animals and in biological activities ranging from the hatching of fruit fly eggs to wheel running by squirrels. Light has a predominating influence in setting the clock. Even a fifteen-minute burst of light in otherwise sustained darkness can reset an animal's circadian rhythm. Normally, internal rhythms are kept in step by regular environmental cycles. For instance, if a homing pigeon is to navigate with its Sun compass, its clock must be properly set by cues provided by the daylight/darkness cycle.
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1.先做了自我介绍2.从哪里知道这个专业3.为什么选择浸会4.关于专业的问题，编程&Python相关5.未来的职业规...
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