如何有效论证——段落内部的关系

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段落内部的关系

一、段落的基本概念：
１． 段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
 一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
 一个合理的逻辑顺序
 没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.

２． 段落的长短问题：
首先原因一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
 但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
 过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。

一、 段落的组成结构：
１． The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２． Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３． The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。

段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before.  Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors.  Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,蓝色的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.

二、 段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：
• Orient your reader to the subject. （不断让读者知道你下一步怎么写）
• Tie your ideas together. （你的ideas应该是连贯起来的）
• Take it easy through technically dense passages. （文章要深入浅出）
• Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence. （段落内的论述要有逻辑）

１． 为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them, not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.（不仅在文章的开头要注意lead the readers，在每一段的论述中也同样如此）

２．怎么做？
Whenever you introduce a new idea, your readers will appreciate definitions, examples and comparisons with things they already know.（定义、举例和比较非常重要！） They will feel more comfortable with your new information if they have a familiar reference to hang on to（引用人们熟悉的句子）. Three ways to do this are with orienting words and phrases, by letting the old amplify the new, and by adding explanatory words and phrases, where necessary.
（１） USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：（用一些引导性短语）
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
• of course
• as you know
• until now
• obviously
• normally
• previously
• everyone is familiar with
• remember that
（要学会灵活使用以上短语！）

（２） LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：（从旧事物中引出新事物）
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new.（不要用时间顺序来写old然后再引出new） Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new（要用新老对比的方式来写）. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
Isn't this version much more informative than one that would begin by listing the undesirable characteristics of the old machines, then told you what the latest ones are like? How often do you begin your news with a long historical background? Such background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning. （单纯地叙述旧事物是毫无意义的，只有与所要讲的新事物联系起来才有意义）

（３） ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：（对于复杂的概念等，一定要进行解释！）
Often, when you are introducing new ideas, you will have to expand and clarify them with definitions and explanatory material. Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
To decide how much explanatory material you need, you have to form a clear picture of your audience and how familiar they are with what you're saying. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.

三、 段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
 Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
 Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
 Connection－适当的连接句子

（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Even though the connections between your sentences may be clear to you, you can't count on your readers to supply those links. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit. If it doesn't create a single idea in your readers' minds, it's not doing its job.
English supplies us with useful linking words called connectives, （逻辑连接词）which form the logical bridges between ideas. If you keep these verbal guideposts in mind and use them as you write, you will almost automatically provide the interrelations among ideas that every reader looks for. （正确使用逻辑连接词，你的文章就可以自然而然地连贯起来！）
Here is a list of some connectives. Like the subordinating conjunctions, these are the good guys; use them liberally (but correctly and appropriately), and I guarantee that your writing will become more effective. They are hard to overuse.

Connective words that describe relationships:
ALSO  HOWEVER  ALTHOUGH                 also however although
INCIDENTALLY THEREFORE BESIDES    incidentally=by the way therefore besides likewise (eg.you will forget the bad things that have   happened in the past. Likewise, I will forget what you have done to me)
LIKEWISE THUS MEANWHILE                thus meanwhile
MOREOVER USUALLY FURTHERMORE     moreover usually furthermore
NEXT WHATEVER GENERALLY                next whatever generally(generally speaking, it is generally believed that...)
YET ACCORDINGLY NEVERTHELESS       yet accordingly nevertheless
INSTEAD IN CONTRAST FOR EXAMPLE   instead in contrast for example


Connectives that give a sense of time:
FIRST  SECONDLY
FINALLY  NOW
ONCE  WHEN
ULTIMATELY  EVENTUALLY
LASTLY LATER
MEANWHILE PREVIOUSLY
THEN  SOON
FORMERLY SOMETIMES
Other Connective phrases:
TO BEGIN WITH ON THE OTHER HAND to begin with, on the other hand
IN BRIEF IN GENERAL in brief, in general
IN SUMMARY MORE SPECIFICALLY in summary, more specifically
INSTEAD OF IN ADDITION TO instead of, in addition to
IN OTHER WORDS ANOTHER WAY TO in other words, another way to
FOR THE SAME REASON NO MATTER WHAT for the same reason, no matter what
SUCH A THAT'S WHAT (WHY) such as, that's why
IN FACT WHAT'S MORE in fact, what's more
IN THE SAME WAY ON THE CONTRARY in the same way, on the contrary
CONVERSELY AS A RESULT conversely, as a result
SUMMING UP IF SO / NOT summing up, if so/not
All of these words and phrases link ideas and assure continuity in your writing. (具体的这些连接词我在写作语言里边有更详细的总结)
（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:
TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.
这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:
THIS THAT
THESE WHICH
THEIR HIS
ITS HER
利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）
For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
If you try to use these connective devices in your own writing, but have difficulty, be suspicious that the ideas that you're trying to link together in a single paragraph are merely a sequence (that is, a catalog) of logically unrelated ideas. Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
Another way to tie ideas together is with intensives. Intensives help you emphasize what's important and to set the important apart from the incidental -- a major goal of all scientific and technical writing. Compare the following two sentences, the first without intensives and the second with intensives added:
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives:
ESPECIALLY  AS MUCH AS  EVEN IF/THOUGH  especially, as much as, even if/though
INCREASINGLY BY FAR SO...THAT increasingly, by far, so ... that ...
MORE IMPORTANTLY HIGHLY ONLY more importantly, highly, only
PARTICULARLY IN FACT  VERY particularly, in fact, very
SIGNIFICANTLY QUITE  SUCH significantly, quite, such
MOST  UNIQUE AT ALL most, unique, at all
ABOVE ALL INDEED IN ANY CASE above all, indeed, in any case
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly. Eliminate intensives that are thrown in gratuitously or that don't make a definite contribution by emphasizing an important fact or idea. Littering your writing with intensives where they are not needed makes your writing sound trite and strains your credibility.(强调要用在该用的地方，不要没事去强调那些没用的，会使你的文章显得累赘）
Here is an exercise to give you practice linking your ideas together. Add connectives, intensives (from the lists above, or make up your own) and repeated words to the following sentences to make a coherent paragraph:
• Global Airlines carried three-million passengers last year.
• They expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada.
• The new DC-12 aircraft proved more fuel-efficient than the older 737's.
• Older, unprofitable routes were dropped.
• Passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing.
• Only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago.
• Their record has been accident-free since 1950.
• Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year.
• Profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.

关于段间和段落的逻辑顺序问题和如何有效论证论点的问题请参见相关总结。

kaolaliangUID：2758807

8cuo~ 3xs for sharing~

jjooyyUID：2704028

thx a lot~
I've been looking for a guidance like that for a time~!!!

三叶槿UID：2568740

感谢分享～

mike6089UID：2839410

谢谢

秋风狂扫UID：2949619

受教了。

混混学霸UID：3670203

满满的干货。谢谢