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newtown
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发表于 2007-8-13 17:04:25 |只看该作者 |倒序浏览
这是我目前找到的最完整的版本，希望对大家有用。 因为权限不够，不能发成附件，而且长度也有限制，分成几部分发，大家自己复制吧:loveliness:


section one:Education

proverbs

1,a graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.
2,the primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one's mind a pleasant place in which to spend one's time.
3,next in importance to freedom and and justice is popular education,without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.
4,the classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore
5,Education's purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.
6,it is the purpose of education to help us bacome autonomous,creative,inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.
7,you see,real ongoing,lifelong education doesn't answer questions,it provokes them.
8,people will pay more to be entertained than educated.
9,the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others.this is the basic architecture of a life;the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
10,the essence of our effort to see that every child had a chance must be to assure each an equal opportunity,not to bacome equal,but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body,mind,and spirit he or she possesses
11,a great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for youself.
12,if you read and don't,you are an illiterate by choice.

Damaging Research

A study by the National Parent-Teachers Organization revealed that in the average American school,eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out.The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade,80 percent of them feel good about themselves,but by the time they get to the sixth grade,only 10 10 percent of them have good self-images.


Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the Unite States is the relationship between education and citizenship.Throughout its history this nation had emphasized public education as a means of reansmitting democratic values,creating quality of opportunity ,and preparing new generation of citizens to function in society.  in addition,the schools have been expected to help shape society itself.during the 1950s,for example,efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools.later,when the Soviet Union lanched the first orbiting statellite,American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offerd many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nation would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.
education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems,expecially social inequality.the schools,it is thought,can transform young people from vastly different backgrands into competent,upwardly mobile adults.yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain.in recent years,in fact,public education has been at the center of numerous controversies srising from the gap between the ideal and the reality.part of the problem is that different groups in society have different expectations.some feel that stdents need better preparation for careers in a technologically advanced society;others believe children should be taught basic job-related skills;still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity(and ,in the case of Hispanic children ,their language)  .on the other hand,policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to involve parents in their children's education
some reformers and ciitics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems.Sociologist Charles Moscos,for example,is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Crops,Vista nd Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national sevice.National service,as Moscos defines it,would entail "the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages"and serve for at lease one year.in reture for this period of service,the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.
Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling.in devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society,they emphasize the educational valus of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom,at this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in teh United Stated,although the concept is steadily gaining support among education and social critics.


The teacher's role

Given the undeniable important of classroom experience sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom .often they start from the premise that,along with the influence of peers,students' experiences in teh classroom are of central importance to their later development.one study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students's subsequent adult status.the surprising results of this study have important implications,its is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children's lives,a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching.the reforms carried out by  educational leaders like James Corner suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.
Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some ways,the teacher-student reationship is an important part of education.Sociologists have pointed out that this reationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced,with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher.in other words,in convertional classrooms there is little opportunity for the student to become actively involved in the learning process.on the other hand,students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher's authority:mentally withdrawing,interrupting ,and the like.Hence,much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.


Education Philosophy

for the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey(1859-1952),an American educator and writer.Dewey believed that the school's job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child,rather than to pour information,for which the child had no context,into him or her.in the Dewey system,the child becomes the active agent in his own education,rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently,American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching"life skills"--logical thinking,analysis,creative problem-solving,the actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process,which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present,including all the unknowns of the future.students and teachers both regard pure memorization as uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
in addition to "life skills"schools are assigned to solve the evergrowing shock of social problems.Racism,teenage pregnancy,alcoholism,drug us,reckless driving,and suicide are just a few of the moderm problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.
this all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.


Student Life

to the students,the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start"changing classes,"this means that rather than spending the day in one classroon,they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers.this gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways,where a great deal of the important social action of high school.traditionally takes place.students have lockers in these hallways,around which they congregate.
society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously.schoolchildren have a great deal of free time,which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities--sports,clubs,cheerleading,scouts--supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership,sportmanship,ability to organize ,etc.those who don't become engaged in such activities or have after-school jobs have plenty of opportunity to "hang out"listen to teenage music,and watch television.
compared to other nations,American students do not have much homework,studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children's success in school than other nationlities do.(Historically ,there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life)"he is just not a scholar,"the American parents might say,content that their son is on the swim team and doesn't take drugs.(some of the young do choose to study hard,for reasons of their own,such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)
what American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method.in innumerable ways children are pitted against each other--whether in classroom discussion,spelling bees,reading groups,or tests.every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A's and F's (teachers often grade A=excellent;B=good;C=average;D=poor;and F=failed).a teacher who gives all A's looks too soft--so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.
Foreign students sometimes don't understand that copying from other people's paper or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously.here,it is important to show that you have done you own work and are displaying your own knowledge.it is more important than helping your friends to pass,whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers.Group effort goes againse the competitive grain,and American students do not study together as many Asians do.Many Asians in this country consider their group study study habits a large contributor to their school success.


Adult education

after complaining about many aspects of American life,a 40- year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded,"But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work?here you can change your whole life,start a new business do what you really want to do"
so at least to this person,school requirements weren't inhibiting.and to millions of others,adult education is the path to a new career,or if not to a new career,to a new outlook.schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew,and besides regular classes,schedule evening classes in special programs.today there are so many people of retirement age in college that its is no longer remarkable.


Moral Relativism In America

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing(and remembering)some good old things.at the time of our nation's founding.Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia.in this landmark statement on American Education,Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writting,and of reading,history,and geography.but he also emphasized the need "to instruct the mass of our citizens in these,their rights,interests,and duties,as men and citizens."Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one's "morals"and "faculties"that has been the dominant ciew of the aims of American education for over two centuries.but a number of changes,most of them unsound,have diverted schools from these great pursuits.and the story of the loss of the school's original moral mission explains a great deal.
starting in the early seventies,"values clarification"programs started turning up in schools all over America.according to this philosophy,the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values;rather ,they were to allow the child to "clarify"his own values(which adults,including parents,had no "right"to criticize).the "values clarification"movement didn't clarify values;it claridied wants and desires.this form of moral relativism said,in effect,that no set of values was right or wrong;everybody had an equal right to his own values;and all values were subjective,relative,personal.this destructive view took hold with a vengeance.
in 1985 The New York Times published an article quoting New York area educators,in slavish devotion to this new view,proclaiming that "they deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong."the article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors.in the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been follish to return on thousand dollars she found in a purse at school.according to the article,when the youngsters asked the counselor's opinion,"he told them he believe the girl had done the right thing,but that,of course,he would not try to force his values on them."if i come from the position of what is right and what is wrong,"he explained,'then i'm not their counselor.'"
once upon a time,a counselor offered counsel,and he knew that an adult does not from character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering "choices"or "options"
in response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals,one can expect from some quarters indignant objections(i have heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years):"who are you to say what's moral and what's important?"or "whose standards and judgments do we use?"
the correct response ,it seems to me,is ,are we really ready to do away with standards and judgemnts?is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swinding is as worthy as a life of honest,hard work?is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities)going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary ,that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth?unless we are willing to enbrace some pretty silly positions,we have got to admit the need for moral and intellectual strandards..the problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Pholistime or a closed-minded"elitist"trying to impose his view on everyone else.
b]the truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments,there can be no progress.unless we are prepared to say irrational things--that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless--we must ask the normative question..it may come as a surprise to those who feel that to be "progressive"is to be value-neutral.but as Matthew Amold said"the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things"and if the world cann't decide what the best things are,at least to some degree,then it follows that progress,and character,are in trouble.we shouldn't be reluctant to declare that some things,some lives,books,ideas,and values are better than others.it is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.
at one time,we were not so reluctant to teach them.in the mid-nineteenth century,a diverse,widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the "common school",the forerunner of the public school.they were to be charged with the mission of moral and civic training,training that planted its roots in shared values.the advocated of the common school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution
the leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities--bussinessmen ,ministers,local civic and government officials.these people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue;the founders of the punlic schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.
but in the past quarter century or so,some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality,and moral education was increasingly left in their hands.the commonsense view of parents and the public,that schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home,family,and country,was increasingly rejected.
there are those today still who claim we are now too diverse a nation,that we consist of too many competing convictions and interest to instill common values.they are wrong,of course we are a diverse people.we have always been a diverse people ,and as Madison wrote in Federalist No 10,the competing,balancing insterests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty.but there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own :honesty,fairness,self-discipline,fidelity to task,friends,and family,personal responsibility,love of country,and belief in the principles of liberty ,equality,and the freedom to practice one's faith.the explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common school,and it is a legacy to which we must return.

School should teach values

people often say,"Yes,we should teach these values,but how do we teach them?"this question deserves a candid response,one that isn't given often enough.it is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation.this happens when teachers and principals,by their words and actions,embody sound convictions.as Oxford's Mary Warnock has written,"You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself;and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong."the theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences"by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is ,the selection of what is "right"of what should be."it is in this will,Buber says,in this clear standing for something,that the "vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression."
there is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong,good and bad ,and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose..
As Education Secretary,i visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury,Vermont ,and asked the students,"is this a good school?"they answered,"yes,this is a good school."i asked them,"why?"among other things,one eight-year-old said,"the principal Mr,Riegel,makes good rules and everybody obeys them"so i said,"give me an example"and another answered,"you cannot climb on the pipes in bathroom ,we don't climb on the pipes and the principal doesn't either."
this example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult,but there is something profound in the answer of those children ,something educators should pay more attention to..you cann't expect children to make massages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs.certain things must be said,certain limits laid down ,and certain examples set.there is no other way..
we should also do a better job at curriculum selection.the research shows that most "values education"exercises and separate courses in "moral reasoning"tend not to affect children's behavior:if anything,they may leave children morally adrift,where to turn ?i believe our literature and our historyare a rich quarry of moral literacy.we should mine that quarry.children should have at their disposal a shock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong,good and bad--examples illustrating what is morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.
what kind of stories,historical events,and famous lives am i talking about?if we want our children to know about honesty,we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and,conversely,about Aesop's shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage,we should teach them about Joan of Arc,Horatius at the bridge,and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad.if we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity,they should know about the voyages of Columbus,and the character of Washington during the Revolution and Lincoln during the Civil War.and our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could.if we want them to know about respect for the law,they should understand why Socrates told Crito:"No,i must submit to the decree of Athens."if we want our children to respect the rights of others,they should read the Declaration of Independence ,the Bill of Rights,the Gettysburg Address,and Martin Luther King,Jr's "Letter from Birmingham jail."from the Bible they should know about Ruth's loyalty to Naomi,Joseph's forgiveness of his brothers,Jonathan's friendsship with David,the Good Samaritan's kindness toward a stranger ,and David's cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.
these are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on,and we need not get into issues like nuclear war,abortion,creationism,or euthanasia.this may come as a disappointment to some people.but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from,and prior to,the discussion of the great,difficult controversies of the day.first things first.we should teach values the same way we teach other things:one step at a time .we should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.after all,we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult,against teaching biology or chenistry because gene splicing and clonng are complex and controversial,against teaching American history bacause there are heated disputes about the Founders' intent.every field has its complexities and its controversies.and every field has its basic,its fundamentals.so too with forming character and achieving moral literacy..As any parents knows,teaching character is a difficult task .but it is a crucial task,because we want our children to be not only healthy,happy,and successful but decent,strong,and good.none of his happens automatically;there is no genetic transmission of virtue.it takes the conscious,committed efforts of adults,it takes careful attention.
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发表于 2007-8-13 17:06:29 |只看该作者
Section 2

College Pressures

Mainly i try to remind students that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think.there will be plenty of time to change jobs,change careers,change whole attitudes and approaches.they don't want to hear such liberating news.they want a map--right now--that they can follow unswervingly to carrer security,financial security,social security and ,presumably,a prepaid grave.
what i wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future.i wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself not as a grim preparation for the next step.i wish them the right to experiment,to trip and fall,to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world
my wish,of course,is naive.one of the few rights that America does not proclaim is the right to fail.Achievement is the national god,venerated in our media--the million-dollar athlete,the wealthy executive--and glorified in our praise of possessions.in the presence of such a potent state religion,the young are growing up old.
I see your kinds of pressure working on college students today:enconomic pressure,parental pressure,peer pressure and self-induced pressure.it is easy to look around for villains-to blame the colleges for changing too much money,the professors for assigning too much work,the parents for pushing their children too far,the students for driving themselves too hard.but there are no villains;only victims.
"in the late 1960s,"one dean told me"the typical question that i got from students was 'why is there so much suffering in the world?'or 'how can i make a contribution ?'today it's 'do you think it would look better for getting into law school if i did a double major in history and political science,or just majored in one of them?'many other deans cofirmed this pattern.one said"there are trying to find an edge-the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal."
Note the emphasis on looking better.the transcript had become a sacred document,the passport to security.how one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person.A is for Admirable and B is from Borderline,even though,in Yale's official system of grading,A means "Excellent"and B means"very good"today,looking very good is no longer good enough ,especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school.they know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and medical practices where they will make a lot of money.they also know that the odds are larsh.Yale Law School ,for instance,matriculates 170 students from an applicant pool of 3,700;Harvard enrolls550 from a pool of 7,000.
it's all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or soctors.and it's nice to think that admission officers are really reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern.Still,it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with as that they regard a B as possitively shameful
the pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job.long gone are the days of the "gentleman's C,"when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation ,sampling a wide variety of course-music,art,philosophy ,classics,anthropology,poetry,religion--that would send them out as liberally educated men and women.if i were an employer i would rather emply graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades.i know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me.i like to hear the play of their ideas.i do not know if they are getting As or Cs,and i don't care.i also like them as people.the country needs them,and they will find satisfying jobs.i tell them to relax.they can't.
Nor can i blame them.they live in a brutal economy.Tuition,room,and board at most private colleges now comes to at lease $7,000,not counting books and fees.this might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich.but they are equally battered by inflation.Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student,and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments,grants,and gifts.now the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs--higher every year--of just opening the doors.Heating oil is up.insurance is up.Postage is up.Health-permium costs is up.everything is up,Deficits are up.we are witnessing in America the creation of a botherhood of paupers--colleges,parents,and students,joined by the common bond of debt.
Today it is not unusual for a student,even if the works part time at college and full time during the summer,to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years--loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation,Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world,he is already behind as he goes forth.how could he not feel under pressure thoughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning?i have used"he"incidentally,only for brevity.women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves,their parents,and society.in fact,they are probably under more pressure.for although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs,society hasn't yet caught up with fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure.Inevitable,the two are deeply intertwined.
I see many students taking pre-medical course with joyless tencity.they go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist.it saddens me because i know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people
"do you want to medical school?"i ask them
"i guess so."they say,without conviction,or "not really."
"then why are you going?"
"Well,my parents want me to be a doctor.they are paying all this money and..."
Poor students,Poor parents.they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt.the parents mean will;they are trying to steer their sons and daughters toward a secure future.but the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy--subjects with no "paractical"value.where's the payoff on the humanities?its's not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off.the intellectual faculities developed by studying subjects like history and classics--and ability to synthesize and relate,to weigh cause and effect,to see events in perpective--are just the faculities that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field.still ,many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward a specific profession--courses that are pre-law,pre-medical,pre-business,or,as i sometimes heard it put,"pr-rich"
but the pressure on students is severe.they are truly torn.one part of them feels obligated to fulfill their parents' expectations;after all,their parents are older and presunably wiser.another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them..
i know a student who wants to be an artist.she is very obviously an artist and will be a good one-she was already has several modest local exhibits.meanwhile she is growing as a well-rounded person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which which her art will grow.but her father is strongly opposed,he think that an artist is a "dumb"thing to be.the student vacillates and tried to please everybody.she keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the "dumb"courses her father wants her to take--at lease they are dumb course for her,she is free spirit on a campus of tense students--no small achievement in itself--and she deserves to follow her muse.
peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined,and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.
"I had a freshman student i will call Linda."one dean told me,"who come in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate,Barbara,was much brigher and studied all the time .i couldn't tell her that Barbara had come in two hours eariler to say the same about Linda."
the story is almost funny--except that it's not,it's symptomatic of all the pressures put together.when every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better,the only solution is to study harder still.i see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight.i wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie.i hear the clacking of typewrites in the hours before dawn.i see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due:"Will i get everything done?"
Probably they won't.they will get sicj ,they will get blocked.they will sleep.they will oversleep.they will bug out.
part of the problem is that they do more than they are expected to do.a professor will assign five-page papers.several students will start writting ten-page papers to impress him.then more students will write ten-page papers.and a few will raise the ante to fifteen.pity the poor studens who is still just doing the assignment.
"once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student popilation deliberately overexerting,"one dean points out,"it's bad for everybody,when a teacher gets more and more effort from his class,the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well.the tectic workd,psycholoically."
why can't the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers?he can,and he probably will.but by then the term will be half over and the damage done.Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed.beside,the professor's main concern is with his course.he knows his students only in relation to the course and doesn't know that they are also overexerting n their other courses.nor is it really his business.he didn't sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home.that's what deans,masters,chapains,and psychiatrists are for.
To some extent this is nothing new:a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness,more comfortable with books than with people,but the new pauperism has widened the gap still further,for professors who actually like to spend time with students don't have as much time to spend.they are also overexerting .if they are young,they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish,hanging by their finger nails onto a shrinking profession.if they are old and tenured,they are buried under the dutied of adminstering departments--as departmental chairmen or members of committees--that have been thinned out by budgetary axe.
Ultimately it will be the students' own business to break the circles in which they are trapped.they are too young to be prisoners of their parents' dreams and their classmates' fears.thet must be joted into believing in themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
"Violence is being done to undergraduate experience,"says Carlos Hortas."College should be open-ended:at the end it should many,many roads.instead,students are choosing their goal in advance,and their choices narrow as they go along.it's almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they have got to fit into certain slots.therefor,fit into the best-paying slot."
"they ought to take chances.not taking chances will lead to a life of colorless mediocrity,they will be comfortable ,but something in the spirit will be missing."
I have Painted too drab a portrait of today's students,making them seem a solemn lot.that is only hald of their story;if they were so dreary i wouldn't si thoroughly enjoy their company.the other half is that they are easy to like.they are quick to laugh and to offer friendship.they are not introverts.they are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation i have known.
Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activites.on the contrary,they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams,perform with musical and dramatic groups,and write for campus publications.but this in turn is one more cause of anxiety.they are too many choices.Academically,they have 1,300 coursed to select from;outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.
this means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did.if they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one;in the 60s they would have done both.they also tend to choose activities that are self -limiting .Drama,from instance,is flourishing in all twelve of Yale's residential colleges as it never has before.students hurl themselves into these productions--as actors,directions,carpenters,and technicians--with a delication to create the best possible play,knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.
they also can't afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News,last spring at the one -hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper--whose past chairmenn include such onece and future kings as Potter Stewart,Kingman Brewster,and william F. Buckly,Jr--much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that "newsies"routinely worked fifty hours a week .in effect they belonged to a club;newsies is now they defined themselves at Yale.today's student will write one or two articles a week,when he can,and he defines himself as a student.i have never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.
if i have described he modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play,it's because that's where the crunch is,not only at Yale but throughout American education.it's why i think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.
i tell students that there is no one "Right"way to get ahead--that each of them is a different person,starting from a different point and bound for a different destination.i tell them that change is a tonic and that all the slots arenot codified nor the frontiers closed..one of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the acasemic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year,they are hands of companies or as agencies,editors of magazines,politicians,public officials,television magnates,labor leaders,business executives,Boardway producers,artists,writes,economistes,photographers,scientists,historians-a mixed bag of achievers
i ask them to say a few wors about how they got started.the students assume that they started in their parsent profession and knen all along that it was what they wanted to do.Luckily for me,most of them got into their field by a circuitious route,to their surprise,after many detours.the students are started .they can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planed.they can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.
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发表于 2007-8-13 17:09:46 |只看该作者
呵呵，精华区已经有了，thx anyway
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发表于 2007-8-13 17:11:21 |只看该作者
Section 3

To Err Is Wrong

in the summer of 1979,Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski bacame the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateau.this event drew a lot of media attention,and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal,hundreds of reporters covered Yaz's every move.Finally,one reporter asked"Hey,Yaz,aren't you afraid all of this attention will go to you head?"Yastrzemski replied,"i look at it this way:in my career i have been up bat over ten thousand times.that means i ahve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times.that fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head."
most people consider success and failure as opposites,but they are actually both products of the same process.as Yaz suggests,and activity which produces a hit may also produce a miss.it is the same with creative thinking;the same energy which generates good creative ideas also produces errors
many people,however ,are not comfortable with errors,our educational system,based on "the right answer"belief,cultivates out thinking in another,more conservative way.from an early age,we are taught that right answer are good and incorrect answers are bad.this value is deeply embeded in the incentive system used in most schools:
Right over90% of the time="A"
Right over80% of the time="B"
Right over70% of the time="C~"Right over 60% of the time ="D~"less than 60% correct ,you fail.

from this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistake to a minimum .we learn,in other words,that"to err is wrong"

Playing Is Safe

with this kind of attitude ,you are not going to be taking too many chances,if you learn that failing even a little penalizes you(e.g;being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a "B" performance),you learn not to make mistake ,and more important,you learn not to put yourself in situation where you might fail.this leads to conservative though patterns designed to avoid ths stigma our society puts on "failure"
i have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master's drgree in Journalism.for the last six months,she has been try to find a job,but to no avail.i talked with her about her situation,and realized thather problem is that she doesn't know how to fail.she went through eigtheen years of schooling without ever failing an examination,a paper,a miderm,a pop=quiz,or a final.now ,she is relucant to try any approaches where she might fail,she had been conditioned to believe that failure is had in and of itself,rather than a potential stepping stone to new ideas.
Look around,how many middle managers,housewives,administrators,teachers,and other people do you see who are afraid to try anything new because of this fear of failure?Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public.as a result,we remove ourselves from many learning experiances except fro those occurring in the most private of circumstances.


A Different Logic

From a practical point of view,"to err is wrong"makes sense.our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousands of small task without failure.think about it:you wouldn't last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand into a pot of boiling water.In addition,engineers whoes bridges collapse,shock brokers who lose money for their clients,and copywriters whose ad compaigns decrease sales won't keep their jobs evry long.
Neverthelsee,too great an adherence to the belief "to err is wrong"can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas.if you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas,you will probably make uncritical use of the rules,formulae,and procedures used to obtain these right answers.by doing this,you will by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process,and thus spend little time testing assumption,challenging the rules,asking what-if questions,or just playing around with the problem.all of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers,but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a neccessary by-product of creative thinking.as Yaz would put it,"If you want the hits,be prepared for the misses."that's the way the game of life goes..


Errors As Stepping Stones

Wnenver an error pops up,the usual response is "Jeez,another screwup,what went wrong this time?"the creative thinker,on the other hand,will realize the potential value of errors ,and perhaps say something like,"would you look at that!where can it lead out thinking?"and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea.as a matter of fact,the whole history of discovery is filled with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping stones to new ideas.Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India.Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions which were right for the wrong reasons.and,Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.
The following story about the sutomotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working though erroneous assumptions to good idea.in 1912,when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow,Kettering was interested in improing gasolineengine effciency.the problem he faced was "knock"the phenomenon in which gasline taked too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency
Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the "knock".he thought to himself"how can i get the gasline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?"the key concept here is "early"searching for analogous situations,he looked around for models.finally ,he remembered a particular plant,the trailing arbutus,which "happends early"i.e,it blooms in the snow("earlier "than other plants)one of this plant's chief characteristics is its read leaves,which help the plant retain light certain wavelengths.Kettering figured that it must be the red color which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.
now came the critical step in Kettering's chain of thought.he asked himself,"how can i make the gasline red? perhaps i will put red oye in the gasline--maybe that will make it combust earlier"he looked around his workshop,and found that he did not have any read dye.but he did happen to have some iodine perhaps that would do.he added the iodine to the gasline and,lo and behold,the engine didn't "knock"
several days leter,Kettering wanted to make sure that it was the rednedd of the iodine which had in fact solved his problem.he got some red dye and added it to the gosline.nothing happened!Ketttering then realized that it wasnot the "redness"which had solved the "knowck"problem,but certain other properties of iodine.in this case,an error had proven to be a stepping stone to a better idea.had he known that 'redness"alone was not the solution,he may not have found his way to the additives in iodine.

Negative Feedback

Errors serve another useful purpose:they tell us to change direction,when things are going smoothly,we generally do not think about them.to a great extent,this is because we function according to the principle of negative feedback.often its is only when things or people fail to do their job that they get our attention..for example,you are probably not thinking about you keecaps right now,that is because everything is fine with them.the same goes for you elbows ,they are also performing their function--no problem at all.but if you were to break a leg,you would immdeiately notice all of the things you could longer do,but which you used to take for granted.
Negative feedback means that the current approach is not working ,and it is up to you to figure out a new one.we learn by trial and error,not by trial and rightness.if we did things correctly every time,we would never have to change direction--we would just continue the current course and end up with more of the same..
for example,after the supertanker Amoco Cadiz broke up off the coast of Brittany in the spring of 1978,thereby polluting the coast with hundreds of thousands of tons oil,the oil industry rethought many of its safety standards regarding petroleum transport.the same thing happened after the accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor in 1979-many procedures and safety standards were changed.
Neil Goldschmidt,former Secretary of Transportation,had this to say about the Bay Area Papid Transit(BART)
it's gotten too fashionable around the country to beat up on BART and not give credit to the vision that put this system in place.we have learned from BART around the country.the lessons were put to use in Washington,in Atlanta,in Buffalo,and other cities where we are building mass transit system.one of the lessons is not to build a system like BART.
we learn by our failures,A person's erroes are the whacks that lead him to think something different.


Trying new Things

your error rate in any activity is a function of your familiarity with that activity.if you are doing things that are routine and have a high likeihood of correctness,then you will probably make every few errors.but if you are doing things that have no precedence in your experience or are trying different approaches,then you will be making your share of mistakes.innovation may not bat a thousand-far from it -but they do get new ideas.
the creative director of an advertising agancy told me that he is not happy unless he is failing at least half of the time.as he puts it,"if you are going to be orignal ,you are going to be wrong a lot"..
one of my clients,the president of a fast-growing computer company,tells his people:"we are innovators,we are doing things nobody has ever done before.therefor,we are going to be making mistakes,my advice to you:make your mistakes,but make them in a hurry."..
another client,a division manger of a high-technology company ,asked his vice president of engineering what percentage of their new products should be successful in the marketplace.the answer he received was "about 50%,"the divison manager replied,"that is too high 30% is a better target;otherwise we will too conservative in our planning,"
along similar lines,in the banking industry ,it is said that if the credit manager never has to default on any of his loans,it is a sure sign he is not being aggressive rnough in the marketplace.
Thomas J Waston,the founder of IBM,has similar words"the way to successed is to double your failure rate"
thus,errors,at the very least,are a sign that we are diverging from the main road and trying different approaches.


Nature Errors

Nature serves as a good example of how trial and error can be used to make changes.every now and then genetic mutations occur-errors in gene reproduction.most of the time,these mutations have a deleterious effect on the species,and they drop out of the gene pool.but occasionally ,a mutation provides the species with something beneficial,and that change will be passed on to future generations.

the rich variety of all species is due to this trial and error process,if there had never been any mutations from the first amoeba,where would be now?

Summary

there are places where errors are inappropriate,but the germinal plase of the creative process is not one of them.errors are a sign that you are diverging from the well-traveled path.if you are not failing every now and then,it is a sign you are not being very innovative

Tip#1:
if you make an error,use it as a stepping stone to a new idea you might not have otherwise discovered.

Tip#2:
Differerentiate between error of "commission"and those of 11 omission."the latter can be more costly than the former.if you are not making many errors,you might ask yourself "how many opportunities am i missing by not being more aggressive?"

Tip#3:
Strengthen your"risk muecle"everyone has one,but you have to exercise it or else it will atrophy.
Make it a point to make at least one risk every twenty-four hours.

Tip#4
Remember these two benefits of failure.First,if you do fail,you learn what does not work;and second,the failure gives you an opportunity to try a new approach...

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发表于 2007-8-13 17:13:07 |只看该作者
Section 4

The Practicality of the Liberal Arts Major

Current trends indicate that by the year 2000 the average person will change careers at least twince during a lifetime.how does the entering college student prepare for career mobility which has never before been necessary?our fathers decided what they wanted to do in life,which was very often what their father had done-went to college or apprenticed themselves,and pursued the same career until retirement.our mothers assumed one of the nurturing roles in society,if they assumed a role outside of the home at all.things have certainly changed.No longer is life so simple.
Adaptability and lifelong learning are now the cornerstones of success,what direction does a person take a prepare for a lifetime of change?the one agree which provides training which never becomes obsolete is the liberal arts degree,it teachs you how to think,it also teachs you how to read,write and speak intellgently,get alone with others,and conceptualize problems.for this first time in several the employment field.
Growing ranks of corporate executives are lamenting that college students are specializing too much and too early.what corporate America really needs,according to chief executive officers of major corporations,is students soundly grounded in the liberal art-English ,expecially -who then can pick up more specific business or technical skills on the job,few students ,however ,seem to be listening to this massage.today's best selling course offer evidence that students want to take sourse that provide direct job related skills rather than the most basic survival skill in the workplace:communication and thinking skills.they want course they can parlay into jobs and high paying ones at that.Certainly,we can understand this mentality when we consider trends indicating that this generation will be the first who will not be able to do better economically than their parents.they do not want to leave level existence.students are looking to history to provide some answers it simply can not give.they would well to examine the present...
one of the big problems in the liberal arts community is that we do not market what we have to fooer.studenrs very often fail to see practicality of studying Shakespeare as preparation for a career in the business community.Perhaps some of us have locked ourselves in the ivory tower a little too long extolling the virtues of a liberal education as preparation for citizenship and life only to the neglect of it as preparation for career or careers.Education for education's sake is noble but impractical to today's college students who is facing a competitive and rapidly changing job market .they want and deserve to know how their courses will help them get a job.we as educators owe them some answers;we must be accountable not only for learning but also for providing information regarding the tranferability of classroom skills into the workplace.
in an attempt to provide answers,we conducted a research project in the Dallas metropolis last year,assuming the role of the liberal arts graduate seeking employment in the fields of government ,banking,business and industry.using informational inter-viewing as our method of job hunting and obtaining data,we conducted twenty-five interviews with a diversity of executive officers,ranging from personal directors to the chairman of the board of an exclusice departmant store and the state governor.we wished to vaildate,through practical and current research ,but not only does the liberal arts degree provide the best preparation for a lifetime of change,but it also provide a plethora of employment opportunities.we do not claim for research to be all encompassing,but we do feel its practicality was rewarding.we gathered data as to how the liberal arts major should present himself on paper and in person,where her best chances for employment are.and what he can do to augment the liberal arts degree.we were able to draw several conclusions as to how the liberal arts community could better prepare students for professional mobility.


The Liberal Arts Degree Is Marketable

Ninety percent of those interviewed responded they would hire a liberal arts major for an entry level position which could lead to the executive suite if the position itself were not executive level.the chairman of the board of a major department store in Dallas responded to the questions,"for what position would you hire a liberal arts graduate?"with a direct"any position in the compant"when asked if a buyer would not need to have special skills,he replied,"Taste is acquired or learned,and the liberal arts major could certainly learn this skill on the job."this interview is typical of the responses.

Skills acquired with a liberal arts background are most desired by employers

we were not at all surprised to learn that the skills cited as the most desirable in an employee are those skills acquired from a liberal arts background.the cited skills are listed below in order of importance.

1,Oral communication
2Written communication
3interperaonal
4analytical thinking
5Critical thinking
6Leadership

although these skills are not solely acquired through the mastery of an academic discipline,the discipline serves as vehicle for developing or refining these skills.

Liberal Arts majors can enhance their credenials

adaptability and lifelong learning are the cornerstones of success in today's complex and rapidly changing society.no longer can the person who is steeped in one academic disipline.but knows nothing about anything eles,meet today's demands.based on the data wr accumulated,our recommendations for the liberal arts major are the following.

1 a basic knowledge of accounting
2,computer literacy
3, second major in a business field
4,Multiple minors
5,advanced degree in another field

the key here is adaptability and diversity.contrary to what most people believe ,the higher a skill level an individual can claim,the more markerable he is,about those indivduals who complain that they are "overeducated"we can only assume that they are marketing themselves on the wrong level."overeducation"is a term whose time will not come in the foreseeable future.the problem many individuals will face is a narrowness of education rather than "overeducation'
unlike Artistotle who is believed to have known eveything there was to know at the time he lived.it is impossible for us to deal with the voluminous amounts of information which are produced daily.the lifelong learning which we have alluede to will not always be acquired through the traditional sixteen-week college course. we in the community college need to provide a smorgasbord of opportunities for indivduals who wish to increase their mobility and options.
the time has come to rethink what education really is and how it relates to the functions of society.perhaps what a liberal education does for an individual ,which is more important than anything else,is to prepare him for more learning,the liberal arts background equips one with thinking skills,and those,coupled with the desire to learn,are the best preparation for career and kife that any of us can possess

the vast emptiness at the core of today's liberal arts education

with this year's graduation season drawing to a close,we won't have to listen to many more commencement apeakers,usually,they tell the graduating seniors how lucky they were to special four years acquiring wisdom...as a graduating senior at UC Berkeley,i have a somewhat different perspective ---one that was not hread often at this year's commencement ceremonise but that contains a great deal more truth about the state of American higher education today,
I have done relatively well acadermically at Berkeley,even so,i don't think i have received a ture liberal education-at least not in the way that a well-educated man of the 19th century would have understood it,Back then,a university was supposed to provide nourishment for mind,body and soul...American colleges stopped catering to the letter too long ago,when mandatory attendance in chapel and physical-education classes was ablished.now Berkeley and other learning research universities have even stopped feeding students' minds.
what i have missed is an education that intergrates philosophy,history,literature,and the other humanities into a coherent whole.part of the fault is my own:i did not seek out some classes that i curriculum-for example"Great Books"--that could provide a general education.
Instead,Berkely,like many other large universities,offers a host of overly specialized coursed that seem to have little connection.the history department offers a class on Theodore Roosevelt,English has c course on science fiction,philosophy offers a class on Hegel,that is .almost no course attempt to bridge the gulf between areas .those that should --that is,introductory course aimed at freahmen only-offer the same content as the upp-division course.they have an added drawback.they are taught by inaccessible professors in giant auditoriums before thousands of bored students.
the man responsible for this delorable state of affairs is Clark Kerr ,UC president during the 1960s and one of the most influential figures of post-world Waz II higer education.Kerr dreamed that the college would bacome all things to all people-a "multiversity"instead,it would up serving almost everybody inadequately.
nobody is sure what the university's mission is anymore:is it to educate elite students?to create a social melthing pot?to conducr graduate-level research?Partisans of all three viewpoints have waged intermittent battles on the Berkeley compus for decades,leaving all the players profoundly dissatisfied.

this loss of mission has also allowed a weird collection of nuts and cranks to assure prominent positions at Berkeley,as they have at other leading US clleges.Decomstructionists in the english department tach that words have no intrinsic meaning.Revisionists in the history department teach that the Consitution was the result of a capitalist cabal.newly minted Ph.D's in the ethnicostudies field teach that America has waged genocidal war against its racial minorities for centuries.Instructors in the "Peace and Confilict Studies"department teach staregies for noviolent protest.A sociology professor instructs students on the "plantation system"in peofessional sport today.
this is education?thankfully,i have been able to avoid most of these professors with an ax to grind.i have managed to study almost execlusively with professors who believe in old fashioned academic standards and the importance of Western clivilization but most students don't fare as well.the lucky ones merely miss the chance to be educated.the unluckly ones axe indoctrinated by unscrupulous lectures.
it is safe to say ,then,that the reality of college education today is a fax cry from the dream land of learning and higher thinking described by commencement speakers.just ask any recent graduate.

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发表于 2007-8-13 17:21:41 |只看该作者
Section 5
education as philosophy

this is an immense and justified pride in what our colleges have done.at the same time is a growing ineasiness about their product .the young men and women who carry away out deagees are a very attactive lot --in looks,in bodily fitness,in kindiness,energy,courage,and buoyancy.but what of their intellectual equipment ?that too is in some ways admirable,for in apite of President Lowell's remark that the university should be a repository of great learning,since the freashmen always being a stock with them and the seniors take little away,the fact is that our graduates have every chance to be well informed,and usually are so.yet the uneasiness persists.when it becomes articulate.it takes the form of wished that these attractive young products of ours has more intellectual depth and force,more at-homenness in the world of ideas,more of the firm,clear,quiet thoughtfulness that is so potent and so needed a guard against besetting humbug and quackery.the complaint commonly resolves itself into a bill of three particulars.first,granting that our graduates know a good deal,their knowledge lies about in fragments and never gets welded together into the stuff of a tempered and mobile mind.secondly,our university graduates have been so busy boring holes for themselves,acquiring special knowledge and skills,that in later life they have astonishingly little in common in the way of ideas,standards,or principles,thirdly,it is alleged that the past two decades have revealed a singular want of clarity about the great ends of living,attachment to which gives signiffcance and direction to a life.here are three grave charges againt American education,and i want to discuss them briefly.my argument will be simple,perhaps too simple.what shall contend is that three is a great deal of truth in each of them,and that the remedy for each is the same.it is larger infusion of the philosophic habit of mind.


what ture education should do

when most people think of the word "education",they think of a pupil as a sort of animate sausage casting.into this ampty casting,the teachers are supposed to stuff"education."
but genuine education ,as Socrates knen more than two thousand years ago,is not inserting the stuffings of information into a person,but rather eliciting knowledge from him;it is drawing out of what is in the mind.
"the most important part of education." once wrote William Ernest Hocking.the distinguished Harvard philosopher,is this instruction of a man in what he has indide him."
and,as Edith Hamilton has reminded us,Socrates never said"i know,learn from me"he said,rather,look into your own selves and find the spark of truth that God has put into every heart ,and that only can kindle to a flame."
in the dialogue called the "Meno"Socrates taked an ignorant slave boy,without a day of schooling,and proves to the amazed observes that the boy really"knows"geometry--because the principles and axioms of geometry are already in his mind,waitting to be called out.
so many of the discussions and controversies about the content of education are futile and inconclusive because they are concerned with what should "go into"the student rather than with what should be taken out,and how this can best be done.
the college student who once said to me,after a lecture"i spend so much time studying that i do not have a chance to learn everything"was succinctly expressing his dissatisfaction with the sausage-casing view of education
he was being so stuffed with miscellaneous facts,with such an indigestible mass of material,that had no time (and was given no encouragement)to drew on his own resources,to use his own mind for analyzing and synthesizing,and evaluating this material.
education ,to have any meaning beyond the purpose of creating well informed students,must elicit from  the pulil what is latent in every human being-the rules of reason,the inner knowledge of what is proper from men to be and do,the ability to sift evidence and come to conclusions that can generally be assented to by all open minds and worm hearts
pupils are more like oysters than sausages.the job of heaching is not to stuff them and then seal them up,but to help them open and reveal the riches within.there are pearls in each of us,if only we knew how to cultivate them with ardor and persistence



The future of universities

"can we speak of the death of the university?"an english newspaper recently asked.another offered the diagnosis"still breathing"not only at this seminar,here and now,but all over the world the future of the universities is now being discusses.thsi is not only beacuse we are entering a new century.many people are asking whether the traditional research universities in fact have any future at all.this douby seems mainly to be due to the development of the new technology,the massification of the universities,the idea of life long learning,the growing competition from other learing institutions and may be also because of the strong specialization that we now are experience in most fields of research.many experts predict that demise of universities that we know them today,with compus
i am an opitmist,and i have become even more of an optimst having listened to the speakers today,i believe in the magic of the campus!i believe that the universities will be able to enjoy a very bright future as intellectual power centres in a world in which society is calling out increasingly loudly for more knowledge.
but if we are continue to live as intellectual power centers,the universities cannnot sit passively letting development take their course,we must know what sort of university we want in the future.many battles have been lost because of the lack of any goal.we must also have a strategy that a policy for how we are to achieve our vision.this means that the universities must actively relate to the great challenges we are now being confronted with,and we must develop our ability and will for renewal.yet we must do this at the same time as we stand by the fundamental values that make us a university:that is out independence,i see it as one of the most important tasks for a university presidence to work for the greatest possible spirit of community in the university.and for the university to be and integrated institution and not simply a number of faculties or departments linked together in some kind of formal ogranization or strategic alliance.only then can we defend the use of the name "university"
i would like to conclude by saying a few words about international soildarity.the quality gap between academic instittions in different parts of the world should be a concern for the universities in the developed countries.they should assume a leading role in the disemination of knowledge,and in promoting the development of universities worldwide.this is a matter of solidarity towards sister institutions,i agree with UNESCO when they underline that members of the world's academic community should be concerned not only about the quality of their own instiutional setting,but also about the quality of research everywhere
most universities in the western word-at least the public universities -are now experiencing a serious lack of funds,and the institutional solidarity must not take a from that leads to a draining of strangth and vutality of the universities.there are,however,many ways of showing solidarity without using too much of the universities own funding.one of the tasks of the universities is to keep reminding the authorities of the importance of spending money on research and education in developing countries.the universities themselves must work in close co-operation with the development -aid agencues where the Governemnt provide most of the economic resources and the universities provide the competence.it is also possible to ahsre knowledge by giving easier access to recent findings,to make possible academic mobility and increased technical co-operation among regional grouping.Various academic co-operation programs may protect against braindrain ,which is now a serious threat in many countries.
only through the development of local skill and competence,through increased numbers fo providers and users of knowledge can be developing countries bridge the gap separating them from developed countries.and the bridging of this gap will lead to societies that are freer,more peaceful and more agalitarian,the universities have the competence,the possibility and therefore also a duty to promote the "intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind"as stated in the UNESCO's constitution.
       
Section 6

Teaching and Learning:strategies for the 21st century

examining the situation in the higher learning today,we ealize that since the end of the last World War where have been basic chaned in th erelation,of the state and the university in many countries,these changes are connected with dramatic increase in the number of students and not less with the increase in the cose of research.the social consequences of these processes are;a)the profound change in the structure of the society due to the grown percentage of university graduates;b)the risk of intellectual unemployment of ,this part of society,c)the relative devalution of other vocation and the decrease in the number of young people who select manual vocations,and as the result,d)a poential social lack of equilibrium and the inability of the society to support the university.but let me now come to more practical matters and enumerate the main factors that determine the development of education on the evry eve of the 21st century.
1,the development of information technologies
throughout the world,information and telecommunication techologies are bringing about a new industral revolution,which already looks to be as important and radical as those revolution which preceded it.the benefits that come along with the development of new technologies are obvious and have been discussed quite a lot.i would like to draw your attention to those of introduction of information technologies which can pose new problems for education.the availability of information on the INTERNET,for example,widens the possibilities of informal education immensely.it could lead to knowledge of "the lowest common denominator"in which people loose their historical,geographical and cultural bearings.new information technologies are widely introduced in schools and universities,and allow to develop distance education programs without boundaries.however,methods of teaching and learning through electronic means are still to be developed .in many cases,lecturers try to use traditional methdology of teaching while dealing with new media and fail
2internationalization is connected with political situation and with the development of technologies.
nowadays our world is becoming smaller and smaller,and turns into a "global village"international academic cooperation is an excellent basic for nation-wide cooperation and one of the key factors for sustainable development.it is absolutely vital for technical harmonization environmental protection ,political stability,in the recent years,we have withessed active development of international education programs,growth of student mobility,activization of regional cooperation.one can be quite sure that these peocesses will continue and deepen in the next century.again,there are a number of issues which need serious consideration.to what extent should we standardize educational programs?how much risk does international ization contain for national indentity?how to create a global syetem of academic recognition -and is it really necessary?


Universities changing to meet the needs of the 21st century

keeping with the theme of this session,i will talk about the role of the University for the 21st Century.
I have chosen not one of seven different roles which will be important for universities in the 21st century
* learning community role
*research and discovery
*assisting in pre-college education role
*partnerships with corporation role
*convener role
*world role
*societal role
the learning communiry reflects a shift away from the tyoical lecture approach where the professor professes,ie.imparts knowledge to the student and the student simply taked it down and take it in .the new emphaisi will be on learning,in addition to the lecture through student initiative in setting the program,acquiring knowledge through the internet as needed,collaborating with peers in special projects,experiential learning through interships,study adroad ,and many other out-of-classroom experiences.records of learning experience may be through portfolio ,reflecting the varity of experiences,rather than simply transcripts showing courses taken and grades.in addition,the learning community means more than just the student experience.it includes all parts,all functions,all personnel having and involvement in learning,thus the learning community.
the research role will cotinue to be a kry function in the reaearch university,but there will continue to be a shift in emphasis away from single investigator,working on a particular and narrow areamtoward multi-disciplinary teams working on problesm driven by societal need.sereral factors wil continue to force this direction such as,limited space an dfacilities in our institutions,inlimited budgets for doing research including high costs of duplicating laboratories for each new faculty investigator,and increasing expectations by these providing the funding to see substantive and useful results.the remaining five roles address the outteach function.this will be the area of mosr significant change in the 21st century.


First ,the university will take on an even large role in assisting pre-college education in preparing students for study and work.success in college is greatly impacted by student preparation .thus,the university will need to take more responsibility in guiding the process in college preparation
partnerships with corporations and business will become a greater part of university involvement.the 21st century will see expansion of partersips of this type particularly with research universities.these will take on different forms.they will involve collabration for education of an older workforce,collaboration for organizational and process improvement in both types of organization,agreements for special considerations in student recruitment and interships,and employment and funding between the partners,each will need to undergo some modification of sulture as these changes occur.
the convener role involves bring people to campus to address certain important issues.it means identifying experts around the world to join with whose on campus to seek understanding and actions for change.this conference sponsored by Peking University is and example of the convener function.it also involves bringing people together to learn about modern approaches to the latest and important issues in many different fields.this role has been seved for many years in agticulture,education and engineering .others are emerging ,and the future will have universities serving an even broader role as convener of experts in many different areas.
the world role for universities is another that is evolving rapidly.it is being driven by increasing ease of communication worldwide,the connectivity of economies of countries around the world,the opening up of greater opportunities for trade ,and the increasing prevalence of multinational corporations.
Finally,the societal role will be the area of greatest change as we move into 21st century,the university will direct more of its financial resources and faculty expertise toward critical needs of society,toward convening faculty indivduals in different colleges and departments to collaborate in certain fields of research and development.this will take time to evolve and it will require some shift in culture of the university.but ,the external forces bearing on universities will drive change in emphasis from focusing on status ad determined by university peers toward greater emphasis on relevance of work and accomplishment.
while the changes taking place involving moving tpward more emphasis on needs of society are generally positive,there are concerns about some directons that could take place.for example,universities will need to maintain their independence in setting agendas and directions,it will be important to retain independence to work more effectively in an interdependent society.secondly,universities will need to avoid excessive political and partisan influence on decsion-making intended to benefit special interests,and ,thirdly we will want to retain a balanced role of the faculty in the decision process of university governance.
in summary,the colleges and universities of the 21st century will need to be able to work effectively in an interdependent society haveing a worldwide scope.they will be less inward looking and more connected to issues outside that involve problems plaguing society.they will be more collaborative with corpooration,other universities and amone faculty across units within the institution.there will be more emphasis on the student's experience in learning,seeking knowledge through different methods,in addition to the lecture,and developing skills through experience.finally,the university will be more dependent on technology in the students learning expenience as well as the operation of all aspects of the activities within the institution .i believe the university of the 21st century will see students taking classes together and working on collaborative projects in universities that may be hundreds and possibly thousands of miles apart.

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发表于 2007-8-13 17:22:50 |只看该作者
Section 7

Education and Training

to understand the nature of the liberal arts college and its function in our society ,it is important to understand the difference between education and training,
training is intended primarily for service fo society,educatuon is primarily for the individual society needs doctors,lawyers,engineers,teachers to perfoem specific tasks neccessary to its operation ,just as it needs carpenters and plumbers and stenographers.training summlies the immediate and specific needs of society so that the work of the world many continue.and these needs,our training centers the professional and trade schools fill.but although education is for the improvement of the individual,it also serves society by providing a leavening of men of understanding,of perception,and wisdom.they are out intellectual leaders,the critics of out culture,the dedenders of our free traditions,the instigators of our progress.they serve society by examing its function,appraisng its need,and criticizing its dreection.they many be earning their livings by practicing one of the professions,ot in pursuing a trade,or by engeging in business enterprise.they may be rich or poor.they may occupy positions of power and prestige,or they many be engaged in some humble employment.without them,however,society either disintegrates or else becomes an anthill.
the difference between the two tpyes of study is like the difference between the discipline and exercise is a perfessional baseball training camp and that of a Y gym.in the one,the recruit is training to become a professional baseball player who will make a living and serve society by playing baseball,in the other,he is training only to improve his own body and musculature.the training at the baseball camp is all relevant.the recruit may spend hours practicing how to slide into second base,not bacause it is a particularly useful form of calisthenics but because it is relevant to the game.the execise would stop if the rules were changed so that sliding to a base was made illegal.Similarly,the candidate for the pitching staff spends a lot of time throwing a baseball,not because it will improve his physique-it may have quite the opposite effect-but because pitching is to be his principal function on the team.at the Y gym,exercise have no such relevance.the intention is to strengthen the body in general,,and when the members sit down on the floor with their legs outstretched and practise touching their fingers to their toes,it is not because they hope to bacome galley slaves,perhaps the only occupation where that particular execise would be relevant.
in general,relevancy is a facet of training rather than of education.what is taught at law school is the present law of the land,not be the Napoleonic Code or even the archaic laws that have been scratched from the stature books.and at medical school,too,it is modern medical practice that is taught,that which is relevant to conditions today,and the plumber and the carpenter and the electrician and the mason learn only what is relevant to the practice of their respective trades in this day with the tools and materials that are presently available and that conform to the building code.
in the liberal arts college,on the other hand,the student is encouraged to explore new fields and old fields,to wander down the bypaths of knowledge.there the teaching is concerned with major principles,and its purpose is to change the student,to make him something different from what he was before,just as the purpose of the Ygym is to make a fat man into a thin one,or a strong one out of a weak one.
clearly the two types of learning overlap,just as the baseball recruit gets rid of excess weight and tightens his muscles at the baseball camp and thereby profits even if he does not make the team,so the law student sharpens his mind and broadens his understanding,even if he subsequently fails the bar exam and goes on to make his living is an entirely different kind of work.his study of law gives him an understanding of the rules under which out society functions and his practice in solving legal problems gives him and understanding of fine distinctions.
on the other hand,the Y member,whose original reason for joining many have been solely to get himself in shape,may get caught up in the institution 's baseball program and find that his skill has developed to the point where he can play the game professionally.similarly,the student who undertakes a course of study merely because it interests him and he wants to know more about it may find that it has commercial value.he has studied a foreign and literature in order to understand the society that produced it,and then he may find that his special knowledge enables him to get a job as a trainslator.or he may find that while his knowledge of chemistry is not of professional caliber,it is still sufficient to give him preference in a particular job ever someone who lacks even that modicum of knowledge of the sunjuct,but these are accidental and incidental.in general,certain course of study are for the service of society and other courses are for self-improvement.in the hierarchy of our educational system,the former are the function of our professional schools and the latter are the function of the college of liberal arts.


第七部分

Knowledge and Wisdom

most people would agree that,although our age far surpasses all previous ages in knowledge,there has been no correlative increase in wisdom ,but agreement ceases as soon as we attempt to define"wisdom"and consider means of promjoting it,i want to ask first what wisdom is ,and then what can be done to teach it.

there are,i think,several factors that contribute to wisdom .of these i should put first a sense of proportion;the capacity to take account of all the important factors in a problem and to attach to each its due weight.this has become more difficult than it used to be owing to the extent and complesity of the specialized knowledge required of various kinds of teachnicians.suppose ,for example,that you are engaged in research in scientific medicine.the work is difficult and is likely to sbsorb the whole of your intellectual energy.you have not time to consider the effect which your discoveries or inventions may have outside the field of  medicine.you succeed (let us say),as modern medicine has succeeded,in enormously lowering the infant death rate,not only in Europe and America,but also in Asia and Africa.this has the entire unintended result of making the food supply inadequate and lowering the standard of life in the most populous parts of the world.to take an even more spectacular example,which is in everybody's mind at the present time.you study the composition of the atom from a disinterested desire from knowledge ,and incidentally place in the hands of powerful lunatics the means of destroying the human race,in such ways the pursuit of knowledge may become harmful unless it is combined with wisdom ,and widdom in the sense of comprehensive vision is not necseearily present in specialists in the pursuit of knowledge.
comprehensiveness alone,however,is not enough to constitue widdom ,there must be,also,a certain awareness of the ends of human life.this may be illustrated by the study of history.many eminent historians have done more harm than good because they viewed facts thtough the distoring medium of their own passions.Hegel and a philosophy of history whichh did not suffer from any lack of comprehansiveness,since it started from the earliest times and continued into an indefinite future,but the chief lesson of history which he sought to inculcate was that from the year A.D 400 down to his own time Germany had been the most important nation and the standard bearer of progress in the world.Perhaps one could stretch the comperhensiveness that constitutes wisdom to include not only intellect but also feeling.it is by no means uncommon to find men whose knowledge i swide but whose feelings are narrow.such men lack what i am calling wisdom.
it is not only public ways,but in private life,equally,that wisdom is needed,it is needed in the chose of ends to be pursued and in emancipation from personal prejudice.even an end which it would be noble to purpuse if it were attainable may be pursued unwisely if it is inherently impossible of achievement.many men in pase ages devoted their lives to a search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life.no doubt,if they could have found the,,they would have confered great benefits upon mankind,but as it was their lives were wasted.to descend to less heroic matters,consider the case of two men,Mr A and Mr B,who hate each other and ,through matual hatred ,bring each other to sextruction,suppose you go to MrA and say"why do you hate Mr B?"he will no doubt give you and appelling list of Mr B's vices with an equal admixture of truth and falsehood.suppose you now come back to Mr A and say"you will be surprised to learn that Mr B says the same about you as you say about him"and you go to Mr B and make a similar speech,the first affect ,no doubt ,will be to increase their mutual hatred,since each will be so horrified by the other's injustice.but perhaps,if you have sufficient patience and sufficient persuasivness,you may succeed in convincing each that the other has only the normal share of human wickedness,and that their enmity is harmful to both,if you can do this,you will have sustilled some fragment of wisdom.
I think the essence of wisdom is emancipation ,as fas as possible,from the tyaanny of the here and the now.we cannot help the egoism of our senses.sight and sound and touch are bound up with our oen bodies and cannot be made inpersonal .our emotions start simailarly titan ourselves.an infant feels hunger or discomfort,and is unaffected except by his own physical condition.Gradually with the years,his horizon widens,and,in proporation as his thoughts and feelings become less personal and less concerned with is own physical states,he achieves growing wisdom.this is of course a matter of degree.no one can view the world with complete impartiality ,and if anyone could,he would hardly be able to remain alive.but it is possible to make a continual approach towards impartiality,on the one hand,by knowing things somewhat remote in time or space,and ,on the other hand,by giving to such things their due weight in our feelings .it is this approach towards partiality that constitutes growth in wistom.
can wisdom in this sense be taught?and ,if it can,should the teaching of it be one of the aims of education?i should answer both these questions in the affirmative.we are told on Sundays that we should love our neighbor as ourselves.on the other six days of the week,we are exhorted to hate him.you may say that this is nonsense,since it is not our neighbor whom we are exhored to hate.but you will remember that the precep was exemplified by saying that the Samartian was our neighbor.we no longer have any wish to hate Samaritans and so we are apt to mite the point of the parable.if you want to get its point,you should subsitiute Communist and anti-Communist,as the case may be,for Samaritan,it might be objected that it is right to hatethose who do harm.i do not think so .if you hate him,it is only too likely that you will beome equally harmful.and it is very unlikely that you will induce them to adandon their evil ways.Hatred of evil is itself a kind of bondage to evil.the way out is through understanding,not though hate,i am not asvocating non-resistance,but i am saying that resistance,if it is to be effective in preventing that spread of evil,should be combined with the greatest degree of understanding and the smallest degree of force that is compatible with the survival of the good things that we wish to preserve,
it is commonly urged that a point of view such as i have been advocating is incompatible with vigor in action.i do not think history bears out this view.Queen Elizabeth I in England and Henry IV in France lived in a world where almost everybody was fanztical ,either on the Protestant or on the Catholic side.Both remained free from the errors of their time and both,by remaining free ,were beneficent and certainly not ineffective.Abraham Lincoln conducted a great war without ever departing from what i have been calling wisdom.

I have said that in some degree wisdom can be taught .i think that this teaching should have a larger intellecutal element than has been customary in what has been thought as moral instruction.i think that the disastrous results of hatred and narrow-mindedness to those who feel them can be pointed out incidentally in the course of giving knowledge.i do not think that knowledge and morals ought to be too much separted.it is ture that the kind of specialized knowledge which is required for various kinds of skill has very little to do with wisdom.but it should be supplemented in education by wider surveys calculated to put it in its place in the total of human activities.even the best technicians should also be good citizens,and when i say"citizens",i mean citizens of the world and not of this or that sect or nation.with every increase of knowledge and skill,wisdom bacomes more necessary,for each such increase augments our capacity of realizing our purposes,and it has never needed it before,and if knowledfe continuse to increase,the world need wisdom in the future even more then it does now.

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发表于 2007-8-13 17:24:42 |只看该作者
Section 8

::11Science and Technology

I 1,Computer in Education

there is a great deal of interest in use of computers in education.the educational use of computers in called Computer Assised Instruction,or CAI.many public schools in the United States have acquired computers and CIA programs to run on them,school districts are establishing computer recource centers and special training programs to help teachers use computers.in addition,some colleges and universities are beginning to establish computer literacy requirements for graduation.in spite of all this interest in the use of computers in education,some educators and students still may be wondering if this expersive toy i sreally worth their time,and in some cases,money.the answer is a definite yes:the use of computers in education has important benefits for both students and teachers.
Computers enhance a student's learning experience in many ways.first of all,the computer has the ability to accommodate individual differences in learning speed because the user(the student) is the one who controls the pace of the lessons.in addition,because a computer is nonjudgmental.the learner does not have to be afraid of reprisal or humiliation when making errors.for example,because computers can repeat information over and over,the user can ask for many repetition of a leseon without fearing a judgmental response about his or her ability to learn.the benefical effects of learning in a stress-free atmosphere are well documented.a third advantage of CAI is that a computer can give a student immdeiate feedbacks.it can tell the student why she or he is wrong as soon as error is made,and it can even provide an approprate hint for finuring out the correct answer.
not only do computers benefit students,they also make the teacher's job easier.one advantage lies in the preparation of instructional materials.schools and colleges can purchase educational computer programs that can be adapted to any learning situation .these syetem ,called"authoring system"are like skeletal lesson plans:the format of several exercises and tests is already planned out,all the teacher adds is the information he or she wants the students to learn(mathematical problems,vacabulary,lists,and so forth)the authoring system automatically incorporates these teaching points into its preplanned format and then is ready to be used by several students for a long time.the system can also correct the students' work and determine and record grades.in addition,the computer offers numerous advantages to teachers in managing their classrooms.a computer laboratory (a room having on computer for every two students)can free the teacher to meet individually with students while the rest of the class is occupied with computer lessons.finally,computers can help teachers keep students records and chart student progress,thereby cutting down on time-consuming paperwork."
with all of these advantages for both teachers and students,it is eady to see why there is so much interest in using computers in education.of course,there are whose who are skeptical and view computers as a passing fad.there are those also who simply are afraid of them.in time,however,computers will become as familiar in classroom as chalkboards are today.


II,2,Computers Make the workplace less friendly

we have seen the future,and it hurts
that's what millions of American office workers are discovering every year as computers come to dominate the office and the mania for ever-increasing profits consumes the work environment.if persent sentiments persist,there could be a white-collar revolt,as executives and stenographers alike find that the “office of tomorrow”is just the keypunch counterpart of the sweatshop of yesterday.
one reason for this is the computer's poential to “deskill”work-to reduce it to simple,repetitive actions.for exampl,instead of having each workers in an instuance company record an incoming insurance claim and then stay with it through all phases of processing,the job is broken up:one drone does nothing but complete the same long-in forms;another grinds out indentical letters to different addresses.

even valued senior employees are burning out as a consequence,of computer monitioring-which affects between 20 and 35 percents of America's office workers,according to a report by the Office of Technology Assessment[OTA]
when workers use electronic gear,it is easy to meter work-time to the millisecond,tally breaks and phone calls,or rank a workers output against that of his colleagues.terminals track the number of keystokes a workers uses in completing a particular project.this is all necessary,mangers say,to improve productivity(Yet the japaness do not do it,finding the notion offensive to loyalty and group spirit)
BankAmerica,for example,paid $1 millions in 1985 to install a computer system for riting the 3,500 employees in the credit card division on 200 specific work criteria”i measure eveything that moves”the senior vice president in charge declared.
[workers are less enthusiastic.a Boston insurance-claim ketpuncher finds incredible pressure to enter data faster and faster to meet management's standards.”i 'd leave work every day with a terrible headache and pain in my neck and shoulders”it is a familiar complaint.an OTA survey of 110 organizations between 1982 and 1986 found that approximately two-thirds were engaged in some form of computer survellance,monitoring,standized pace,or quota systems.
This despite the fact that as early as 1981,the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health found that clerical work involving computers and vidio display treminals produced a higher level of tension than air-traffic comtrol.Propontents of high techology dismissed the findings a transient spasm of adjustment to the new digital workplace.the volume of stress-based complains continues to rise,however.”
in an atmosphere of computer monitioring,inept work stations,inflexible pacing,and nervewracking anxiety,workman's compensation claims besed on job stress have more than doubled since 1980,and now account for approximately 15 percents of all occupational disease claims.According to estimates by the OTA,stress-related illness cost business,between $50 and $75 billion per year[b/]
Labor Departmant figures show that productivity in the services sector-where electronic equipment should have maximum impact and which employs nearly three quarters of all American workers-is scarcely above leaves in the mid-1970s,chiefly because of problems understanding and adapting to new technology.


第九部分

III
::11IV.3, Solar Energy


Solar power was an exotic new technology when John Schaeffer graduated from the UNIVERSITY of California,Berkeley,in 1072 and helped start a primitive commune in the woods in northern Californa.he was a thinker,and in his apare time he managed to rig up a solar-powered television set so he would not have to miss his favorite shows,soon Schaeffer was selling solar panels to hi sfellow urban refugees.today Schaeffer's beard has become a shite goatee,and his Real Goods Trading Company has blossomed into a catalog operation that is the country's largest retailer of home solar equipment.with a circulation of 400,000,the catalog offers everything for the energy-efficient home.the growth of Real Good-sales have jumped from $29,000 in 1986 to %10 million in 1993-is a small but sharp tremor along the shifting tectonic plates of America's energy landscape.
Until now,solar energy has appealed mostly to affluent homeowners and the save-the environment folks.that is because buying and installing solar equipment can cost%15,000 for an average-size home before any currents start to flow.what is mak  solar energy so hot?for one thing,the technology is getting better and cheaper.the price of the photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight to electricity has fallen sharply from $500 a watt in the 1960s to about%4 today.
Companties are  now rushing to break the %2 barrier,Texas Instruments and Southern California Edison have joined forces to produce flexible solar panels from inexpensive low-grade silicon.the innovative technology will allow the panels to be integrated into car and building design and,even more important,will crash the pric to %2,50 a watt.
Some of the biggest boosters of solar power are utility companies,eager for a clean source of electricity that will enable them to produce more power without new bill -dollar plants.both as consumers of sol technology and as the promoters of home solar panels,utilities will drive much of the industry's growth into the next century”Utilities are beginning to realize that they are going to have to get on the solar bandwagon”says S.David Freeman,general manager of the Sacramento Municipal Utility District(SMUD)”if they do not and rates go up sharply,people are going to buy their own solar panels and pull the plug on the utilities”his company enbraced alternative energy when rate payers voted to close its troubled unclear facility in 1989.
last month,68 untilities from New York City to San Fransciso formed a consortium to purchase$500 millions worth of solar panels over six years.SMUD is putting solar cells on 100 residential roofs a tear as part of a five-year pilot project .Encouraged by the response ,SMUD has ordered 100,000 more solar panels,enough to generate electricity for 2,4000 homes,and is purchasing land for 100-MW solar furnace that would rival the size of standard power plants.
What SMUD is doing parallels that developing countries have been up to for many years,these nations,which cannot afford to bulid costly nuclear or fossil-fuel plants in rural areas,now nearly two thirds of all solar panels produced in the US”in Mexico there are 28 millions people without electricity.and Mexico has the most ambitions solar electification program in the world”elsewhere,india and Zimbabwe are using World Bank financing to light up remote areas with solar power.India is installing photovoltaic systems in 38,000 villages,and Zimbabwe is bring sun power to 2,500 villages.”
but for the era of solar power will have to wait for the cast of converting sunlight to fall far enough to pay for the cost of installing a syetem ,”solar is competitive now if you take the long view.”says SMUD gereral manager Freeman.”and it is going to be highly competitive by the end of the decade”if he is right,the forecast for the industry in the 21st century is bright and sunny.

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发表于 2007-8-13 17:25:47 |只看该作者
第十部分

4,micromachines.

in the past,one of biggest disadvantages of machines has been inability to work on a micro(or tiny)scale.for example,doctores did not have devices allowing them to go inside the human body to identify health problems or to perform delicate surgery.Repair crew did not have a way of indentifying broken pipes located deep within a high-rise apartment building.however,that is about to change.advances in computers and biophysics have started a micnminiature revolution that is allowing scientists to envision and in some cases actually build microscopic machines.these devices promise to radically change the way we live and work
Micromachines already are making an impact.at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland,Ohio,research scientists have designed a 4-inch silicon chip that holds 700 tiny primitive motors.at Lucas NovaSensor in Fremont,California,scientists have perfected the world's first microscopic blood-pressure manufacturers soon will begin using tiny devices that run on static electricity to sense when to release an airbag and how to keep engines and brakes operating efficiently.Machines like these are likely to appear in airplanes an deven space vehicles by the beginning of the next century.some funturists snvision micromachines also being used to explore the deep sea in small sunmarines,or even lanch finger-sized rockets packed with micromachines instruments.
The applications are most promising in the medical field.Cardiovascular Imaging System in Sunnyvale,California,Manufactures a probe smaller than 1 millimeter that can provide snapshots of a patient's arteries.it is currently used in more than 200 cardiology centures around the world.Says Director of Marking Adam Dakin”everybody is trying to create minaturized devices for invasive surgety.there is no question that it will play a prominent role in the future.”
Although simple versions of minature devices have already had and impact,advanced versions and widespeard use are several years away,in Japan,scientists are designing an “intelligent”microdevice that can travel through the human digestive tract”and aipplanes eventually might be able to twist and adapt thwir wings to be more efficient and flexible.Artifical body parts might provide total flexibility and full capabilities for people who have lost their natural limbs.
"there is an explosion of new ideas and applications”says Kurt Peteresen,who eight years ago cofounded Lucas NovaSensor.so ,when scientists now think about future machines doing large and complex tasks,they are smaller than ever before.

Social pespondsibiility in Science and Arts

compared with the immediate practical responsibility of the scientist,the responsibility of the artist must seem puny.the decision which faces him is not,i think ,one of practical action:of cuz he will try to throw his weight into the scale,an dthat weight,if he is a writer or even a painter of genius,may have its effect.for the novelist-in our society the only artist who has a mass aduience and at the same time effective economic control of the means of addressing it-the hope of some descive influence is a reasonable one.for him,since he taked of all artists what is probably the lagest portion of his culture as material,there is no more escape from the necessity for treating the content of his work seriously then there is for the social psychologist he is coming so closely to resemble.the dichotomy which people have tried to establish between artistic proficiency and artictic content is becoming unbearable to almost all sensitive minds.i doubt if it has ever been real—we might have admired Shelley as much if he had been indifferent to such things as war and tyranny ,though i doubt it,centainly had he been indifferent we should never have been led by him.
There is no Hippocratic oath in literature,and i am not attempting to draw one up,as far ad i am concerned,the artist is a human being writ large and his ethics are the ethics of any human being.perhaps i can best illustrate what seems to me the new consciousness of those duties of assertion and refusal from one writer,and i do not think it is without significance that this writer projects the whole situation of choice into a scientific parable,the parable of a pesilence,a pestilence many human beings are called to fight against,called not by any supernatural obligation but by the simple fact that the fight against a plague is something like a biological human obligation.Albert Camus seems to me to be the first modern write,though i am certain he will not be the last,to put the problem of respinsibility in specific terms:”i only know”he wrote,”that in this world there ar epetilences and there are victims,and it is up to us not to ally ourselves with pestilences”for the mind and of body,in psychological and bacteriological warefare that statement has a meaning clearer,i think,and more imperative then its suthor untended.but for the scientist as general enemy of pestilences and the artist as general representive of humanity,the basic pestilence which ,by its epidemic spread in our time challenges his alleniance,is the same—it is the pestilence which,through the spread of irrational fears and irrational hatreds,through the appeptance of coercion,through the neglect of what one can only call social and personal sanitation in our attitudes to society,leads us to forget who we are and who our fellow men are:the pestilence which exterminates”gooks”or dissidents,which apologizes for torture and massacre in any shape or form,whether it be called for the moment revolution or collective security,the pestilence of atm bombs and cencentration camps.in the last resort,there is only one ethically satisfactory reply to that pestilence;an unqualified and unargued”No”this “No”does not spring,i think,from any idealistic or metaphysical imperative,but simply from the fact that by saying anything else we should cease to be human beings


Environmental Stress

New technologies often cause new form of pollution and evvirnmental stress.Pollution may be defined as the addition to the envirnmental of agents that are potentially damaging to the walfare of humans or other orgaisms.Envirnmental stress is a more general term that refers to the effects of society on the natural envirnmental.Pollution is the most common form of envirnmental stress but it is not the only one.
one example of environmental stress resulting from technology is the surpising finding that winter fish kills in Wisconsin lakes were caused by snowmobiles.Heavy snowmobile use  on a lake compacts the snow,thereby reducing the amount of sunlight filtering through the ice and interfering with photosynthesis by aquatic plants.as the plant life aies,its decomposition further redyces the emount of oxygen in the water.the fish then die of asphyxiation.
The fish-plant-oxygen realationship is a natural scological system.the snowmobile is a technological innovation with a variety of potential uses.the production,marketing,and use of snowmobiles are elements of a social system.it is this social system that is responsible for the envirnmental stress resulting from snowmobile use .the land available for snowmobiling is increasingly scarce in an urban society like the United States.Forzen lakes neae urban canters thus seem ideal for this pripose,but snowmobiles cause environmental stress in the form of fish kills and there by create the need for new social controls over the uses of this technology.
Often the need for such controls does not become apparent until a great deal of damage has been done.Nor is it ever entirely clear that new social controls or new technologies can solve the problem at hand.For Example,we know how to solve the problem of sulfur emissions from burning coal(which cause the acid rain that destoys forests an dlakes)but these arr cosely and hence are politically controversial.Opinion polls have shown that American think not enough is being done to improve and protect the environment.a large majority believe environmental quality is declining.but when faced with the higher tax bills and energy rates required to pay the costs of cleaning up the environment,they often protest.
Studies of the impact and social control envirnmental quality is declining.but when faced with the higher sociological reasearch.the envirnmental Sociology section of the American Sociological Association routinely publishes research reports that asses the polluting and environmentally stressful impacts of technology.many such studies have shown that the people who bear the haviest harden of pollution are most often those who are lease able to escape its effects.the poor,minorities,and workers and their families in industrial regios are exposed to higher levels of air ,water,and solid-waste pollution than more affluent people.but these studies have also shown that the effects of pollution frequently either are not perceived or are denied by the people who feel them most.for example,a radom sample survey on perceptions of pollution in two highly polluted mining and lumbering towns in central Canda found that “half of the toal nimber of respondents interviewed either did not perceive a pollution problem at all,or alse regarded it as being of every little importance”the study also found that even among those who did perceive the effects of pollution in the air and water and on the landscape,a hugh majority(83-89 percent were “not prepared to do anything about it)
this is not a surprising finding.people whose livelihoods depend on polluting induseries generally learn to tolerate and even ignore the polluting associated with those induetries.in fact,when environmental activists protest against the polluting effects of mines an dsmelters.they often find that their most vocal opponents are those who are meost negatively affected by the pollution.in the pase twenty years,however,there has been a significent change in attitudes,especially on the part of trade union leaders in polluting industries,such leaders are more likely to press for pollution controls then they were in the past.
in sum,although scientific discoveries and technological advances have produces trenmendous improvements in the quality of human life,they have often had negative consquences as well.the risk of cancer caused by the unhalation of asbestos particles,the possibility of large-scale industrial accidents,the ethical issues raised by the use of life-prolonging technologies,and the ever-present danger of nuclear holocaust are as much a part of the modern era as space travel ,miracle drugs,and computers that can operate whole factories.although technology is not”out of control”there is clearly a need for improved procedures for anticpating an dperventing the negative comsequences of new technologies.

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yangfangisok
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发表于 2007-8-14 19:07:22 |只看该作者

thank you very much!

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...,THANK YOU!

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发表于 2008-2-10 09:42:46 |只看该作者
thank you!!!

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发表于 2009-2-19 11:04:02 |只看该作者
谢谢

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发表于 2014-6-25 09:20:58 |只看该作者
非常感谢楼主

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我买了张雷冬编写的教材，一开始是完全不知道就挑了一本，感觉编写的还是可以的，最后一章节有writing topics pool。

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