基本认识
1. What does X mean? (Definition)
2. What are the various features of X? (Description)
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)
对象分析
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis) BE EACW
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)
14. How did X happen? (Narration)
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)
个人观点
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 15:38:07
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-28 19:08 编辑
writing anxiety
考前焦虑主要原因在于对自己没有底气。但文中的方法也值得记忆，保留了一些有用的Tips。
Coping Strategies:
-Follow a protocol you may have for organizing your time.
-Spend a few minutes doing some relaxation exercises.
-physically walk away from the situation for a few minutes.
Relaxation Strategies:
-Stretch!
-Try tensing and releasing various muscle groups.
-Breathe deeply.
-Use a calming word or mental image to focus on while relaxing.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 16:02:16
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-28 19:16 编辑
Writer's Block
这个的确是目前遇到的最大问题，有大致思路，却无从下手。将有用的信息摘录如下：
Symptom：You have chosen or been assigned a topic which bores you....
Possible Cures：
Choose a particular aspect of the topic you are interested in.
Talk to a tutor about how you can personalize a topic to make it more interesting.
Symptom:You're self-conscious about your writing, you may have trouble getting started.
Possible Cures:
-Talk over the subject with a friend or tutor.
-assure yourself that the first draft doesn't have to be a work of genius, it is something to work with.
-Force yourself to write down something, however poorly worded, that approximates your thought (you can revise this later) and go on with the next idea.
-Break the task up into steps. Meet the general purpose first, and then flesh out the more specific aspects later.
-Begin in the MiddleStart
-Talk Out the Paper
-Tape the Paper
-Play a Role作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 16:18:50
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-28 19:10 编辑
Start to write
很好的一篇构建写作思路的文章
Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.
Start the ideas flowing
-Brainstorm.
-Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone
-See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas.
Take a rest and let it all percolate.
Nutshell your whole idea.
Diagram your major points somehow.
Write a first draft.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 17:00:22
Writing With Computers
很细致的一篇关于电脑写作的文章
Planning
freewriting
writing an e-mail message
Encourage the person who receives the e-mail to ask you questions that help you clarify your ideas.
making an outline
Set up headings for an outline in large bold letters.
planning visually
Use a drawing or painting program to do some visual planning. To do some clustering, put a topic word or phrase in a circle in the middle of the page and then surround that circle with clusters of related ideas (also in circles). Use lines to connect these ideas to the main idea or to other sub-ideas. To try branching, another visual planning strategy, put the main idea at the top of the page and then list sub-ideas underneath the main idea with related points for each sub-idea branching off.
Drafting
creating a scrapfile
splitting screens
adding notes
Organizing
mixing up the order of paragraphs or sentences
checking your outline
staying on topic in every paragraph
Revising
Editing and Proofreading作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 19:07:14
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-28 19:16 编辑
Thesis
一、什么是主题句？
A thesis statement declares what you believe and what you intend to prove. A good thesis statement makes the difference between a thoughtful research project and a simple retelling of facts.
The thesis statement is typically located at the end of your opening paragraph.
Remember, your reader will be looking for your thesis. Make it clear, strong, and easy to find.
二、什么是好的主题句的属性？
It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree. A strong thesis is provocative; it takes a stand and justifies the discussion you will present.
It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything about …” Instead of music, think "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about it. （忌假，大，空，要具体针对问题！）
It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. Note: Be flexible. The evidence may lead you to a conclusion you didn't think you'd reach. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
It provides the reader with a map to guide him/her through your work.
It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments
It avoids vague language (like "it seems").
It avoids the first person. ("I believe," "In my opinion") （强烈注意，不要使用第一人称！）
It should pass the So what? or Who cares? test (Would your most honest friend ask why he should care or respond with "but everyone knows that"?) For instance, "people should avoid driving under the influence of alcohol," would be unlikely to evoke any opposition. Tell me something new about something I care about.
Specific topic + Attitude/Angle/Argument = Thesis
What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis
三、如何检验自己写好的主题句是否合格？
Does the thesis inspire a reasonable reader to ask, "How?" or “Why?”
Would a reasonable reader NOT respond with "Duh!" or "So what?" or "Gee, no kidding!" or "Who cares?"
Does the thesis avoid general phrasing and/or sweeping words such as "all" or "none" or "every"?
Does the thesis lead the reader toward the topic sentences (the subtopics needed to prove the thesis)?
Can the thesis be adequately developed in the required length of the paper or project?
下面是一些好的主题句的例子：
E-coli contamination should not happen. 忍不住想问为什么
The causes of the Civil War were economic, social, and political. 简明、概括、知道全文要写什么
The Simpsons represents the greatest animated show in the history of television. 很想让人往下听故事
The Simpsons treats the issues of ethnicity, family dynamics, and social issues effectively. 简明、概括、知道全文要写什么
Often dismissed because it is animated, The Simpsons treats the issue of ethnicity more powerfully than did the critically praised All In The Family.
Although many parents of teens struggling with body image may blame television models and other such stars, these body issues and their disorders stem back to their daughters' younger days of pigtails and Barbies. 详细具体
Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s. 详细具体，40，50年代的恐怖电影作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 19:19:12
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-28 19:40 编辑
四、如何写出好的主题句
１．Rank with justification 按照合适的理由排序
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
2.Contrasts 考虑大众和反对的观点
Although newspapers at the time claimed ……, the most significant cause/explanation/reason, etc. is ……
While Sb. and Sb. maintains that ................, more accurately/importantly, etc, # 2's position is the stronger one.
3.Perception versus reality
Although Turner himself may have believed X, the real causes were Y and Z.
4.Good versus bad reasons
Historians generally list six reasons as the cause for X, but among these are four that are valid and two that are not.
５.Cause and Effect
Certainly, X was the cause and Y was its effect, but between the two are two other factors of equal importance.
Separately the causes would have not necessarily led to a rampage; however, together their effect was inevitably murderous.
Although the effects of the rampage were . . ., the causes were understandable/justifiable/inevitable.
The more important effects of Nat Turner's rebellion went beyond those of the local rampage.
６．Challenge 质疑、否定
Nat Turner's rebellion not a righteous response to the injustice of slavery; it was motivated purely by disturbing psychological issues.
７．提出系列问题
What should the audience/reader do/feel/believe?
Who are the major players on both/each side and how did they contribute to?
Which are the most important?
What was the impact of?
Can I compare? How is X like or unlike Y?
What if? Can I predict?
How could we solve/improve/design/deal with?
Is there a better solution to?
How can you defend?
What changes would you recommend to?
Was it effective, justified, defensible, warranted?
Why did this happen? Why did it succeed? Why did it fail?
What should be? What are/would be the possible outcomes of?
What are the problems related to?
What were the motives behind?
Why are the opponents protesting?
What is my personal response to?
What case can I make for?
What is the significance of?
Where will the next move(s) occur?
How is this debate likely to affect?
What is the value or, what is/are the potential benefit(s) of?
What are three/four/five reasons for us to believe?作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-28 21:57:47
Interesting contrasts or comparisons or patterns emerging in the information
Is there something about the topic that surprises you?
Do you encounter ideas that make you wonder why?
Does something an "expert" says make you respond, "no way! That can be right!" or "Yes, absolutely. I agree!"
Example of brainstorming a thesis:
Select a topic: television violence and children
Ask an interesting question: What are the effects of television violence on children?
Revise the question into a thesis: Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in preschool children. 学龄前儿童，主题很具体
Remember this argument is your “preliminary” or “working” thesis. As you read you may discover evidence that may affect your stance. It is okay to revise your thesis!
Create a list of sample questions to guide your research:
How many hours of television does the average young child watch per week?
How do we identify a "violent" program? 定义暴力节目
Which types of programs are most violent? 什么类型的节目最暴力，定义与主题的联系
Are there scientific research studies that have observed children before and after watching violent programs? 论据，现有科学
Are there experts you might contact? 论据，专家的观点
Which major groups are involved in investigating this question? 利益群体
六、How to Tell a Strong Thesis Sentence from a Weak One.
1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand. 立场明确
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase “negative and positive aspects” is vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and “however.”
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, “world hunger” can’t be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages.Second, "many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects.
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.
其他例子：
I would like to become a chef when I finish school
Although both chefs and cooks can prepare fine meals, chefs differ from cooks in education, professional commitment, and artistry. 主题有层次，有对比，有详细原因
________________________________________
I enjoy white water rafting.
A first water rafting experience can challenge the body and spirit and transform an adolescent into an adult 讨论对象具体，讨论内容具体
________________________________________
Men are chauvinists.
Our American family structure encourages men to repress their true feelings, leaving them open to physical, psychological, and relationship difficulties.讨论大男子主义的主要原因（家庭结构），及其在具体三方面对男人的影响
________________________________________
Steroid abuse
Steroids, even those legally available, are addictive and should be banned from sports. 与立法不同，新颖，立场明确
________________________________________
Hip hop is the best thing that has happened to music in twenty years
Though many people dismiss hip hop as offensive, hip hop music offers urban youth an important opportunity for artistic expression, and allows them to articulate the poetry of the street.
________________________________________
Many people object to today's violent horror movies.
Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-29 11:11:34
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-29 11:16 编辑
Topic Sentences and Signposting
Topic sentences and signposts make an essay's claims clear to a reader. Good essays contain both. Topic sentences reveal the main point of a paragraph. They show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay's thesis, telegraph the point of a paragraph, and tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows. Topic sentences also establish their relevance right away, making clear why the points they're making are important to the essay's main ideas. They argue rather than report. Signposts, as their name suggests, prepare the reader for a change in the argument's direction. They show how far the essay's argument has progressed vis-ˆ-vis the claims of the thesis.
Topic sentences and signposts occupy a middle ground in the writing process. They are neither the first thing a writer needs to address (thesis and the broad strokes of an essay's structure are); nor are they the last (that's when you attend to sentence-level editing and polishing). Topic sentences and signposts deliver an essay's structure and meaning to a reader, so they are useful diagnostic tools to the writer—they let you know if your thesis is arguable—and essential guides to the reader.
Forms of Topic Sentences
Sometimes topic sentences are actually two or even three sentences long. If the first makes a claim, the second might reflect on that claim, explaining it further. Think of these sentences as asking and answering two critical questions: How does the phenomenon you're discussing operate? Why does it operate as it does?
１．Complex sentences. Topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph frequently combine with a transition from the previous paragraph. This might be done by writing a sentence that contains both subordinate and independent clauses, as in the example below.利用复合句，联系上下文的作用
Although Young Woman with a Water Pitcher depicts an unknown, middle-class woman at an ordinary task, the image is more than "realistic"; the painter [Vermeer] has imposed his own order upon it to strengthen it.
This sentence employs a useful principle of transitions: always move from old to new information. The subordinate clause (from "although" to "task") recaps information from previous paragraphs; the independent clauses (starting with "the image" and "the painter") introduce the new information—a claim about how the image works ("more than realistic'") and why it works as it does (Vermeer "strengthens" the image by "imposing order").
２．Questions. 提问 Questions, sometimes in pairs, also make good topic sentences (and signposts). Consider the following: "Does the promise of stability justify this unchanging hierarchy?" We may fairly assume that the paragraph or section that follows will answer the question. Questions are by definition a form of inquiry, and thus demand an answer. Good essays strive for this forward momentum.
３．Bridge sentences. 过渡句 Like questions, "bridge sentences" (the term is John Trimble's) make an excellent substitute for more formal topic sentences. Bridge sentences indicate both what came before and what comes next (they "bridge" paragraphs) without the formal trappings of multiple clauses: "But there is a clue to this puzzle."
４．Pivots. 轴、核心 Topic sentences don't always appear at the beginning of a paragraph. When they come in the middle, they indicate that the paragraph will change direction, or "pivot." This strategy is particularly useful for dealing with counter-evidence: a paragraph starts out conceding a point or stating a fact ("Psychologist Sharon Hymer uses the term Ônarcissistic friendship' to describe the early stage of a friendship like the one between Celie and Shug"); after following up on this initial statement with evidence, it then reverses direction and establishes a claim ("Yet ... this narcissistic stage of Celie and Shug's relationship is merely a transitory one. Hymer herself concedes . . . "). The pivot always needs a signal, a word like "but," "yet," or "however," or a longer phrase or sentence that indicates an about-face. It often needs more than one sentence to make its point.
Signposts 路标，意群主题句
Signposts operate as topic sentences for whole sections in an essay. (In longer essays, sections often contain more than a single paragraph.) They inform a reader that the essay is taking a turn in its argument: delving into a related topic such as a counter-argument, stepping up its claims with a complication, or pausing to give essential historical or scholarly background. Because they reveal the architecture of the essay itself, signposts remind readers of what the essay's stakes are: what it's about, and why it's being written.
Signposting can be accomplished in a sentence or two at the beginning of a paragraph or in whole paragraphs that serve as transitions between one part of the argument and the next. The following example comes from an essay examining how a painting by Monet, The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train, challenges Zola's declarations about Impressionist art. The student writer wonders whether Monet's Impressionism is really as devoted to avoiding "ideas" in favor of direct sense impressions as Zola's claims would seem to suggest. This is the start of the essay's third section:
It is evident in this painting that Monet found his Gare Saint-Lazare motif fascinating at the most fundamental level of the play of light as well as the loftiest level of social relevance. Arrival of a Train explores both extremes of expression. At the fundamental extreme, Monet satisfies the Impressionist objective of capturing the full-spectrum effects of light on a scene.
The writer signposts this section in the first sentence, reminding readers of the stakes of the essay itself with the simultaneous references to sense impression ("play of light") and intellectual content ("social relevance"). The second sentence follows up on this idea, while the third serves as a topic sentence for the paragraph. The paragraph after that starts off with a topic sentence about the "cultural message" of the painting, something that the signposting sentence predicts by not only reminding readers of the essay's stakes but also, and quite clearly, indicating what the section itself will contain.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-29 11:22:10
In this pattern, items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, and description.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern or organization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention to what is in the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include
general-to-specific order,
specific-to-general order,
most familiar-to-least familiar,
simplest-to-most complex, 复杂性
order of frequency, 频率
order of familiarity, and so on. 熟悉性
对应连接词
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally,偶尔 frequently, 频繁 regularly 经常地、有规律地
支持论据２
If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning
Your outline might look like this:
Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion
You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation, you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
Introduction
Is All Science Legitimate?
Yes
Maybe not
Can We Trust The Scientists?
Yes
Not always
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Risks?
Yes
Maybe not
Conclusion
Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.
Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper (just like leading someone down a winding path creates more confusion than leading the same person down a short city block with sights to see on all sides). How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings? You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them. Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail. This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper. See the outlines above for examples of useful ways to do this.
支持论据３
After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order, which is ascending from least to most important. You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.
支持论据４ Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.
反例1
DECREASING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: when you want to tell your readers that something new has happened and why they should be interested -- then fill them in on the details
INCREASING COMPLEXITY: a sequence that leads your readers gently into a complex subject
STEPS OF A PROCESS: when you want to focus on a process itself, not the end result
A SPATIAL SEQUENCE: when you want your reader to see the way different aspects of your subject are spatially interrelated or lie in contrast
A TEMPORAL SEQUENCE: for emphasizing the time relations among things or events
反例２ Wtite sentences in a logical order
General to specific
Known to unknown
Temporal movement
Spatial movement
Concept to examples
Problem to solution
Data to conclusions
反例３
Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors
Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors
A businesslike, courteous, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
The writing style flows smoothly
The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
反例４
you have for each in a logical order and one that most effectively organizes your argument:
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect
反例5
A possible outline template for an analytical paper
This is for an essay that happens to have three main answers, again listed in ascending order as in our argumentative paper template. How you order them will entirely depend on which ones you feel, given all the evidence, are the most or least convincing. If we take our research question example from before, perhaps the first answer would be from researchers who believe music has no effect on studying, the second about studies that show how detrimental it is, and the third one pointing out the positive aspects. In your conclusion, you might point out how certain conditions (e.g., absence of lyrics, tempo, volume, type of studying student is engaged in etc.) appear to be incredibly important.
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
• What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
• Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")
•
• (You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
• Answer #3 = _________________________
• one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
• strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
• another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
• best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
• why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
• sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
• critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
• look at the implications
Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding.
"What?" ：What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? It shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
"How?" ：How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material?
"Why?" ：Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? Although you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end.
2 Mapping an Essay
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material.
* State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. “why”
* Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. "what"
* Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ." Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.
避免写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition").作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-29 22:35:39
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-29 22:43 编辑
段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念
1 段落的作用
An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.段落基本的三要素：一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关、一个合理的逻辑顺序、没有无关细节
The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.
2段落的长短问题
An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、 段落的组成结构
1 The topic sentence
有两个作用：是本段话题的Thesis；是全文Thesis的进一步推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在段落开头的第一或者第二句话。
2 Supporting evidence/analysis
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证TS. 在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡
3 The conclusion(observation)
在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
段落组成实例
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before. Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors. Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
三、段落组成的内容
内容基本原则
Orient your reader to the subject.
Tie your ideas together.
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
You need to give your readers signposts frequently along the way.
1 USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES of course ，as you know ，until now ，obviously ，normally ，previously ，everyone is familiar with ，remember that
2 LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
3 ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need .
1 利用逻辑连接词连接段落
You'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. A paragraph should form a single logical unit.
1) Connective words that describe relationships Also, however, although, incidentally顺便提一下, therefore, besides, likewise同样地, thus, meanwhile, moreover, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly 因此, nevertheless然而 2) Connectives that give a sense of time
First, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes
3) Other Connective phrases To begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, more specifically更具体地说, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a, that’s what/why, in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so/not
2利用重复
TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.
1) pronominal adjectives
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her
2) 人称和其他代词指代
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
3) Simple repetition. Carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next. 核心词重复
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
３利用强调词 INTENSIVES
1)The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
2)useful intensives Especially, as much as, even if/though, increasingly, by far, so…that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case
Misusing or overusing intensives can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-30 09:29:04
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-30 09:36 编辑
Exercise
Global Airlines carried three-million passengers last year, and this number has increased by 200% compared with two years ago. This tremendous growth is due to many reasons. To begin with, the Global Airlines expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada. In the next place, they chose to use the new DC-12 aircraft which proved more fuel-efficient than the older 737's. Moreover, older, unprofitable routes were dropped. Once more, on-time flights and automatic ticketing were used, which won more favorite from passengers than the old traditional ones. Lastly, the most important reason is their record has been accident-free since 1950.For above reasons, Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year, and profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.
1 如何使用论据论证？
1) Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
2) Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
3) Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
4) Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
2 In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
2 Weak Use of Evidence
1) Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want. The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
Stronger Use of Evidence
2) Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．前者显得零散、跳跃性大，后者逻辑紧凑，为一逻辑整体
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper. Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.
3 Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-30 14:08:28
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-30 14:17 编辑
Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
1 A conclusion should
stress the importance of the thesis statement, 强化主题
give the essay a sense of completeness, and 完善全文
leave a final impression on the reader. 给读者一个深刻的印象
2 Suggestions
1）Answer the question "So What?" 强调文章的重要性
2）Synthesize, don't summarize
Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
3）Redirect your readers
Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study.
4）Create a new meaning
By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture.
5）Point to broader implications.
For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.
3 Strategies
1) Echoing the introduction 呼应开头 Your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding. Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventure land. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults. Conclusion I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分
2) Challenging the reader 挑战读者的思维
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens. 3) Looking to the future
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers. 4) Posing questions
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap? 4 Strategies to Avoid
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing."
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes. 没有实质变化
Making sentimental, emotional appeals.
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
5 Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1）The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. 重复书写式
This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
2）The "Sherlock Holmes" Conclusion. 谜底最后揭开式
Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.
3） The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion.情感非分析式
A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
4） The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. 添加主题没有的细节式
Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-30 17:29:44
1. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers 删除无用的限定词和修饰词
Any particular type of dessert is fine with me.
Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without some kind of extra help. For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any given technological aspect. American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than on technological factors.
The following words can often be pruned away kind of, sort of, type of, really, basically, for all intents and purposes, definitely, actually, generally, individual, specific, particular
2. Change phrases into single words
The employee with ambition The ambitious employee
The department showing the best performance The best-performing department
Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing. At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install microfilm equipment in the data processing department.
As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything else is to try to see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than verbs. As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases.
3. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases
The report, which was released recently The recently released report
All applicants who are interested in the job must All job applicants must
The system that is most efficient and accurate The most efficient and accurate system
4. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences
Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills. The governor signs or vetoes bill. There are four rules that should be observed. Four rules should be observed There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street. A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street.
5. Use active rather than passive verbs 被动态动词
An account was opened by Mrs. Simms. Mrs. Simms opened an account.
Your figures were checked by the research department. The research department checked your figures.
6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs 动词的名词式
The function of this department is the collection of accounts. This department collects accounts.
The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention. The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention.
7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases 不必要的不定式
The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it. A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.
A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customers to become dissatisfied with service. A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customer dissatisfaction.
8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions
At this/that point in time Now/then
In accordance with your request As you requested
Here are some other common circumlocutions that can be compressed into just one word:
the reason for
for the reason that
owing/due to the fact that
in light of the fact that = because, since, why
considering the fact that
on the grounds that
this is why
on the occasion of
in a situation in which
under circumstances in which =when
as regards
in reference to
with regard to
concerning the matter of
where __ is concerned =about
it is crucial that
it is necessary that
there is a need/necessity for
it is important that
cannot be avoided =must, should
is able to
has the opportunity to
has the capacity for
has the ability to =can
it is possible that
there is a chance that
it could happen that
the possibility exists for =may, might, could
It is possible that nothing will come of these preparations. Nothing may come of these preparations.
She has the ability to influence the outcome. She can influence the outcome. It is necessary that we take a stand on this pressing issue. We must take a stand on this pressing issue.
9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail
I received your inquiry yesterday. Yes, we do have. Yes, we do have
It goes without saying that we are acquainted with your policy on filing tax returns, and we have every intention of complying with the regulations that you have mentioned. We intend to comply with the tax-return regulations that you have mentioned.
Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess. Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.
Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms of total attendance at ball parks and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play on the field that alternates between times when players passively wait with no action taking place between the pitches to the batter and then times when they explode into action as the batter hits a pitched ball to one of the players and the player fields it. Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action.
10. Omit repetitive wording
I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the administrator's dislike of long sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other items drafted for her signature or approval, as well as in all correspondence, reports, and studies. Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short. Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters, reports, and studies short. Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos drafted for her approval recently have been wordy and thus time-consuming.
The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury. The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury.
Our branch office currently employs five tellers. These tellers do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with the rush on Friday and Saturday. Our branch office currently employs five tellers, who do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with Friday and Saturday rush periods.
Redundant Pairs past memories, various differences, each individual, basic fundamentals,true facts, important essentials, future plans, terrible tragedy, end result, final outcome, free gift, past history, unexpected surprise, sudden crisis
Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various differences among all of the many very unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her future plans. Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences among the unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her plans.
Redundant Categories large in size, often times, of a bright color, heavy in weight, period in time, round in shape, at an early time, economics field, of cheap quality,
honest in character, of an uncertain condition, in a confused state, unusual in nature, extreme in degree, of a strange type
During that time period, many car buyers preferred cars that were pink in color and shiny in appearance. During that period, many car buyers preferred pink, shiny cars.
The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar in nature. The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-31 14:32:48
Compound Sentence Commas
1）Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2）Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it.
3）If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:
She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.
Comma Splices
1）Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.
2）See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.
3）If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
• reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause 将一个句子变为从句
• add a coordinating conjunction after the comma 逗号后添加并列连词
• replace the comma with a semicolon 逗号变分号
• replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause 将逗号变为句号、问 号、感叹号，大些第二个从句的首字母
comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.
Introductory Commas
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
1） Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2） Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc.
3） If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:
While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.
Other introductory commas
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase ends in -ing ,is an infinitive (to + verb), is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)
3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples:
To get a good grade, you must turn in all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.
4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase 以介词短语开头(a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:
On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.
Disruptive Commas
General guidelines
1) Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.
2) If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs
1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.
disruptive comma: That man sitting in the train station, is the person I'm supposed to meet.
correct: That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm supposed to meet.
Series Commas
1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.
2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause). Examples:
People who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat, and tropical oils.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
Commas with Nonessential Elements
1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it.
2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential.
Students who cheat only harm themselves. 必要的
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself. 不必要的作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-31 16:53:14
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-31 16:59 编辑
Proofreading
General Strategies
•Take a break! It will help you get some distance from what you have written.
•Leave yourself enough time. Always read through your writing slowly.
•Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
•Role-play. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
•Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
You should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:
•Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
•Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
•Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
Finding Common Errors
Spelling
•Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!
•Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under each line of text helps you to see each word.
•If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
•Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.
•Left-out and doubled words Reading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
Fragment Sentences
•Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at the OWL website.
•Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills.
•See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.
Run-on Sentences
•Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
•If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation. 标点是否合适
•Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Comma Splices
•Look at the sentences that have commas.
•Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
•If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
•Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball, because it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Subject/Verb Agreement
•Find the subject of each sentence.
•Find the verb that goes with the subject.
•The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.
Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.
Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.
Mixed construction Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.
Parallelism Look through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
•Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun. 代词
•Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
•If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
•If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
Apostrophes 撇号
•Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.
•Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
•Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."
Suggestions for Proofreading Your Paper
Two Principles
•Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
•In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Diagnosis 诊断
1. Underline the first few words of every sentence in a paragraph, ignoring short introductory phrases such as "In the beginning," or "For the most part."
2. If you can, underline the first few words of every clause.
Analysis
1. Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?
2. Will your reader see these connections among the topics?
3. Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.
4. Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be the topics of most of the sentences.
Revision
1. In most sentences, make the topics the subject of verbs.
2. Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.
Sample Passage
Topics are crucial for readers because readers depend on topics to focus their attention on particular ideas toward the beginning of sentences. Topics tell readers what a whole passage is "about." If readers feel that a sequence of topics is coherent, then they will feel they are moving through a paragraph from a cumulatively coherent point of view. But if throughout the paragraph readers feel that its topics shift randomly, then they have to begin each sentence out of context, from no coherent point of view. When that happens, readers feel dislocated, disoriented, and out of focus.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You Revise
Sentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"
1. Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence "coheres" with the one before and after it.
2. Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are unified with each other.
Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
Paragraphs
Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?
You can use your responses to revise your papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, by adding needed information, by eliminating irrelevant information, and by clarifying sections or sentences. 1）Find your main point. Try to summarize your thesis.
2）Identify your readers and your purpose. What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
3）Evaluate your evidence. Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
4）Save only the good pieces. Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
5）Tighten and clean up your language.
6）Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.
7）Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered. 角色转换Try to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved?作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-31 17:19:03
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2009-12-31 17:27 编辑
Using Metaphors in Creative Writing
Creative ways to use metaphors
1)as verbs The news that ignited his face snuffed out her smile. 熄灭、扼杀
2)as adjectives and adverbs Her carnivorous pencil carved up Susan's devotion. 肉食性的
3)as prepositional phrases The doctor inspected the rash with a vulture's eye. 秃鹰般的眼睛
4)as appositives or modifiers 同位语 On the sidewalk was yesterday's paper, an ink-stained sponge. 海绵 作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2009-12-31 17:30:28
一般来说，不可数名词用动词单数，可数名词复数用动词复数。
There is much water in the thermos.
但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时，谓语动词用复数形式。
Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year.
1、 并列结构作主语时谓语用复数
Reading and writing are very important.
注意： 当主语由and连结时，如果它表示一个单一的概念，即指同一人或同一物时，谓语动词用单数，and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。
The iron and steel industry is very important to our life.
2、 主谓一致中的就近原则
1）当there be 句型的主语是一系列事物时，谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。
There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk..
There are twenty boy-students and twenty-three girl-students in the class.
2）当either… or… 与neither… nor，连接两个主语时，谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。
Either you or she is to go.
如果句子是由here, there引导，而主语又不止一个时，谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。
Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you.
3、 谓语动词与前面的主语一致
当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时，谓语动词与前面的主语一致。
The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory.
He as well as I wants to go boating.
4 、谓语需用单数
1） 代词each和由every, some, no, any等构成的复合代词作主语，或主语中含有each, every, 谓语需用单数。
Each of us has a tape-recorder.
There is something wrong with my watch.
2） 当主语是一本书或一条格言时，谓语动词常用单数。
The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English.
3） 表示金钱，时间，价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语时，通常把这些名词看作一个整体，谓语一般用单数。(用复数也可，意思不变。)
Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations.
Ten dollar is enough.
5、 指代意义决定谓语的单复数
1） 在代词what, which, who, none, some, any, more, most, all等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定。
All is right. (一切顺利。)
All are present.(所有人都到齐了。)
2） 集体名词作主语时，谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定。如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee等词后用复数形式时，意为这个集体中的各个成员，用单数时表示该个集体。
His family isn't very large. 他家不是一个大家庭。
His family are music lovers. 他的家人都是音乐爱好者。
但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry（家禽）等在任何情况下都用复数形式。
Are there any police around?
3）有些名词，如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数，有时看作复数。
A number of +名词复数+复数动词。
The number of +名词复数+单数动词。
A number of books have lent out.
The majority of the students likes English.
6 、与后接名词或代词保持一致
1） 用half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等词引起主语时，动词通常与of后面的名词，代词保持一致。
Most of his money is spent on books.
Most of the students are taking an active part in sports.
2） 在一些短语，如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时，谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时，动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。
Many a person has read the novel. 许多人都读过这本书。
More than 60 percent of the students are from the city.百分之六十多的学生都来自这个城市。
1. 倒装句 ①Between the two buildings are a big tree. (×）
②Between the two buildings is a big tree. (√)
倒装句的常见结构：副词/介词短语+谓语+主语
2. 主语之后带有介词短语 ①The fruit like apples, oranges are good for our health. (×）
②The fruit like apples, oranges is good for our health. (√)
类似的结构有：主语+with / like / except / but / together with / as well as . . . ，谓语动词
3. One of . . . + 名词复数或复数代词
①There are twenty boys in our class. One of the boys are from Canada. (×）
②There are twenty boys in our class. One of the boys is from Canada. (√)
4. 定语从句
①I like the photos which was taken in Beijing. (×）
②I like the photos which were taken in Beijing. (√)
误区二 被主语的表象迷惑
1. 看似复数却表单数概念
①Maths are my favorite subject. (×）
②Maths is my favorite subject. (√)
类似的有：physics，news，politics . . .
2. 看似单数却表复数概念 ①The police is searching for the robbers. (×）
②The police are searching for the robbers. (√)
类似的词有：people，the +形容词，the +姓+family等均表复数概念。
3. 名词的单复数同形
①There are a little sheep eating grass on the hill. Can you see it？ (×）
②There is a little sheep eating grass on the hill. Can you see it？ (√) 单复数形式相同的词sheep, fish, Chinese, Japanese等，要根据句子的含义和结构暗示来判断其单复数。
4. 集合名词
①Their family is very happy. Now their family is watching TV. (×）
②Their family is very happy. Now their family are watching TV. (√)
family, group，class，team等既可表单数也可表复数。
误区三 误用语言规则
1. 表示时间、距离、金钱、重量、数量等名词作主语 ①Ten years are quite a long time. (×）
②Ten years is quite a long time. (√)
2. 由and连接的并列主语
①The twentieth lesson and last lesson are very easy for students. (×）
②The twentieth lesson and last lesson is very easy for students. (√)
the twentieth lesson and last lesson是表示同一概念，译为“第20课即最后一课”; “第20课和最后一课” 为“the twentieth lesson and the last lesson”。 由and连接的并列主语表示同一概念时，谓语动词用单数，表示不同的概念时谓语动词用复数。
3. 就近原则 ①Neither you nor he have been to Beijing. (×）
②Neither you nor he has been to Beijing. (√)
类似的还有either . . . Or，not only . . . But also，not . . . But，以及there be之后的并列主语，谓语动词的确定都根据“就近原则”。
4. This kind of，a piece of，this pair of等短语作主语
①This pair of trousers are very new, but Tom’s trousers are very old. (×）
②This pair of trousers is very new, but Tom’s trousers are very old. (√)
特别提醒 this kind of，a piece of，a bag of，a box of等，这类短语作主语时谓语动词的单复数由这些短语中的名词决定，而与它们所修饰的名词无关。
5. The rest of, half of等短语作主语
①Half of the students have finished most of the work. The rest of it are very difficult. (×）
②Half of the students have finished most of the work. The rest of it is very difficult. (√)
特别提醒 all of，most of，half of，the rest of，以及a lot of，some，any+名词作主语时，要根据后面的名词确定谓语动词的单复数。
6. 一句话提示
①合成不定代词(如something，anybody等)作主语，谓语动词用单数；
②动名词、不定式、从句作主语时，谓语动词用单数；
③a number of +名词(复)作主语，谓语用复数，the number of +名词(复)作主语，谓语用单数；
④none of . . . 作主语时，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数。
======================
附加题
======================
1. Three years ____has___ (have) passed since we met last time, and three years ____is___ (be) a long time.
2. ____Is___ (be) everybody going to take part in the game?
3. Both men and women ____have___ (have) complained about the advertisement.
4. The family ____were___ (be) watching TV when I came into the room.
5. But not all the information ___is____ (is) good to society.
6. One evening she told me that something happened when her parents ____were___ (be) out.
7. There ___is____ (is) a table, several chairs in the old house.
8. The great writer and professor ___is____ (is) going to our school next week.
9. The scientist and the engineer ____have___ (have) invented a new machine.
10. Alice, together with her friends, ____was___ (be) punished for having broken the school rules.
11. Every girl and every boy ____has___ (have) the right to join the club. 两个并列的名词由each，every， no等修饰时，谓语动词一般用单数
12. --- ____Is___ (be) either she or you to go and attend the meeting?
--- Neither she nor I ____am____（be）.
13. --- Is there anybody in the classroom?
--- No, the teacher as well as the students ___has____ (have) gone to the playground.
14. None of the money ____is___ (be) his.
15. A knife and fork ____is___ (be) on the table. A pen and a pencil ____are___ (be) on the desk.
1. E-mail, as well as telephones, ___A___ an important part in daily communication.
A. is playing B. have played C. are playing D. play
2. Not only I but also Jane and Mary ___B____ tired of having one examination after another.
A. is B. are C. am D. be
3. Either you or the headmaster ___D____ the prizes to these students at the meeting.
A. is handing out B. are to hand out C. are handing out D. is to hand out
4. A library with five thousand books ____A___ to the nation as a gift.
A. is offered. has offered C. are offered D. have offered
5. All the employees except the manager ____D___ to work online at home.
A. encourages B. encourage C. is encouraged D. are encouraged作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-1 23:18:28
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2010-1-1 23:30 编辑
情态动词
would rather,would sooner, had rather, had sooner都表示"宁愿"、"宁可"的意思。
If I have a choice, I had sooner not continue my studies at this school.
I would rather stay here than go home. = I would stay here rather than go home.
can 语气过于绝对, 最好换成may/ will, 或者是语气更委婉的might/would probably等，同时还要搭配一定程度的副词，如：Indulgence in computer games can lead to social violence especially of teenagers. might
should多表示根据社会风俗习惯个人的责任，而在比较正式的议论文写作中，多数句子是以客观事物做主语的， 所以用should就有些不太恰当，如：To tackle the problem of youth crimes related with computer games, advertisement enterprises should restrict the large-scale promotion. be to do或者是shall代替,shall表示的是一种情态
must语气实在强硬，一般在社会性的问题的论述上我们要慎用，建议多换成need/ shall/ be to do 或者是be expected to do形式。如：To help students get better employment, universities must increase the skillful courses.
冠词
1.定冠词的用法
1）用于上文已提到过的人或事物。He has a new pen. The pen was bought in America.
2）特指谈话时双方都熟悉的某（些）人或某（些）事物。
The angry man on the screen is David. Is the city of Nanjing beautiful?
3）用在世界上独一无二的事物前。
The moon is our satellite. The world is changing always.
4）用在序数词、形容词的最高级及only修饰的名词前。
The first lesson is as difficult as the last one. This moon cake is the nicest of all. She is the only person who was late today.
5）用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前。
the Summer Palace 颐和园 the Communist Party of China 中国共产党 the People’s Republic of China 中华人民共和国 the Great Wall 长城 the Olympic Games 奥林匹克运动会
6）用在江河、湖泊、海洋、山脉、群岛等的名称前。
the Yellow River 黄河the Black sea 黑海 the West Lake 西湖 the Himalayas 喜马拉雅山 the Tianshan Mountains 天山山脉 the Indian Ocean印度洋
7）用在姓氏复数前，表示“某某一家人”或“某某夫妇”。
the Greens 格林一家人 the Wangs 王家 the Kings 肯一家人 the Lis李家
“the+姓氏复数”作主语，谓语动词用复数。
The Greens are watching TV at the moment. 格林一家人现在正在看电视。
8）the后加某些形容词，表示一类人或事物。
the old 老人 the young 年轻人the rich 富人
the poor 穷人 the clever 聪明人 the blind 盲人
9）用在乐器前面。
the piano 钢琴 the violin 小提琴
10）用在“the＋形容词比较级＋the＋形容词比较级”结构中，表示“越来……越……”。
The more exercise you take, the healthier you will be.
11)当名词被一短语或从句所修饰时，该名词前用冠词。例如：
The man under the tree is my grandfather. The girl in white is Mary.
12)用在表示方向的名词前。
in the east 在东方 in the west 在西部
in the northeast of China 在中国的东北部 in the south 在南方
13)用在单数可数名词前表示一类人或物。
The tree is a kind of plant. The camel is a useful animal. The computer is an interesting tool.
14)the常用于一些固定搭配中。
in the early morning 一大清早 in the front of 在……（内部）的前面
the day before yesterday 前天 on the right(left)在右（左）边
2.零冠词的用法
1）在专有名词和不可数名词前。例如，Class Two，Tian‘an Men Square，water
2）可数名词前已有作定语的物主代词（my，your，his，her等）、指示代词（this/these，that/those）、不定代词（some，any等）及所有格限制时。例如my book(正)；my the book(误)
3）复数名词表示一类人或事物时。例如，They are teachers.
4）在星期，月份，季节，节日前。例如：on Sunday，in March，in spring，on Women’s Day(特例：如果月份，季节等被一个限定性定语修饰时，则要加定冠词：He joined the Army in the spring of 1982.)
5）在称呼语或表示头衔的名词前。例如：Tom，Mum
6）在学科名称，三餐饭和球类运动名称前。例如：I have lunch at school every day.
特例：当football，basketball指具体的某个球时，其前可以用冠词：I can see a football. Where’s the football？那只足球在哪儿？
7）在表特定的公园，街道，车站，桥，学校等之前。例如：No.25 Middle School
8）某些固定词组中不用冠词。
(1)与by连用的交通工具名称前：by bus\by car\ by bike\ by train\by air\by plane\ by sea\by ship，但take a bus，in a boat，on the bike前需用冠词
(2)名词词组：day and night日日夜夜；brother and sister兄弟姐妹;hour after hour时时刻刻；here and there到处
(3)介词词组：in surprise；on foot；on duty；at work；on time；in class；on show；in bed等
(4)go 短语：go home；go to bed；go to school ；go to work；go shopping/swimming/boating/fishing
3.用与不用冠词的差异
in hospital住院/in the hospital在医院里
go to sea出海/go to the sea去海边
on earth究竟/on the earth在地球上，在世上
in front of在……(外部的)前面/in the front of在……(内部的)前面
take place发生/take the place(of)代替
at table进餐/at the table在桌子旁
by sea乘船/by the sea在海边
in future从今以后，将来/in the future未来
go to school(church…)上学(做礼拜…)/go to the school(church…)到学校(教堂…)去
on horseback骑着马/on the horseback在马背上
two of us我们当中的两人/the two of us我们两人(共计两人)
out of question毫无疑问/out of the question不可能的，办不到的
next year明年/the next year 第二年
a teacher and writer一位教师兼作家(一个人)/a teacher and a writer一位教师和一位作家(两个人)
冠词练习题
10．He used to be _______ teacher but later he turned _______ writer． D
A．a；a B．a；the C．／；a D．a；／ 第二个空用“零冠词”是因为 turn 后面的名词前一般都不加冠词。
11．They made him _______ king． D
A．a B．the C．an D．／ 表示某人的职位时可用"零冠词"。
2.数词的用法
1)表示编号。基数词用在名词之后，序数词位于名词之前，并加定冠词。如：Lesson Nine；the Ninth Lesson
2)在hundred，thousand，million，billion前有数词时为实数意义，它们的词尾不能加复数。前无数词时为虚数意义，hundred，thousand，million，billion可加复数，并可和of连用，构成短语。如：five hundred students；millions of people
3.分数的构成
分子用基数词，分母用序数词，分子大于1时，分母加s，如：
1/5：one fifth 2/3：two thirds 2-：two and three quarters
4.数词中的主谓一致
1)如果主语是many a，more than one+单数名词构成，尽管从意义上看是复数，但谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：Many a student in this class has hoped a long break.
2)a+单数名词+or two做主语，谓语动词用单数形式。one or two+复数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。如：A word or two is missed in the sentence. One or two words are missed in the sentence.
数词练习题
1.Could you tell us how to read the number 18,306,211? B
B.eighteen million, three hundred and six thousand, two hundred and eleven
2.Shakespeare was born in ______。D
A.1660s B.1660’s C.the 1660s D.the 1660’s in the 1980’s，表示从1980—1989这期间的10年；in 1980表示在1980年，一年的时间
3.Bill said they were going to have _____ holiday。 B
A.a two-weeks’ B.a two-week C.two weeks’D.two weeks
a two-week holiday
9.Several _______ new books were sold out last week。 D
A.of thousand B.thousands C.thousand of D.thousand
several thousand thousands of
10.Which is right? C
A.2009, June 25 B.25th June, 2009 C.June 25, 2009 D.June 25st, 2009
11.We have stayed at this school for _______ 。 AB
A.two and a half years B.two years and a half
几个半的表示法有两种：“基数词+单位名词(复数)+and a half”“基数词+and a half+单位名词(复数)”作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-2 09:37:43
Many of the world's lesser-known languages are being lost as fewer and fewer people speak them. The governments of countries in which these languages are spoken should act to prevent such languages from becoming extinct.
3小时, 562字.
It is a trend that hundreds of lesser-known languages are dying every year. Shall the governments of those countries do something to change this trend? The answer is absolutely yes.
In order to demonstrate the above point of view, I will ask a question first. If a language is lost, what loss will be brought to us human?
We shall lose a civilization, for language is the carrier of civilization. Not only our numerous precious poetry, novels, and proverbs will be lost forever, but the infinite wisdom of the language speaker's ancestors will also die. Starting from the primitive society, people use language to record their experience against the natural, the main events, and the knowledge accumulated in the labor, all of which composed their civilization and are valuable wealth for us. Unfortunately, this civilization would disappear totally, with the loss of the language.
However, the diversity of civilizations is an essential factor for our mankind's development. The history of human progress is also a history of mutual learning among civilizations. There are full of these examples. Greece learned from Egypt, Rome studied Greece, the Arab referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated the Arab, and Renaissance Europe followed the Byzantine Empire. It is this diversity of civilizations that brings comparison, learning, and progress for countries, as well as induces inspiration and creativity of people, which finally lead to great innovations.
With the loss of a language, we shall also lose a mode of thinking. Scientists have given enough evidences to prove that a language represents a mode of thinking. When people using a language to speak or write, they need to compose words in one way. Actually, this way of composing words is a kind of thinking mode. And this thinking mode has formed in the language speaker gradually, as he or she using this language. Every time when doing the IQ test questions, we might have a strong feeling that it is how useful to use another thinking way. Yes, a new kind of thinking pattern is essential for us, especially when we meeting some real difficulties. Whereas, the death of a language shall brings the tomb of a thinking mode.
Since a language means so much to our human, what might the governments of the relevant countries do to protect these lesser-known languages?
We know that a language extinct means the enormous reduce of speakers and relevant records. Some endangered small languages even only are known by the older grandfathers and grandmothers, and the young of the society have little chance to study them. Thus the government is to educate the young to learn and use them. Correlative records, such as books, tapes, videos and so on, are also essential components of these languages. Governments would probably allocate sufficient funds to retain them well.
Media language is a big threat to small languages, for our daily language is mainly received from the media, such as Internet, newspapers, magazines, television, radio and so on. Therefore, to protect these endangered small languages, governments shall help the speakers to build their websites, publishing houses, television stations, and radio stations. If the lesser-known languages become a media language among a group of people, then their life would be extended period of time.
Protect the endangered small languages is an essential and urgent matter, which should be taken seriously by the relevant governments.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-2 20:42:55
1、对现在事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + were /did等过去式…, …would /could /should /might + do
If I were a bird, I would fly to the moon.
If she knew who you are, she would go out of joy.
2、对过去事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
If she had been warned earlier, she wouldn’t have broken the rules.
If it hadn’t rained, the match would have seemed more fascinating.
If she had worked harder, she would have succeeded.
3、对将来事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; “万一”
If + were+ 不定式…, …would+ do;
Should+ 动词原形
例句：If it should snow this afternoon, we could make a snowman.
If you were to succeed, everything would be all right.
4、虚拟条件句的倒装
虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should, 或had, 可将if省略，再把were, should或had 移到从句句首，实行倒装。
例句：Were they here now, they could help us.=If they were here now, they could help us.
Had you come earlier, you would have met him.=If you had come earlier, you would have met him.
Should it rain, the crops would be saved. =Were it to rain, the crops would be saved.
1、一些常见的倒装句
1）由引导词there 引导的句子：
There’s an outdoor concert tonight in the park
2） 由there , here, now, then 等副词引导的句子。
There comes the rest of the party.
3） 由so, neither, nor 引导的句子：
I like singing and so does Helen
I don’t eat meat and neither does Tom.
Nor will I deny that
2、一些状语从句中的倒装语序
1）有些有If引导的条件状语从句（主要包含有were, had, should 的从句），可以把IF省略，把上述动词放到主语前面去：
Weren’t it for their assitance, we wouldn’t be able to do so well.
Had we got there earlier, we would have caught the train.
Should Mary call, say that I'll be back in an hour.
2）有些让步状语从句中又是也有倒装的情况，（主要把标语或部分谓语提前）：
Clever though he was, he couldn’t conceal his eagerness for praise.
Talented as he is, he is not yet ready to turn professional.
3、某些副词或状语引导的倒装句
1）某些有否定意义的副词，若放在句首，句子常用倒装。
Never would he know what she had suffered.
Scarcely was she out of sight when he came
2）有个别其他副词放在句首时，又是也会有这个现象：
Often would she(she would) weep when alone.
Bitterly did he repent that decision. 他深深地悔恨那个决定。
Gladly would I give my life to save the child.
3）有些短语，（特别是介词短语）移到句首时也可能引导倒装语序：
On no account must we give up this attempt.
Under no circumstances could we agree to such a principle.
一般这类的都是一些否定含义的短语，类似的还有：In vain, not until, at no point还有表示唯一的，如：only in this way
So…that结构： So bright was the moon that the flowers were bright as by day.
4、其他倒装句
1）祝愿的句子:
Long live world peace! May you have a long and happy life. 祝你幸福长寿。
2）间接引语后的插入语，主语有时可放在谓语后面：
“I do hope,” said Nancy, “they haven’t all forgotten about it.”
3）有时修辞上的考虑，表语也可以提前：
Very grateful we are for your help.
A very reliable person he is, to be sure. 他是个很可靠的人，没问题。作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-3 15:43:00
主语从句
1）主语从句可直接位于主语的位置，如果从句较长，谓语又较短，可用it作形式主语，而将从句放在句末。常见的句型有：
*It is a fact\a pity\a question\good news that...
*It seems\appears\happened\has turned out that...
*It is clear\important\likely\possible that...
*It is said\reported\estimated\has been proved that...
*It is said that comic books create a connection between people of the same generation.
*It seems that the performance is very useful.
2）what引导的主语从句表示“...的东西时”，一般不用it作形式主语。
What we lack is experience.
3）what, who, when, why, whether等词含有各自的疑问意义，但它们引导的主语从句，都用陈述语序。
How the plan is to be carried out should be discussed again.
I did know why I felt like crying.
宾语从句
1) 宾语从句可位于及物动词、介词和某些形容词后。连词that常可省略。介词后一般接疑问词引导的宾语从句。in that(因为),except that(除了),but that(只是)已构成固定搭配，其他介词后一般不接that引导的宾语从句。
*I promised that I would change the situation.
*All this is different from what American young people would say about friendship.
*He is certain that watching so much television is not good for children.
*This article is well-written except that it is a bit too long.
2) 宾语从句后如有宾补，要用形式宾语it来代替，而把宾语从句移至宾补之后。
He has made it clear that he would not change his mind.
3) 在think, believe, suppose, expect等动词后的宾语从句中，如果谓语是否定的，一般将否定词移至主句谓语上，宾语从句则变成肯定形式。
He didn't think that the money was well spent.
表语从句
表语从句出现在结构为“主语+系动词+表语从句”的句子中。表语从句除可用that, what, when, why, whether, how等引导外，还可由because, as if(though)等引导。that常可省略。如主句主语为reason,只能用that引导表语从句，不可用because.
Perhaps the most important thing to remember is that there is no one common type of life in America.
The reason why so many people died there is that there were not enough food supplies.
It looks as if successful international cultural communication will make the world smaller.
同位语从句
同位语从句用于对前面出现的名词作进一步说明，一般用连词that引导，由于先行名词的意义不同，也可用whether, who, when, where, what, why, how等引导。常见的先行名词有fact,idea,belief,news,hope,conclusion,evidence,suggestion,order,problem,report,decision.有时由于谓语较短，将同位语从句位于谓语之后。
She finally made the decision that she would join the fashion show.
I had no idea how many books I could borrow at a time.
The news came that their team had won the championship.
用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句
It is necessary that… 有必要……
It is important that… 重要的是……
It is obvious that… 很明显……
b. It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句
It is believed that… 人们相信……
It is known to all that… 从所周知……
It has been decided that… 已决定……
c. It + be +名词+ that-从句
It is common knowledge that… ……是常识
It is a surprise that… 令人惊奇的是……
It is a fact that… 事实是……
d. It +不及物动词+ that-分句
It appears that… 似乎……
It happens that… 碰巧……
It occurred to me that… 我突然想起……
定语从句
定语从句所修饰的先行词可以是名词或代词，也可以是一个句子。定语从句通常位于先行词之后，由关系代词或关系副词引导。
1)当先行词是all, anything, everything, something, nothing等不定代词或先行词前有first, last, any, few, much, some, no, only以及形容词最高级修饰时，只能用关系代词that引导从句。
That is all that I've heard from him.
He's the first person that I'm going to interview this afternoon.
2)关系代词的省略
在从句中作宾语的关系代词常可省略。关系代词紧跟介词，作介词宾语时不可用that，只可用which或whom引导从句，并且不可省略，但当介词位于宾语从句句末时，作为介词宾语的关系代词仍可用that，也可省略。
This is one of those things with which we have to put up.
This is one of those things (which\that) we have to put up with.
3)引导定语从句的关系副词有when,where,why等。关系副词在从句中作状语，意义上相当于一个“介词+which”的结构。
Even in comic books where(=in which) there are no words,the stories are fully expressed through the drawings.
No one knows the reason why(=for which) he was so angry that day. as引导的定语从句 as引导的定语从句主要用于“such...as”及“the same...as”的结构中，代替先行词是人或物的名词。as引导非限制性定语从句时，代替整个主句，从句可位于主句之前、之后或中间。
These are not such problems as can be easily solved. As is mentioned above, no single company or group can control what happens on the Internet.
时间状语从句
引导时间状语从句的从属连词和词组有：
1）when, whenever, while, as, after, before, since, till, until, once等。
We have learnt quite a lot about it since we came here.
2)as soon as, hardly(scarcely)...when, no sooner...than, each(every) time, the moment, immediately(that)等。 As soon as I sent an e-mail message, I received positive responses. The moment he heard the good news, he jumped with joy.
地点状语从句
引导地点状语从句的连词是where, wherever.
Wherever she went, she took her little daughter with her. Where I live there are plenty of trees. 我住的地方树很多。
Wherever I am I will be thinking of you. 不管我在哪里我都会想到你。
原因状语从句
引导原因状语从句的从属连词有：because, as, since, now(that),seeing that, considering that, in that等。 Considering that he is a freshman, we must say he is doing well.
目的状语从句
引导目的状语从句的连词有：so that, in order that, for fear that, lest等，从句常使用may, might, can, could, would等情态动词。
We got up early this morning so that we could catch the first bus to the railway station.
You must speak louder so that /in order that you can be heard by all.
He wrote the name down for fear that(lest) he should forget it.
Better take more clothes in case the weather is cold.
条件状语从句
引导条件状语从句的连词和词组有if, unless, as(so) long as, on condition that, in case, provided(providing) that, supposing等。
As long as you have the right equipment, you can use a telephone line to transmit computer data. unless = if not. Let's go out for a walk unless you are too tired. If you are not too tied, let's go out for a walk.
让步状语从句
引导让步状语从句的连词和词组有though, although, whether, even though, even if, no matter what(when, how...),whatever(whenever, wherever, however....)等。though, even if等引导状语从句可转换成含有as的部分倒装结构，具有强调意义。其结构为“形容词（副词、动词、名词）+as+主语+谓语”。
No matter what you may say, I would not change my mind. Young as he is, he is quite experienced in this work.(=though he is young)
Child as he is, he can speak English fluently.(=though he is a child)
1）当有though, although时，后面的从句不能有but，但是 though 和yet可连用
Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain.
2) as / though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前
Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do. = Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.
Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily. = Though he tries hard, he never seems…
3) even if, even though. 即使
We'll make a trip even though the weather is bad.
4) whether…or- 不管……都
Whether you believe it or not, it is true.
5) no matter what = whatever no matter who = whoever no matter when = whenever
no matter where = wherever no matter which = whichever no matter how = however
No matter what happened, he would not mind. Whatever happened, he would not mind.
注意：no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句。
（错）No matter what you say is of no use now.
（对）Whatever you say is of no use now.
（错）Prisoners have to eat no matter what they're given,
（对）Prisoners have to eat whatever they're given.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-3 17:57:47
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2010-1-3 18:07 编辑
名词
1、自测一
1. A lot of _____deer______(deer) are eating grass at the foot of the hill.
2.I think they are ____Tom’s______(Tom) ,not yours.
3.How many ____people_____ (people) are there in your family?
4.What is the woman carrying? Some _____vegetables______(vegetable).
5.I like reading Lu Xun’s _____works_____ (work)
6.The ____Jacksons______ (Jackson) are coming to dinner with me.
7.How far is it from your home to your school? Not far. Just five ___minutes’___ (minute) walk.
8.Do you know how many _____teeth____ (tooth) a person has.
9.Today is ___Children’s_____ (child) Day, boys and girls.
10.The ____young____ (young) should be polite to the ____old____ (old).
1. In autumn ___A___ turn yellow.
A. leaves B. leafs C. leaf D. leafes
2 .Linda, I’ve bought several ____A____. Now let’s make the birthday cake.
A. fresh eggs B. chocolate milk C. frozen food D. flour
3. They are _____D______.
A. Kate and Mary mother B. Kate and Mary’s mothers C. Kate and Mary’s mother D. Kate’s and Mary’s mothers
4. The teacher from American gave us ___C_____ on how to learn English well.
A. an advice B. some advices C. some advice D. a piece of advices
5. Would you like some ____D____? Yes, please. I’m a little thirsty.
A. bread B. meat C. beef D. orange
2 名词变复数的规则
1)以s,sh,ch,x等结尾的词加 –es
2)以辅音字母+y结尾的词变y 为i再加es, 以y结尾的专有名词，或元音字母+y 结尾的名词变复数时，直接加s变复数 two Marys the Henrys monkey---monkeys holiday---holidays
3) 以o 结尾的名词，变复数时
a. 加s， photo---photos piano---pianos radio---radios zoo---zoos；
b. 加es，如：potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes
c. 均可，如：zero---zeros / zeroes
4) 以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时
a. 加s，belief---beliefs roof---roofs safe---safes gulf---gulfs；
b. 去f,fe 加ves， half---halves knife---knives leaf---leaves wolf---wolves wife---wives life---lives thief---thieves；
c. 均可,如： handkerchief: handkerchiefs / handkerchieves
3 名词复数的不规则变化
1）child---children foot---feet tooth---teeth mouse---mice man---men woman---women German不是合成词，故复数形式为Germans Bowman是姓，其复数是the Bowmans
2）单复同形 deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese , li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin 除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。
如: a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters
3）集体名词，以单数形式出现，但实为复数。
如： people police cattle 等本身就是复数，不能说 a people，a police，a cattle，但可以说 a person，a policeman，a head of cattle, the English，the British，the French，the Chinese，the Japanese，the Swiss 等名词，表示国民总称时，作复数用。
如： The Chinese are industries and brave. 中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。
4）以s结尾，仍为单数的名词，如：
a. maths, politics, physics等学科名词，为不可数名词，是单数。
b. news 是不可数名词。
c. the United States，the United Nations 应视为单数。
The United Nations was organized in 1945. 联合国是1945年组建起来的。
d. 以复数形式出现的书名，剧名，报纸，杂志名，也可视为单数。
"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.
5) 表示由两部分构成的东西，如：glasses (眼镜) trousers, clothes若表达具体数目，要借助数量词 pair(对，双); suit(套); a pair of glasses; two pairs of trousers
6）另外还有一些名词，其复数形式有时可表示特别意思，如：goods货物，waters水域，fishes（各种）鱼
4 不可数名词量的表示
1）物质名词
a. 当物质名词转化为个体名词时。
Cake is a kind of food. 蛋糕是一种食物。 (不可数) These cakes are sweet. 这些蛋糕很好吃。 (可数)
b. 当物质名词表示该物质的种类时，名词可数。
This factory produces steel. (不可数) We need various steels. (可数)
c. 当物质名词表示份数时，可数。
Our country is famous for tea. Two teas, please. 请来两杯茶。
2）抽象名词有时也可数。
four freedoms 四大自由 the four modernizations四个现代化
物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。
a glass of water 一杯水 a piece of advice 一条建议
5 定语名词的复数
名词作定语一般用单数，但也有以下例外。
1) 用复数作定语。
如：sports meeting 运动会 students reading-room 学生阅览室 talks table 谈判桌 the foreign languages department 外语系
2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时，其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。
如：men workers women teachers gentlemen officials
3) 有些原有s结尾的名词，作定语时，s保留。
如：goods train (货车) arms produce 武器生产 customs papers 海关文件 clothes brush衣刷
4) 数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。
two-dozen eggs a ten-mile walk two-hundred trees a five-year plan.
个别的有用复数作定语的，如： a seven-years child
6 名词的格
1）凡不能加"'s"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系， 如：the title of the song 歌的名字。
2）在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，
如：the barber's 理发店。
3如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有"；只有一个's，则表示'共有'。
如：John's and Mary's room（两间） John and Mary's room（一间）
4）复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。
如：a month or two's absence
7、关于特殊名词的具体考点如下：、
1）容易误用为复数的不可数名词：(这些名词一般不能用作复数，谓语动词用单数)
advice 建议，忠告 living 生活，生计 equipment 装备，设备 progress 前进，发展 furniture 家具，设备 scenery 风景，景色information 通知；信息 machinery 机器，机械knowledge 知识，学问 traffic 交通流量baggage / luggage 行李，皮箱 trouble 烦恼，麻烦 cash 现金 thunder 雷声，轰隆声 apparatus 仪器 weather 天气，处境 clothing 衣服 work 工作，劳动paper 纸，钞票 luck 运气，幸运technology 工艺，技术 jewelry 珠宝
2）复数形式的名词用于单数概念，其谓语动词用单数。(这些名词一般为表示学科或疾病的名词)
economics 经济学 measles 麻疹 physics 物理学 mumps 腮腺炎mathematics 数学 rickets 软骨病，佝偻病dynamics 动力学 news 新闻The United States 美国 The New York Times 纽约时报
8、与名词相关的主谓一致关系
1）many a, more than one + 单数可数名词，尽管表示复数意义， 谓语仍用单数。
Many a student has made such a mistake. More than one stranger agrees with me.
在“more + 复数名词 + than one”结构作主语时，谓语动词用复数。More persons than one have been involved.
2）the + adj / v-ed 表示一类人时， 用复数谓语动词; 表示抽象概念时， 谓语动词用单数。
The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.
同例： the poor / dumb / innocent / guilty / unemployed / aged / oppressed / exploited…
We can do the difficult first. The impossible takes a little longer. The best is yet to come. 好戏还在后头。
3）当主语被one ( a ) and a half 修饰时，谓语动词用数。
One and a half apples is left on the plate.
4）当主语由 a series of…， a portion of …， a species of …， a kind of …， a sequence of …， a chain of…， a piece of … 加名词(单数或复数)构成时， 谓语用单数。
A series of lectures on psychology is said to be given by Mr. Li.
A large portion of her poems was published after her death.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-3 20:58:58
Your recent article on corporate downsizing* in the United States is misleading. The article gives the mistaken impression that many competent workers who lost jobs as a result of downsizing face serious economic hardship, often for years, before finding other suitable employment. But this impression is contradicted by a recent report on the United States economy, which found that since 1992 far more jobs have been created than have been eliminated. The report also demonstrates that many of those who lost their jobs have found new employment. Two-thirds of the newly created jobs have been in industries that tend to pay above-average wages, and the vast majority of these jobs are full-time.
*Downsizing is the process in which corporations deliberately reduce the number of their employee
Merely based on the unfounded assumption and suspicious evidence, the statement draws the conclusion that the recent article on company downsizing in the United States is misleading. To substantiate this conclusion, the arguer cites a recent report on the United States economy. At first glance, this argument appears to be somewhat convicting, but further reflection reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed in the argument. From the logical perspective, this argument suffers from three logical flaws.
The threshold problem with this argument is that job opportunities are probably not increased since 1992, for the report hadn’t mentioned the trend in the number of the job seekers. It is probably that new job seekers are far more than the new job opportunities. Even if there are actually more jobs since 1992, we couldn’t conclude the article is misleading, because the new job opportunities offered are not only shared by the unemployed competent workers caused by the corporate downsizing. Other skilled workers or new graduates may share great part of these opportunities. Thus, just from the report that far more jobs have been created than eliminated we couldn’t conclude the article is misleading.
Another problem that weakens the logic of this argument is that two-thirds of the newly created high-wage jobs are probably mainly shared by other job-hunting groups, such as skilled workers or new graduates. The corporate downsizing unemployed men might only find the rest one-third of the newly-created jobs which are lower paid than the average level. For example, as the development of Internet, more jobs require skilled use of a computer. However, a great many of the unemployed competent workers are unfamiliar with the computer, so they couldn’t apply such high wage work. Thus, only with the evidence of more high-wage jobs, we can hardly say the article is objective.
Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to point out the last flaw involved in this argument that the report didn’t refer to the time period of re-finding work for the competent unemployed workers caused by corporate downsizing. They are likely to experience a long time of jobless and having no finance incomes, such as many years. Even though they got high payments when re-hired, before these they would suffer serious economic hardship. Without the enough relevant information, we hardly can declare the report is unjust.
To sum up, this arguer fails to substantiate his claim that the recent article on corporate downsizing in the United States is misleading, because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To make the argument more convincing, the author would have to provide more information with regard to the trend in the number of the job seekers and the time period of finding new work for these workers. Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that the two-thirds of newly created good jobs are mainly shared by the competent unemployed workers caused by corporate downsizing. Therefore, if the argument had included given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable.
1并列人称代词的排列顺序
1) 单数人称代词并列作主语时，其顺序为：
第二人称 －> 第三人称 －> 第一人称
you －> he/she it -> I You, he and I should return on time.
2) 复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为：
第一人称 －> 第二人称 －> 第三人称
we－>you －>They
在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面
a. 在承认错误，承担责任时，It was I and John that made her angry.
b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称， 如：I and you try to finish it.
c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时，
d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
2 双重所有格
物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置，修饰一个名词，而必须用双重所有格。
公式为：a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。如：a friend of mine. each brother of his.
3 反身代词
1） 在不强调的情况下，but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如：No one but myself (me) is hurt.
注意：a. 反身代词本身不能单独作主语。
(错) Myself drove the car.
(对) I myself drove the car.我自己开车。
b. 但在and, or, nor 连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself 作主语。Charles and myself saw it.
2）第二人称作宾语，要用反身代词。
You should be proud of yourself.你应为自己感到骄傲。
4 疑问代词
1）what所指的范围是无限的，而which则指在一定的范围内
2）Whom是who的宾格，在书面语中，它作动词宾语或介词宾语，在介词后只能用whom, 例如：
Who(m) did you meet on the street? 作动词宾语
Who(m) are you taking the book to? 作介词宾语，置句首
To whom did you speak on the campus?
3）疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时，过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首，现代英语中，疑问代词在句首，介词在句未，例如：
For what do most people live and work? 旧文体
What are you looking for? 现代英语
5 “the”的妙用
He is one of the students who help me. 定语从句与the students 一致
He is the one of the students who helps me. 定语从句与the one 一致
6．every 和each
1)every 强调全体的概念， each强调个体概念。
Every student in our school works hard. Each student may have one book.. 2)every 指三个以上的人或物(含三个)，each指两个以上的人或物 (含两个)。
3)every 只作形容词，不可单独使用。each可作代词或形容词。
Every student has to take one. Each boy has to take one. Each of the boys has to take one.
4)every不可以作状语，each可作状语。
5)every 有反复重复的意思，如 every two weeks等； each没有。
6)every 与not 连用，表示部分否定； each 和not连用表示全部否定。
Every man is not honest. 并非每个人都诚实。
Each man is not honest.这儿每个人都不诚实。作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-4 11:30:05
1 一般现在时表将来
1）下列动词：come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return的一般现在时表将来。这主要用来表示在时间上已确定或安排好的事情。
The train leaves at six tomorrow morning. When does the bus star? It stars in ten minutes.
2）倒装句，表示动作正在进行
Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming. There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing.
3）在时间或条件句中。
When Bill comes (不是will come), ask him to wait for me.
I'll write to you as soon as I arrive there.
4）在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。
I hope they have a nice time next week.
Make sure that the windows are closed before you leave the room.
2 用一般过去时代替完成时
1)两个动作如按顺序发生，又不强调先后，或用then，and，but 等连词时，多用一般过去时。
When she saw the mouse，she screamed. My aunt gave me a hat and I lost it.
2 ) 两个动作相继发生，可用一般过去时；如第一个动作需要若干时间完成，用过去完成时。
When I heard the news, I was very excited.
3)叙述历史事实，可不用过去完成时，而只用一般过去时。
Our teacher told us that Columbus discovered America in 1492.作者: 爱妳不变 时间: 2010-1-4 12:38:26
writers or on later feminists.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-4 12:47:13
1 比较and和or
1) 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。
2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点：
There is no air or water in the moon. There is no air and no water on the moon.
2 for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。
(错) For he is ill, he is absent today. (对) He is absent today, for he is ill.
3 比较so和 such
such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。
so + adj. such + a(n) + n. so foolish such a fool
so + adj. + a(n) + n. so nice a flower such a nice flower
so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.) so many/ few flowers such nice flowers
so + adj. + n. [不可数] such +n. [不可数] so much/little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people
Addition:
furthermore, moreover, too, also, in the second place, again, in addition, even more, next, further, last, lastly, finally, besides, and, or, nor, first, second, secondly, etc. a further, additionally, again, also, and, and then, another, as well, aside from, aside from this, besides, conjointly, coupled with, equally important, even more, finally, further, furthermore, in addition, in addition to, in due course, incidentally, lastly, more important, moreover, neither ... nor ..., next, next to that, nor, not only ... but ..., not only ... but also ..., not only this, but this as well, not to mention, on top of that, once again, once more, or, other, over again, plus, together with, too, what is more
Alternative:
alternatively, among, another, between, either ... or ..., else, instead, neither ... nor ..., on the one hand ... on the other hand ..., or, rather, whether, whether or not
Apposition:同位
and, because, for, furthermore, in any event, in order to, in other words, likewise, namely, on the other hand, similarly, that is to say, to sum up, yet
Cause:
because, on account of, since, for that reason, and so, as, as a result, as for, as for those, because, because of, being that, different from this, due to, for that, for the reason that, for as much as, given that, hence, henceforth, if ... then ..., in response to, in spite of, in that case, in the end, in view of, in as much as, now that, on account of, over all, owing to, seeing that, since, so, so that, that is why, therefore, thus, ultimately, wherefore
Chain:
basically ... similarly ... as well ..., because ... therefore ..., first ... second ... third ..., generally ... furthermore ... finally ..., in the first place, in the first place ... also ... lastly ..., just in the same way ... finally ..., just then, lastly, namely, not . . . but, on the one hand ... on the other hand ..., or both, pursuing this further ... finally ..., so forth 等等, so on, sometimes ... but not always ..., the former ... the latter ..., to be sure ... additionally ... lastly ...
Clarification:
that is to say, to clarify, in other words, to rephrase it, to explain, to put it another way, actually, another way, especially, for instance, i.e., in other words, in particular, in this case, mainly, namely, one case that, particularly, specifically, that is, that is to say, to put it in another way, to rephrase it, up to a point
Combinations:
after a while, after all, another time, apart from, as shown above, as though, as what, at present, at present, but despite a, but even with, but now, by contrast, by that time, even after 即使, for all, for some time, from here on, just because, long after, more often, once all, over the years, since then, so often, that too, to put it in another way, until recently
Comparison:
in the same way, in like manner, by the same token 出于同样的原因, likewise, similarly, in similar fashion, alike, also, although, another ... like, as ... as ..., balanced against, but, but another, by comparison, by the same token, compared to, conversely 相反地, even, in similar, in similar fashion, in the same way, just as ... so too, less than, likewise, meanwhile, merely, more ... than ..., on the other hand, rather, rather than, similarly, up against, whereas 然而
Concession:
to be sure, granted, of course, it is true, admittedly, after all, albeit, all the same, although, and yet, at any rate, but even so, despite of, even so, even though, granted that, however, in any case, in spite of 尽管, totally, nevertheless, nonetheless 但是, notwithstanding 尽管, regardless, regardless of, still, though, yet
Conclusion:
in conclusion, to conclude, finally, all in all, as a final point, as a result, at last, consequently, finally, hence, if not, if so, implies that, in conclusion, in retrospect 回顾过去, in that case, in the end, last but not least, lastly, otherwise, that being the case, then, therefore, thereupon, thus, ultimately, under those circumstances, whence
Condition:
as long as, as such, even if, given that, if, in case, in the event that, on condition that, on the condition that, only if, provided that, so long as, unless, whether ... or...
Continuation:
as, as far as, following this further, henceforward, hereafter, immediately thereafter, in the same way, last of all, not long after, so far, thus far, together with, up to now, with respect to
Contrast:
yet, on the contrary, but, and yet, in contrast, however, nevertheless, notwithstanding, though, nonetheless, on the other hand, otherwise, after all, at the same time, but, by way of contrast, conversely, however, in contrast, ironically, on the other hand, paradoxically, still though, when in fact, whereas, while, yet after all, all the same, although, as opposed to, at the same time, but, but at the same time, conversely, despite, different from, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in the other hand, instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the one hand ... on the other hand ..., otherwise, some ... others ..., still, then ... now ..., though, whilst, yet
Deduction:
and so, and then, if not, if so, in other words, in that case, otherwise, then, this implies that, when in fact, while this is true
Demonstrative:
altogether, as this, both, both . . . and, demonstratively, in this way, that, these, this, those, together, toward, towards, which, which ... that ..., who, whom, whose
Effect：
or result: therefore, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, as a result, accordingly, as a result, consequently, finally, for this reason, hence, if and only if, in consequence, ..., so, so much, so that, therefore, thus
Emphasize:
above all, absolutely, according as, always, as ... as ..., as a matter of fact, by all means, certainly, definitely, emphatically, eternally, even that, for sure, ..., forever, in any case, in fact, indeed, mainly, more importantly, more specifically, naturally, never, nevertheless, obviously, of course, particularly, peculiarly, positively, specifically, surely, surprisingly, undeniably, undoubtedly, unquestionably, whatsoever, whatsoever, without a doubt, without reservation
Evidence and Proof:
a significant, all things considered, analogously, another possibility would be, another significant, as a, consequence, as can be expected, as noted by, at the end of, by similar argumentation, empirically, evidently, for the same reason, for this reason, given these facts, in accordance with, in agreement, in all instances, in fact, in hindsight, in simple terms, in such cases, in terms of, in the final analysis, in the overall analysis, in view of, most importantly, of greatest significance, on this basis, one ... such, one such, since, such a case, surprisingly, that is, the role of, thereof, this coincides with, this implies that
Example:
a case in point, an example of, another example of, as an illustration, as demonstrated by, by way of example, e.g., especially, even this, that, these those, for example, for instance, for one thing, in another case, in fact, in particular, in this case, in this situation, namely, notably, on this occasion, particularly, specifically, such, such as, take the case of, that is, the following example
Exception:
aside from, despite, however, in spite of, nevertheless, nonetheless, once in a while, sometimes, still, yet
Exemplification or Illustration:
to illustrate, as an illustration, to demonstrate, specifically, for example, for instance
Generalization:
as a general rule, as a rule, as a rule of thumb, as usual, by induction, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, in most cases, more generally, on the whole, ordinarily, usually
Idioms:
at most, at the outside, by and by, from time to time, in the light of, more or less, or else, sooner or later, the other day, up to the present time
Importance:
above all, chiefly, for the most part, largely, last but not least, least, less important, mainly, more important, most important, most of all, of greater, predominantly, primarily, principally
Intensification:
indeed, undoubtedly, to repeat, yes, no, certainly, by all means, surely, without doubt, of course, in fact
Introduction:
admittedly, as an illustration, as for, as in the case of, assuredly, at first glance, at this level, by way of example, certainly, concerning the ..., first and foremost, first and yet, first of all, for example, for instance, for one thing, generally speaking, in all likelihood, in general, in my opinion, in particular, in this situation, likewise, such as, to illustrate, with regard to, with respect to
Logical:
category UNDER CONSTRUCTION, for this reason, from now, henceforth, henceforward, in other words, in that case, it is true that, otherwise, provided that, such that, thereby, this being so, though ... yet, whether ... or ...
Phrases:
as was previously stated, at the very least, at this point, but even more, by all means, by means of, by the time, either or both, first and most importantly, for the most part, generally speaking, given these facts, in furtherance of, in light of, in the following, in the subsequent, in what follows, last but not least, often times, once in a while, to a lesser extend, to change the topic, to get back to the point, what followed
Place-Location and Description:
above, across, across from, adjacent to, ahead, along, alongside, amid, at, at the rear, at the side, athwart, atop, away from, below, beneath, beside, beyond closer to, down, eastward, elsewhere, far, far off, farther on, fore, forth, forward, further on, here, hereupon, in back of, in front of, in the back, in the background, in the distance, in the forefront, in the foreground, in the front, in the middle, inside, into, near, nearby, neighboring on, northerly, on, on the side, onto, opposite to, out of, out of sight, outside, over there, side by side, somewhere, southerly, straight ahead, surrounding, there, through, throughout, to the side of, toward the middle, underneath, upon, upright, upside down, westward where, wherever, within sight
Place:
here, beyond, adjacent to, there, wherever, neighboring, on, nearby, opposite to, above, below
Pronouns：
if they clearly refer to a specific word or phrase: this, these, those, that, his, her, it, its, they, their, theirs, our, your
Purpose:
because of this, for fear that, for this purpose, in order that, in order to, in the hope that, so that, to that end, to this end, toward this end, with the goal of, with this in mind in order that, to that end, to this end, so that, for this purpose
Qualification:
almost, perhaps, never, nearly, maybe, always, probably, although, frequently almost, although, always, frequently, in somewhat, may be, might, nearly, never, perhaps, probably, some
Quantifiers:
a bit of, a couple of, a few, a good deal of, a great deal of, a lack of, a little, a lot of, all, all of the, as much as, at least, enough, evenly, few, for all, for any, for each, for every, in the first place, less than, lesser, little, little by little, lots of, lower, many, minus, more, more than, most, most of the, much less, much more, none, none of the, not much, plenty of, secondly, ... thirdly, several, some
Reference:
according to, as acknowledged, as for, as part of, as told by, away from, by far, concerning this, considering this, how, in respect to, in this regard, in this respect, on the subject of, other than that, regarding, set forth, speaking about, that, the fact that, therefore, Vis-à-vis, what, which, who, whoever, whom, why, with regard to
Reformulation:
as I have noted, as I stated, as indicated above, as noted earlier, in brief, in other words, in short, in summary, in words, let me rephrase it, on the whole, perennially, point in fact, put differently
Reservation:
admittedly, despite, even so, even though, indeed, nevertheless, notwithstanding, regardless
Resumption:
all the same, anyhow, anyway, as I was saying, at any rate, by the way, either, either way, in any, in either case, incidentally, to change the subject, to change the topic, to get back to the point, to resume, to resume anyhow, to return to the subject, whatever, whichever
Sequence:
after, afterward, again, also, and, at first, at this point, before this, concurrently, consequently, finally, first of all, first, second, third, etc., for a start, hence, in the end, in the first place, initially, later on, next, previously, secondly, simultaneously, still, subsequently, then, therefore, thirdly, thus, to begin with, too
Similarity:
analogous to, as, by the same token, correspondingly, equally, in a like manner, in like fashion, in the same fashion, in the same way, just as, just as ... so too, just as ... too ..., kind of, likewise, other things equal, outwardly, point in fact, seemingly, similarly, sort of, unlike
Summary:
all together, altogether, anyway, as has been mentioned, as I have said, as I stated to summarize, in short, in brief, in sum, in summary, to sum up as it was previously stated, as mentioned earlier, as we have seen, briefly, by and large, for all that, given these facts, given these points, in all, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in sum, in summary, on the whole, overall, so, summing up, to make a long story short, to put it briefly, to sum up, to summarize
Time:
after, afterward, afterwards, ago, along the way, always, as long as, as of, as when, as yet, at first, at last, at least, at length, at once, at one time, at that time, at the same time, back then, before, before long, beforehand, currently, during, earlier, eventually, finally, first of all, first, second, third, etc., following, forever, formerly, from now on, immediately, immediately before, immediately following, in due time, in parallel, in retrospective, in the end, in the future, in the long run, in the meantime, in the short run, initially later, meantime, meanwhile, most recently, never, next, now, nowadays, often, oftentimes, once, overtime, previously, prior to, right now, shortly, shortly after, shortly thereafter, simultaneously, since, since then, so far, so long, sometimes, soon, soon afterward, soon then, subsequently, then, thereafter, this time, till now, twice a day, until, until now, up to, very soon, when, whenever, while, without delay while, immediately, never, after, later, earlier, always, when, soon, whenever, meanwhile, sometimes, in the meantime, during, afterwards, now, until now, next, following, once, then, at length, simultaneously, so far, this time, subsequently
Unclassified:
about, afore, already, as if, as well as, despite of, far away, forthwith, from ... to ..., from then on, hereby, herein, hereinafter, hereof, heretofore, in furtherance of, in lieu of, in this sense, inasmuch as, insofar as, only, onwards, other, somehow, therein, trailing by, under, until then, unto, up to this point, whereby, wherein, whereof, whereupon, within作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-4 13:16:31
1 动词有五种形态，分别是：原形（Original Form）、第三人称单数形式（Singular From in Third Personal）、过去式（Past Form）、过去分词（Past Participle）、现在分词（Present Participle）
2 系动词 （Link Verb）
本身有词义，但不能单独用作谓语，后边必须跟表语（亦称补语），构成系表结构说明主语的状况、性质、特征等情况。
有些系动词又是实义动词，该动词表达实义时，有词义，可单独作谓语，例如：
He fell ill yesterday. fell是系动词，后跟补足语，说明主语情况。
He fell off the ladder. fell是实义动词，单独作谓语。
1）状态系动词
用来表示主语状态，只有be一词，He is a teacher.
2）持续系动词
用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度，主要有keep, rest, remain, stay, lie, stand,
He always kept silent at meeting. This matter rests a mystery.
3）表像系动词
用来表示"看起来像"这一概念，主要有seem, appear, look,
He looks tired. He seems (to be) very sad.
4）感官系动词
感官系动词主要有feel, smell, sound, taste,
This kind of cloth feels very soft. This flower smells very sweet.
5）变化系动词
这些系动词表示主语变成什么样，变化系动词主要有become, grow, turn, fall, get, go, come, run.
He became mad after that. She grew rich within a short time. 。
6）终止系动词
表示主语已终止动作，主要有prove, trun out, 表达"证实"，"变成"之意，例如：
The rumor proved false. The search proved difficult. His plan turned out a success. (turn out表终止性结果）
3 不用被动语态的情况
1) 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die, disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand,break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比较： rise, fall, happen是不及物动词；raise, seat是及物动词。
The price has risen. The accident happened last week. The price has been raised. Please be seated.
2) 不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语：
fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to
This key just fits the lock. Your story agrees with what had already been heard.
3) 系动词无被动语态：
appear, be become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn
It sounds good.
4) 带同源宾语的及物动词，反身代词，相互代词，不能用于被动语态：die, death, dream, live, life
She dreamed a bad dream last night.
5) 当宾语是不定式时，很少用于被动语态。
(对) She likes to swim.
(错) To swim is liked by her.
4 主动形式表示被动意义
1)wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell, drive…
The book sells well.这本书销路好。
This knife cuts easily. 这刀子很好用。
2)blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build
I was to blame for the accident.
Much work remains.
3) 在need, require, want, worth (形容词), deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。
The door needs repairing.= The door needs to be repaired.
This room needs cleaning. 这房间应该打扫一下。
This book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。
4) 特殊结构：make sb. heard / understood (使别人能听见/理解自己)，have sth. done ( 要某人做某事)。
5 被动形式表示主动意义
be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
He is graduated from a famous university.
注意： 表示同某人结婚，用marry sb. 或get married to sb. 都可。
He married a rich girl.
He got married to a rich girl.作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-7 10:23:41
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2010-1-7 10:52 编辑
动词不定式、分词、动名词
1 省to 的动词不定式
1） 情态动词 ( 除ought 外，ought to)：
2） 使役动词 let, have, make：
3） 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。
在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。
I saw him dance. =He was seen to dance.
The boss made them work the whole night.=They were made to work the whole night.
4） would rather，had better：
5） Why… / why not…：
6） help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth：
7） but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。He wants to do nothing but go out.
8） 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：He wants to move to France and marry the girl.
9） 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be： He is supposed (to be) nice.
2 动名词与不定式语义不同的有11 组：
1）stop to do——stop doing
2） forget to do 忘记要去做某事—— forget doing 忘记做过某事
3）remember to do——remember doing
4 ）regret to do 对要做的事遗憾 未做—— regret doing 对做过的事遗憾 后悔
5）cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事—— cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做
6 ）try to do 尽力做某事，事情难——try doing 尝试做某事，事情简单
7）go on to do—— go on doing
8 ）afraid to do 害怕做某事—— afraid doing 一向害怕做某事，表示习惯
9）interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事——interested doing 对某种想法感兴趣
10） mean to do—— mean doing
11） begin/ start to do—— begin/ start doing 开始一项较长时间或经常性活动作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-7 10:48:47
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2010-1-7 11:08 编辑
独立主格、特殊词
1 独立主格结构的构成：
名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词；The test finished, we began our holiday.
名词(代词)+形容词；
名词(代词)+副词；
名词(代词)+不定式；
名词(代词) +介词短语构成。
2 独立主格结构的特点：
1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。
The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
Weather permitting, we are going to visit you tomorrow.
This done, we went home.
The meeting gone over, everyone tired to go home earlier.
He came into the room, his ears red with cold.
He came out of the library, a large book under his arm.
3 With的复合结构作独立主格
表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
He stood there, his hand raised. = He stood there, with his hand raise.
4 独立主格结构使用介词的问题
当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand. ( hand前不能加his)。
当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分词，不及物动词用过去分词。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.
5 感官动词 + doing/to do
感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do 表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性
I saw him work in the garden yesterday. （强调"我看见了"这个事实)
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.（强调"我见他正干活"这个动作）作者: 行单影只 时间: 2010-1-7 14:27:54
In this era of rapid social and technological change leading to increasing life complexity and psychological displacement, both positive and negative effects among persons in Western society call for a balance in which there are both specialists and generalists.
Specialists are necessary in order to allow society as a whole to properly and usefully assimilate the masses of new information and knowledge that have come out of research and have been widely disseminated through mass global media. As the head of Pharmacology at my university once said (and I paraphrase):"I can only research what I do because there are so many who have come before me to whom I can turn for basic knowledge. It is only because of each of the narrowly focussed individuals at each step that a full and true understanding of the complexities of life can be had. Each person can only hold enough knowledge to add one small rung to the ladder, but together we can climb to the moon." This illustrates the point that our societies level of knowledge and technology is at a stage in which there simply must be specialists in order for our society to take advantage of the information available to us.
Simply put, without specialists, our society would find itself bogged down in the Sargasso sea of information overload. While it was fine for early physicists to learn and understand the few laws and ideas that existed during their times, now, no one individual can possibly digest and assimilate all of the knowledge in any given area.
On the other hand, Over specialization means narrow focii in which people can lose the larger picture.No one can hope to understand the human body by only inspecting one's own toe-nails. What we learn from a narrow focus may be internally logically coherent but may be irrelevant or fallacious within the framework of a broader perspective. Further, if we inspect only our toe-nails, we may conclude that the whole body is hard and white. Useful conclusions and thus perhaps useful inventions must come by sharing among specialists. Simply throwing out various discovieries means we have a pile of useless discoveries, it is only when one can make with them a mosaic that we can see that they may form a picture.
Not only may over-specialization be dangerous in terms of the truth, purity and cohesion of knowledge, but it can also serve to drown moral or universall issues. Generalists and only generalists can see a broad enough picture to realize and introduce to the world the problems of the environment. With specialization, each person focusses on their research and their goals. Thus, industrialization, expansion, and new technologies are driven ahead. Meanwhile no individual can see the wholisitc view of our global existence in which true advancement may mean stifling individual specialists for the greater good of all.
Finally, over-specialization in a people's daily lives and jobs has meant personal and psychological compartmentalization. People are forced into pigeon holes early in life (at least by university) and must conciously attempt to consume external forms of stimuli and information in order not to be lost in their small and isolated universe. Not only does this make for narrowly focussed and generally pooprly-educated individuals, but it guarantees a sense of loss of community, often followed by a feeling of psychological displacement and personal dissatisfaction.
Without generalists, society becomes inward-looking and eventually inefficient. Without a society that recongnizes the impotance of braod-mindedness and fora for sharing generalities, individuals become isolated. Thus, while our form of society necessitates specialists, generalists are equally important. Specialists drive us forward in a series of thrusts while generalists make sure we are still on the jousting field and know what the stakes are.
阅卷人评语——6分
这是一篇非常优秀的Issue分析——有见底、理由充分、用语精确。首段提出作者的立场，并且引出了作者即将展开论述的情境："In this era of rapid social and technological change leading to increasing life complexity and psychological displacement . . . ."
论证本身有两部分。第一部分给出了关于专才的有说服力的例子，主要在医学领域。第二部分给出了同样有说服力、组织较好的例子来反驳过分专业化，其主要原因为以下三点：
1、 逻辑方面（受训单一的专家们常不能着眼全局）
2、 道德方面（通才们常常能够理解获得‘大局的利益’需要什么）
3、 个人方面（过早地专门化/类别化可能带来心理伤害）
随后的专家确证(quotation from a prominent medical researcher)和生动的比喻(to inspect only one's toenails is to ignore the whole body)加强了论证的严谨性。
这篇文章优秀的原因并不只于它的推理。文章用语精确而形象("bogged down in a Sargasso sea of information overload," "a pile of useless discoveries," and "specialists drive us forward in a series of thrusts, while generalists make sure we are still on the jousting field")。 过渡性短语和观点一直指引读者理清文章思维，继续阅读。这是一篇针对该话题的非常优秀的答卷。
5分答卷
Specialists are not overrated today. More generalists may be needed, but not to overshadow the specialists. Generalists can provide a great deal of information on many topics of interest with a broad range of ideas. People who look at the overall view of things can help with some of the large problems our society faces today. But specialists are necessary to gain a better understanding of more in depth methods to solve problems or fixing things.
One good example of why specialists are not overrated is in the medical field. Doctors are necessary for people to live healthy lives. When a person is sick, he may go to a general practitioner to find out the cause of his problems. Usually, this kind of "generalized" doctor can help most ailments with simple and effective treatments. Sometimes, though, a sickness may go beyond a family doctor's knowledge or the prescribed treatments don't work the way they should. When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed as a disease that requires more care than a family doctor can provide, he may be referred to a specialist. For instance, a person with constant breathing problems that require hospitalization may be suggested to visit an asthma specialist. Since a family doctor has a great deal of knowledge of medicine, he can decide when his methods are not effective and the patient needs to see someone who knows more about the specific problem; someone who knows how it begins, progresses, and specified treatments. This is an excellent example of how a generalied person may not be equipped enough to handle something as well as a specialized one can.
Another example of a specialist who is needed instead of a generalist involves teaching. In grammar school, children learn all the basic principles of reading, writing, and arithematic. But as children get older and progress in school, they gain a better understanding of the language and mathematical processes. As the years in school increase, they need to learn more and more specifics and details about various subjects. They start out by learning basic math concepts such as addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. A few years later, they are ready to begin algebraic concepts, geometry, and calculus. They are also ready to learn more advanced vocabulary, the principles of how all life is composed and how it functions. One teacher or professor can not provide as much in depth discussion on all of these topics as well as one who has learned the specifics and studied mainly to know everything that is currently known about one of these subjects. Generalized teachers are required to begin molding students at a very early age so they can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic subjects and finding out new facts on the old ones.
These are only two examples of why specialists are not highly overrated and more generalists are not necessary to the point of overshadowing them. Generalists are needed to give the public a broad understanding of some things. But , specialists are important to help maintain the status, health, and safety of our society. Specialists are very necessary.
阅卷人评语——5分
通过讨论对通才和专长的需求，作者展示了一篇对题目复杂性发展较好的文章。
这篇文章基于两个精心挑选的详细事例。第一个（第二段）首先讨论了医学通才（一般医务工作者）和专才的必要性，随后转入一个例子中的例子（呼吸问题和对哮喘专家的必要性）。下一段的事例也具备这种从一般到具体的延伸特点。此处，讨论集中在教育领域，从小学到高中，从初等运算到微积分。
使用恰当的连接词："but," "usually," and "for instance," 增添了行文的流畅性。文章以重述作者主题而结尾。
虽然作者较好地处理了语言和语法，几处清晰度方面的缺陷让这篇论证有力的文章低于6分。问题包括代词缺少指代("When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed, . . . he may be referred to a specialist")、一个并列结构错误("how it begins, progresses and specified treatments")、语法粗糙用语不精确("Generalized teachers are required to begin molding students at a very early age so they can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic subjects.") 语法错误
4分答卷
Specialists are just what their name says: people who specialize in one part of a very general scheme of things. A person can't know everything there is to know about everything. This is why specialists are helpful. You can take one general concept and divide it up three ways and have three fully developed different concepts instead of one general concept that no one really knows about. Isn't it better to really know something well, than to know everything half-way.
Take a special ed teacher compared to a general ed teacher. The general ed teacher knows how to deal with most students. She knows how to teach a subject to a student that is on a normal level. But what would happen to the child in the back of the room with dyslexia? She would be so lost in that general ed classroom that she would not only not learn, but be frustrated and quite possibly, have low self-esteem and hate school. If there is a special ed teacher there who specializes in children with learning disabilities, she can teach the general ed teacher how to cope with this student as well as modify the curriculum so that the student can learn along with the others. The special ed teacher can also take that child for a few hours each day and work with her on her reading difficulty one-on-one, which a general ed teacher never would have time to do.
A general ed teacher can't know what a special ed teacher knows and a special ed teacher can't know what a general ed teacher knows. But the two of them working together and specializing in their own things can really get a lot more accomplished. The special ed teacher is also trained to work on the child's self-esteem, which has a big part in how successful this child will be. Every child in the United States of America has the right to an equal education. How can a child with a learning disability receive the same equal education as a general ed student if there was no specialist there to help both teacher and child?
Another thing to consider is how a committee is supposed to work together. Each person has a special task to accomplish and when these people all come together, with their tasks finished, every aspect of the community's work is completely covered. Nothing is left undone. In this case there are many different specialists to meet the general goal of the committee.
When you take into account that a specialist contributes only a small part of the generalist aspect, it seems ridiculous to say that specialists are overrated. The generalists looks to the specialists any time they need help or clarification on their broad aspect. Specialists and generalists are part of the same system, so if a specialist is overrated, then so is a generalist.
阅卷人评语——4分
这篇文章对题目进行了足够的分析。首段目的模糊的定义“专才”后，作者提出了一个切题的事例（the special education teacher）来表明专才的重要性。该例子引领全文，为整体的4分做出了贡献。
第二个关于委员会工作的例子稍欠说服力。然而，它似乎有助于表明作者关于“通才”的定义，即所有专才对某一主题的知识的集合。
虽然作者关于专才与通才的关系的见解与众不同，但它在文中被表达得很清楚。然而，作者并没有将这些观点阐述到一个足够的深度，或者有足够的逻辑控制，来获得高于4分的分数。
文章大体没有错误。虽然语句有时不精确、冗长，但基本没有句型、语法和使用错误。整体而言，这篇文章表现了英语写作要素的足够掌握。
3分答卷
To quote the saying, "Jack of all trades, master of none," would be my position on the statement. I feel specialists in all areas of knowledge lead to a higher standard of living for everyone. Specializing in different areas allows us to use each others talents to the highest level and maximize potential. As an example, if a person required brain surgery, would they rather have a brain surgeon or a general practitioner doing the work? Clearly a specialist would do the better job and give the patient a chance at a better life.
A university education starts by laying the groundwork for general knowledge but then narrows down to a specific field. General knowledge and a broad prospective are important, but if there was no focus on specific areas, our overall knowledge as a population would be seriously lessened.
Another example of specialists not being overated would be international trade. Not every nation can provide for themselves. They need to get products and ideas from other parts of the world because they are better at providing them. This allows for a growing economy if two different nations can provide each other with two different products. If one country can produce oranges better than another, it should trade the oranges for the fish that it can not produce. If generalizing was the normal thing to do and both countries tried to produce all kinds of products, the countries would probably survive, but not have the standard of living they presently have.
In the situation of health I feel that specialists are very important. For example if a person has heart problems, choose a heart specialist over a genral medicine Dr. However if a person is having a wide range of syptoms, perhaps choose a Dr. with a wide range of experience might be more helpful.
It also depends on the type of problem you are having. For example I would not suggest taking a troubled child to a theorpist who specializes in marriage problems. In some cases have a specialists helps to insure that you are getting the best possibly treatment. On the other hand dealing with a person who has a wide range of experience may be able to find different ways of dealing with a particular problem.
Since the quotation did not state exactely what type of specialist we are dealing with it is also hard to determine the importance of having a specialist is. For example the could be health or problems with a car, or basically anything else. I feel that this information should not have been left out. I guess the bottom line is that I feel sometimes a specialist is very important.
I disagree with the statement about specialists, we need specialists who take individual areas and specialize. A generalists can pinpoint a problem. He or she cannot determine the magnitude of the problem. A specialist can find the root of the problem. When he or she has years working in that specific field. For example, when i got sick i went to a doctor. He did blood work, x-ray, talk to me, ect. He prescribed me a medicine. I got worst. So i decided to go another doctor. Now, i am doing great. A specialist knows the facts right away. Otherwise, it will take longer or not at all.
阅卷人评语——1分
这篇答卷根本没有讨论题目。
第一句话声明了作者对支持专才的立场，但是随后没有相应的辩论。一些观点似乎矛盾（e.g., "generalists can pinpoint a problem"）并且例子令人费解。如果文章解释说第一个（不成功的）医生是一个通才，而第二个（成功的）医生是一个专才，这个例子就会是有助于论述的。然而，文中例子是不清晰甚至有误导性的。总结性陈述仅仅增添了读者的困惑。
因为大多数句子都很短且突兀，所以他们试图传递的思想也是突兀的。作者需要提供过渡性的词汇和观点，从而提高这篇文章的逻辑一致性。而且基本错误和语法错误很常见，但是使这篇文章得到1分的主要原因是缺少条理清楚的论证。作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-9 12:46:44
The notion that protective gear reduces the injuries suffered in accidents seems at first glance to be an obvious conclusion. After all, it is the intent of these products to either provent accidents from occuring in the first place or to reduce the injuries suffered by the wearer should an accident occur. However, the conclusion that investing in high quality protective gear greatly reduces the risk of being severely injured in an accident may mask other (and potentially more significant) causes of injuries and may inspire people to over invest financially and psychologically in protective gear.
First of all, as mentioned in the argument, there are two distinct kinds of gear - preventative gear (such as light reflecting material) and protective gear (such as helmets). Preventative gear is intended to warn others, presumably for the most part motorists, of the presence of the roller skater. It works only if the "other" is a responsible and caring individual who will afford the skater the necessary space and attention. Protective gear is intended to reduce the effect of any accident, whether it is caused by an other, the skater or some force of nature. Protective gear does little, if anything, to prevent accidents but is presumed to reduce the injuries that occur in an accident. The statistics on injuries suffered by skaters would be more interesting if the skaters were grouped into those wearing no gear at all, those wearing protective gear only, those wearing preventative gear only and those wearing both. These statistics could provide skaters with a clearer understanding of which kinds of gear are more beneficial.
The argument above is weakened by the fact that it does not take into account the inherent differences between skaters who wear gear and those who do not. If is at least likely that those who wear gear may be generally more responsible and/or safety conscious individuals. The skaters who wear gear may be less likely to cause accidents through careless or dangerous behavior. It may, in fact, be their natural caution and repsonsibility that keeps them out of the emergency room rather than the gear itself. Also, the statistic above is based entirely on those who are skating in streets and parking lots which are relatively dangerous places to skate in the first place. People who are generally more safety conscious (and therefore more likely to wear gear) may choose to skate in safer areas such as parks or back yards.
The statistic also goes not differentiate between severity of injuries. The conclusion that safety gear prevents severe injuries suggests that it is presumed that people come to the emergency room only with severe injuries. This is certainly not the case. Also, given that skating is a recreational activity that may be primarily engaged in during evenings and weekends (when doctors' offices are closed), skater with less severe injuries may be especially likely to come to the emergency room for treatment.
Finally, there is absolutely no evidence provided that high quality (and presumably more expensive) gear is any more beneficial than other kinds of gear. For example, a simple white t-shirt may provide the same preventative benefit as a higher quality, more expensive, shirt designed only for skating. Before skaters are encouraged to invest heavily in gear, a more complete understanding of the benefit provided by individual pieces of gear would be helpful.
The argument for safety gear based on emergency room statistics could provide important information and potentially saves lives. Before conclusions about the amount and kinds of investments that should be made in gear are reached, however, a more complete understanding of the benefits are needed. After all, a false confidence in ineffective gear could be just as dangerous as no gear at all.
阅卷人评语——6分
这篇优秀的答卷展示了作者见解深刻的分析能力。引言部分首先指出题目的错误推理可能导致". . . inspire people to over invest financially and psychologically in protective gear,"，随后全面地审查了题目中的主要 错误。作者特别指出了削弱论证的几点：
1、 防护性和保护性装备是不同的；
2、 穿防护服的溜冰者不容易出事，因为他们天生更加负责和谨慎；
3、 统计数据没有区分受伤的严重程度；
4、 防护服不一定要质量很好才有用。
论证流畅、结构合理，每个论点都得到了彻底合理地展开。此外，作者的文字简练、几乎没有错误。句式复杂多变，选词精准恰当。
总之，这篇答卷展示了评分指南中6分级别的高水准。即使作者的文采略差或提供更少的原因来反驳题目，本文同样可以得到6分。
5分答卷
The argument presented is limited but useful. It indicates a possible relationship between a high percentage of accidents and a lack of protective equipment. The statistics cited compel a further investigation of the usefulness of protective gear in preventing or mitigating roller-skating related injuries. However, the conclusion that protective gear and reflective equipment would "greatly reduce.risk of being severely injured" is premature. Data is lacking with reference to the total population of skaters and the relative levels of experience, skill and physical coordination of that population. It is entirely possible that further research would indicate that most serious injury is averted by the skater's ability to react quickly and skillfully in emergency situations.
Another area of investigation necessary before conclusions can be reached is identification of the types of injuries that occur and the various causes of those injuries. The article fails to identify the most prevalent types of roller-skating related injuries. It also fails to correlate the absence of protective gear and reflective equipment to those injuries. For example, if the majority of injuries are skin abrasions and closed-head injuries, then a case can be made for the usefulness of protective clothing mentioned. Likewise, if injuries are caused by collision with vehicles (e.g. bicycles, cars) or pedestrians, then light-reflective equipment might mitigate the occurences. However, if the primary types of injuries are soft-tissue injuries such as torn ligaments and muscles, back injuries and the like, then a greater case could be made for training and experience as preventative measures.
Although the argument stated above discusses the importance of safety equipment as significant part of avoiding injury, the statistics quoted are vague and inconclusive. Simply because 75 percent of the people involved in roller-skating accidents are not wearing the stated equipment does not automatically implicate he lack of equipment as the cause of injury. The term "accidents" may imply a great variety of injuries. The types of injuries one could incur by not wearing the types of equipment stated above are minor head injuries; skin abrasions or possibly bone fracture of a select few areas such as knees, elbows, hands, etc. (which are in fact most vulnerable to this sport); and/or injuries due to practising the sport during low light times of the day. During any physically demanding activity or sport people are subjected to a wide variety
of injuries which cannot be avoided with protective clothing or light-reflective materials. These injuries include inner trauma (e.g., heart-attack); exhaustion; strained muscles, ligaments, or tendons; etc. Perhaps the numbers and percentages of people injured during roller-skating, even without protective equipment, would decrease greatly if people participating in the sport had proper training, good physical health, warm-up properly before beginning (stretching), as well as take other measures to prevent possible injury, such as common-sense, by refraining from performing the activity after proper lighting has ceased and knowing your personal limitations as an individual and athlete. The statistics used in the above reasoning are lacking in proper direction considering their assertions and therefore must be further examined and modified so that proper conclusions can be reached.
The arguement is well presented and supported, but not completely well reasoned. It is clear and concisely written. The content is logically and smoothly presented. Statistics cited are used to develop support for the recommendation, that roller skaters who invest in protective gear and reflective equipment can reduce their risk of severe, accidental injuries. Examples of the types of protective equipment are described for the reader. Unfortunately, the author of the argement fails to note that merely by purchasing gear and reflective equipment that the skater will be protected. This is, of course, falacious if the skater fails to use the equipment, or uses it incorrectly or inappropriately. It is also an unnecessary assumption that a skater need purchase high-quality gear for the same degree of effectiveness to be achieved. The argument could be improved by taking these issues into consideration, and making recommendations for education and safety awareness to skaters.
To reduce the accidents from roller skating we should consider about it causes and effects concurrently to find the best solution. Basically the roller-skating players are children, they had less experiences to protect themselves from any kind of dangerous. Therefore, it should be a responsible of adult to take care them. Adult should recommend their child to wear any protective clothing, set the rules and look after them while they are playing.
In the past roller-skating is limited in the skate yard but when it became popular people normally play it on the street way) Therefore the number of accidents from roller-skating is increased. The skate manufacturer should have a responsibility in producing a protective clothing. They should promote and sell them together with skates. The government or state should set the regulation of playing skate on the street way like they did with the bicycle.
To prevent this kind of accident is the best solution but it needs a coorperation among us to have a concious
mind to beware and realize its dangerous.
阅卷人评语——2分
这篇有严重错误的答卷建议成年人和轮滑制造商保证儿童穿戴保护性装备，而非评论题目。 本质上，作者无异议地接受了题目中的论证。
答卷在句子结构和语法使用上有较多严重的错误。词汇选择、动词时态、主谓一致性，标点等方面的错误数量较多，以至于影响理解，比如". . . it needs a cooperation among us to have a concious mind to beware and realize its dangerous."
这篇文章得到2分是因为它严重的语言缺陷以及没有基于逻辑分析而构建一个评论。
1分答卷
the protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75% Of those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing. such as hemlets, kenn pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do have protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen, also that can greatly reduce their risk ofbeing severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for thetreatment. the protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75% Of those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing. such as hemlets, kenn pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do have protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen,also that can greatly reduce their risk ofbeing severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for the treatment. the protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75% Of those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing. such as hemlets, kenn pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do have protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen, also that can greatly reduce their risk ofbeing severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for the treatment.
阅卷人评语——1分
这篇严重缺陷的答卷无异议的接受了题目中的推理："the protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident." 然而，没有证据表明作者可以理解或者分析题目；除了一些额外的词语，答卷仅仅复制了题目。这篇两句话的答卷被逐字地重复了多次。语言和使用同样有问题。作者在题目中添加进的少数词语，导致句子不连贯。总之，这篇文章符合评分指南中所有得1分的标准。作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-11 14:49:37
TOPIC: ARGUMENT206 - The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Parkville Daily Newspaper.
"Throughout the country last year, as more and more children below the age of nine participated in youth-league softball and soccer, over 80,000 of these young players suffered injuries. When interviewed for a recent study, youth-league softball players in several major cities also reported psychological pressure from coaches and parents to win games. Furthermore, education experts say that long practice sessions for these sports take away time that could be used for academic activities. Since the disadvantages apparently outweigh any advantages, we in Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine."
WORDS: 384
TIME: 00:30:00
DATE: 2009-8-1 13:58:06
In this argument, the author concludes that Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine. To support his conclusion, the author points out that over 80,000 of young players suffered injuries throughout the country last year. And he also cites that youth-league softball players reported pressure form coaches and parents in several big cities and these sports take away time for academic activities. However, the argument suffers a few flaws.
To begin with, the author falsely assumes that children under nine in Parkville suffer injuries just like those throughout the country.First, the child in Parkville may have different interests in sports, such as basketball. Second, the author fails to provide the number of children who is under nine and suffered injuries throughout the country last year. Perhaps only a few children under nine suffered from injuries. Third, the author fails to prove that the children get injuries because of taking sports rather than other possibilities. All these scenarios, if true, will undermine the author's conclusion.
In addition, the author unjustifiably claims that children in Parkvill receive pressure from coaches and parents. The study is interviewed in several big cities, we are not informed whether Parkville is a big city. Even assuming that it is a big city, the author still cannot apply the study to Parkville. There are maybe differences between Parkville and other cities. Perhaps Parkville has stricter regulations to coaches, or perhaps the competition in Parkville is not so serious.
Furthermore, it is unwarranted to claim that these sports take away time from academic activities. First, we are not informed how many hours are used for sports and academic activities. Perhaps sports time is far less than the time for academic activities. Second, sports may help to do academic activities better. Without ruling out these possibilities, it is unwise to discontinue organized competition.
Last but not least, the author suggests too hastily to discontinue all the competition. Even if some competition is dangerous, some others may be good for children. Common sense tells me that children need to take sports. The disadvantage of discontinue may outweigh the advantage.
To sum up, the author fails to substantiate the conclusion that Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine. The author need further information and reliable study to make the conclusion convincing.
思路：
1、“缺点大于优点”不正确。全国的受伤数据不能表明P市也如此，例如P市相关机构能较好的协调从而避免这些问题，或者P市较少有从事softball and soccer之类的运动。80，000人受伤，不一定占群体总数的很大比例，未说明比之前受伤的人数比例增大。受伤可能由于其他原因，不一定是运动。几个大城市调查的心理压力不一定适用于P市。未说明具体的运动时间和学术活动的时间，可能只占很小比例。
2、即使softball and soccer如此，不一定要取消所有的运动项目，毕竟它们属于比较激烈的运动。
3、没有考虑体育运动的优点，可以释放压力、增加活力。作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-12 10:37:19
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2010-1-12 17:15 编辑
TOPIC: ARGUMENT131 - The following appeared in an environmental newsletter published in Tria Island.
"The marine sanctuary on Tria Island was established to protect certain marine mammals. Its regulations ban dumping and offshore oil drilling within 20 miles of Tria, but fishing is not banned. Currently many fish populations in Tria's waters are declining, a situation blamed on pollution. In contrast, the marine sanctuary on Omni Island has regulations that ban dumping, offshore oil drilling, and fishing within 10 miles of Omni and Omni reports no significant decline in its fish populations. Clearly, the decline in fish populations in Tria's waters is the result of overfishing, not pollution. Therefore, the best way to restore Tria's fish populations and to protect all of Tria's marine wildlife is to abandon our regulations and adopt those of Omni."
In this argument, the author concludes that the Tria Island should abandon its regulations and adopt Omni's in order to restore its fish populations and protect all of its marine wildlife. To support his conclusion, the author cites the example of Omni Island which has regulations that ban fishing. However, the argument suffers from a few flaws. 套用模板
To begin with, the author assumes too hastily that the decline in fish populations in Tria's waters should blame on overfishing. Firstly, there are many other nature factors which would influence the fish population, such as water temperature, spanning season, extreme weather phenomenon and so forth. Secondly, the author fails to prove that the banned actions have not happened. If the water is polluted, the fish population will probably decrease. Besides, the oil may also float from other place. All these sceranios, if true, will undermine the author's conclusion that overfishing should be responsible for decline in fish populations. 该段较好
In addition, even assume that overfishing leads to the decline in fish populations, the author falsely concludes that Tria should follow the example of Omni. The author overlooks the differences between the two Islands. There might be disparity in Island weather, water quality, fish sorts and so on. These differences will make Omni's regulations unsuccessful in Tria. What's more, the author doesn't prove that the fish caught in Tria is within 10 miles of Tria, which will undermine the conclusion. 该段较好，可再扩展详实些
Further more, even assume that the Omni's regulation will success in Tria, the argument still has some flaws. First, the Omni's regulations might not be the best one. There might be better ones such as stricter ban on dumping. Second, the Omni's regulation cannot guarantee to protect all the marine wildlife. 该段若将第二点充分阐述会更好
To sum up, the author fails to substantiate his conclusion that Tria should adopt Omni's regulations. To support his conclusion, the author should provide more information. 需要留意、学习较好的Argument开头、结尾
优点：段落围绕中心句展开，过渡词使用较好。有较详细的例子，文中绿色标出。
The following appeared in the summary of a study on headaches suffered by the residents of Mentia.
"Salicylates are members of the same chemical family as aspirin, a medicine used to treat headaches. Although many foods are naturally rich in salicylates, for the past several decades food-processing companies have also been adding salicylates to foods as preservatives. This rise in the commercial use of salicylates has been found to correlate with a steady decline in the average number of headaches reported by participants in our twenty-year study. Recently, food-processing companies have found that salicylates can also be used as flavor additives for foods. With this new use for salicylates, we can expect a continued steady decline in the number of headaches suffered by the average citizen of Mentia."
In this summary the author concludes that the number of headaches suffered by average citizen of Mentia will continue to decline. To justify this argument, the author show me some evidence that many foods are naturally rich in salicylates(S), which are similar to aspirin, a medicine used to treat headache. Moreover, the author cites a twenty – year study, amid which the average number of headaches is reported declining. However, close scrutiny of the argument reveals many logical and statistic problems that will without doubt render it unconvincing. 套用模板的开头，到底怎样才是好的开头呢？
To begin with, the author’s argument relies on a hasty assumption that S is the very factor leading to the decline of the number of headaches. However, no certain proof has been shown to confirm this connection. There is a high possibility that it’s some other chemicals that added in foods curing the headaches, but not S. And it’s also possible that even though S is curing the headaches, the consequence is not apparent enough for a survey to check out.
Even if the connection between the use of S and decline of headache is confirmed, the author fails to show the details of the twenty-year study to prove it representative. First, the number of people who has taken the survey is not given. Perhaps the sample is too small to be considered valid. Furthermore, the situation of these sample people is also unknown. It’s possible that the symptom of the headache of the people is not severe enough, and that it’s some other factors resulting in the recovery of their headache, even that it’s cure all by themselves.
Even if the two factors that will lead to the failure of the argument are both proved, the author still cannot prove that the trend of using S as preservative will continue. It’s totally possible that all the companies tend to give up using S as preservative for some reasons, like recent discovery or governmental restricts. Or perhaps, there will be some other chemicals found to be more efficient than S as preservative, which will without doubt result in the decline of using S.
In sum, the argument is unpersuasive as it stand in many facets. Firstly, to strengthen the argument, the author must show me more evidence to prove that it is the S which added as preservative that cure people’s headache, not other chemicals. Secondly, to convince me, the author also have to show more details about the twenty – year study to prove it representative. Finally, the author also have to give adequate evidence to show that the tendency of using S as preservatives will continue. Without ruling out all the other possibilities, the argument will never convince me.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT203 - The following appeared in a newspaper feature story.
"At the small, nonprofit hospital in the town of Saluda, the average length of a patient's stay is two days; at the large, for-profit hospital in the nearby city of Megaville, the average patient stay is six days. Also, the cure rate among patients in the Saluda hospital is about twice that of the Megaville hospital. The Saluda hospital has more employees per patient than the hospital in Megaville, and there are few complaints about service at the local hospital. Such data indicate that treatment in smaller, nonprofit hospitals is more economical and of better quality than treatment in larger, for-profit hospitals."
There are several facets are questionable in this argument. At first, the stayed time is not a good indication about the quality of treatment. Secondly, the cure rate can not indicate about the quality about the hospital. Thirdly, more employees for per patient could not ensure a better treatment for the patient. Finally, few complaints were received about the service does not demonstrate all the other people are satisfied with the service. So, the assertion which the author concluded in the argument is unreliable. 首段说明文章将要攻击的点
To begin with, the author has tried to make us believe that the Saluda hospital (SH) could provide better quality treatment because the average length of a patient's stay and the cure rate there is shorter than Megaville Hospital (MH).Lacking information about what kind of illness the patient have got, the author can not confidently draw any conclusion about the quality about the two hospitals. Maybe the patients who visited to SH have some slight sickness, and people may choose the big hospital like MH to cure some serious disease like cancer, or AIDS, and that kinds of sicknesses are not easy,even possible to heal. 较好，展开和例子可再详细些
Another question about the argument is that though there are more employees for per patient of SH than MH, the author can not make sure that every patient will be provided a better service. For the simple reason that we don't know the jobs of those employees, there may be some of them are bus drivers or cooks in cafeteria. They can do nothing to help patient restore. Granted that all the jobs the employees worked are helpful to the patients. We don't know whether they are loyal to their occupation. So the author generated the conclusion too hastily. 说明了非盈利性医院可能兼职较多，应再说明盈利性医院较专业，从而充分展开
Finally, the data about complaints about service of SH could not ensure us SH provides better service. Because we don't know, how many patients have been the two hospitals respectively to cure some sicknesses, and what fraction of them has reported a complaint. May be the quantity of the complaints of SH is less than that of MH. But the fraction may be larger. Granted that both the quantity and fraction of the complaints received by SH is less. The author can not convince us that all the other people are satisfied with the service. 攻击了抱怨数量和比例的差别，应再强调两者性质的差别
In conclusion, this argument can not be taken seriously as it stands. To strengthen it, the author should provide the detailed information about what kind of illness the patients have, what jobs do the employees worked for, and the exact proportion about the received complaints of all the patients.
我的思路
两家医院的性质不同，一家为公益性医院，一家为盈利性医院。所以不能简单的通过一些表面现象将两者进行比较。
1、平均住院时间短和治愈率高不能说明S的非盈利医院优于M的盈利医院。可能去非盈利医院的病人症状较轻，例如感冒catch a cold、发烧fever等，去盈利医院的病人症状较重，心脏病heart disease、牙病odontopathy等。
2、平均医务人员多不能说明S医院优于M。小医院的病人较少，大医院较多。即使的确较少，可能S的医务人员都为兼职或志愿者，M的为专业人员、专家，每个人都有较好的职业技术水平。此外，大医院专业人员较多，例如操作仪器设备的人员、化验人员等。
3、投诉率低不能说明S医院优于M。由于公益性医院免费或收费低，人们对它的期望也会相对较低。反而盈利性医院收费较高，人们对它的期望较高，所以满意率较低。
4、即使S的非盈利医院的确优于M的盈利医院，不能说明所有的非盈利医院优于盈利医院。
作者: ieyangj08 时间: 2010-1-12 15:26:09
本帖最后由 ieyangj08 于 2010-1-12 17:15 编辑
TOPIC: ARGUMENT159 - The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences, many citizens are experiencing rising costs of electricity. A recent study of household electric costs in Claria found that families who cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electricity than did families using air conditioners alone for cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners spent less on electricity than those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.
In this argument, the author recommends both using air conditioners and fans as an effective way of saving money on electricity. In order to justify it, the author cites a survey that different families being diverse in the way of cooling the house spend different money on electricity. However, close scrutiny of the statistic and the line of reasoning reveal that it is not convincing. 开头简洁、概括、句式多变
A threshold problem with the argument involves the statistical reliability of the survey. Lacking of assurance and information about the randomness and relative size of the survey' sample, the author cannot convince me the conclusion of the survey is reliable. As the author mentions, the nation of Claria covers a vast physical area, without enough large sample, so it is entirely possible that the survey is not representative of the real situation of Claria. Moreover different place will have different temperature and the price of electricity, without comprehensive consideration these factors, I strongly doubt the reliability of the survey. The dubious survey undermines the follow conclusions which rely on it. 攻击调查的可信度、样本随机性、样本量，这点攻击较弱，除非无话时慎用
Secondly, the author asserts different way of cooling the house causes the decrease of electricity consuming just because they happen together. Obviously, the evidence for the casual relationship is too vague to believe. Furthermore, to satisfy the same requirement, common sense informs us air condition costs more electricity than fans. Thus, there must be other reasons causing the decrease of the electric consumption. The most reasonable one is that the expense for air condition is so money-consuming that the citizens would like to tolerate the hot weather rather than pay for it. 即使空调用电量较少，可能较贵，大家买不起。这点理由很好，可以单独拿出来展开。
Even though the author can substantiate foregoing assumption and assertion, I still cannot accept his/her recommendation because the author overlooks other factors contributes to the amounts of electricity. As we know, for a family, facilities of cooling the house take little part of electricity. Computer, lights, television, fridge and so forth cost more electricity. Thus it is possible that even though the method of saving electricity recommended by the author works, it makes little contribution to the total electricity consuming so that we cannot see the change on
spending money. Furthermore, if the electric consumptions of other factors increase, it will not save the money, strongly contradicting to the conclusion of the author.
To sum up, the recommendation suffers from statistic and logic flaws causing that it is not warranted. In order to strengthen it, the author should provide the compelling evidence to prove the reliability of the survey and the casual relationship between the way of cooling their house and decrease of electric consumption. Additionally, the author should also provide appealing evidence to prove the total electric consumption will decrease.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT163 - The following is taken from the editorial section of the local newspaper in Rockingham.
"In order to save a considerable amount of money, Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building that some citizens have proposed. The old town hall is too small to comfortably accommodate the number of people who are employed by the town. In addition, it is very costly to heat the old hall in winter and cool it in summer. The new, larger building would be more energy efficient, costing less per square foot to heat and cool than the old hall. Furthermore, it would be possible to rent out some of the space in the new building, thereby generating income for the town of Rockingham."
Citing the comparison between the old hall and new hall, the author comes to the conclusion that on the purpose of saving money, Rockingham' century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building. However, this argument is based on a series of unproven assumptions, which render it unconvincing as it stands. 开头简洁、概要
One such assumption is that the new hall will save energy. Even though the new one will be more energy efficient, costing less per square foot, the author ignores the fact the new hall is far larger than the old hall. In which case, the overall costs of the new hall would be no less, perhaps more than the energy costs of the old hall. Unless the author could provide exact data to demonstrate the new hall can really save energy, his assumption is dubious. 段中心句值得学习，句式多变，该段很好
The author's claim that building the new hall will save a considerable amount of money is open to doubt. On the one hand, tearing down the old hall and building the new hall is considerably money-consuming. The author does not inform the exact amount of money needed; maybe it might lead the town council to budget strain. On the other hand, the author mentions some of the space could be rented out to generate income. However, people might not be willing to rent the hall, in which case, the town would not get any revenue. In short, without providing solid evidences that building new hall would save money, the author's proposal is unpersuasive.
Finally, as the current hall is century-old, it might have historic values. For example, the old hall might be a famous tourist site of town, which attracts thousands of tourists every year. Or perhaps, the old hall might have certain special meaning in the local residents' minds. They might regard the hall as the symbol of the town. If either of the cases is true, the old hall's merits far outweigh the new one's advantages.
All in all, this argument relies on certain unwarranted assumptions and therefore specious at best. To convince readers to accept his/her conclusion that replacing the old hall with new one, the author should provide information on whether the new hall will save energy and save a considerable amount of money, and last but not least, the old hall' historic values.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT137 - The following appeared in an editorial in the Mason City newspaper.
"At present, Mason City residents seldom use the nearby Mason River for any kind of recreational activity, even though surveys of the region's residents consistently rank water sports (swimming, fishing, and boating) as a favorite form of recreation. Since there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river, residents must be avoiding the river because they think that it is not clean enough. But that situation is about to change: the agency responsible for rivers in our region has announced plans to clean up Mason River. Therefore, recreational use of the river is likely to increase, so the Mason City council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the publicly owned lands along the Mason River."
WORDS: 416 TIME: 00:30:00 DATE: 2009/3/9 16:28:42
In this argument, the author drew the conclusion about the increase of recreational use of the Mason River, after his/her seemingly convincing procedure of reasoning, and suggested the City council to increase the budget for the improvement of lands along Mason River. As far as I see it, this argument omits some substential information, and therefore suffers some logical fallacies. 首段简要概括文章，作者目的、支持，表明有逻辑错误
To begin with, the author falsely established a causal relationship between the complaint about the quality of the water and the seldom using of the nearby River for recreational activity. Although the two things happened simultaneously, but there are probably many other reasons for seldom using of the water, too. For example, in the city there is a swimming pool, which supplies a good service and has new infrastructure. So the residents prefer going there to siwm in the river. Like swimming pool, other places, such as park and artificial lack, will attract people as well. Without providing us the information about other places in the city, the author's assumption is invalid.
In addition, can the announcement about cleaning up Mason River by the agency make the use of river increased? Even assuming that the residents seldom use the River, because they worried the quality of the water, a promise about cleaning up cannot make the river really clean at a short time. The environmental restore will take a relative long time, as we know. Moreover, the author did not tell us the detail of the cleaning plan. When does begin it, and how does the agency put it into practice? So the author's conclusion about a increase of use of the water lacks credibility. 疑问句作中心句
Last but not least, the author's suggestion is also doubtful. Even if the river can be cleaned up, it is not clear that why the council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the lands along the Mason River. Can this plan represent the residents' real will? It is entirely possible that a majority of residents want to keep these lands wild as before, so that they can get a real relax in the nature. The author did not show the opinion of the residents, therefore the final suggestion may be not proper.
To sum up, in this argument, the evidence is not enough to support what the author maintained. To strengthen, more information, such as an introduction of the city, a detailed plan about cleaning up the river and a poll about the improvement of lands, are necessary.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT71 - Copper occurs in nature mixed with other minerals and valuable metals in ore, and the proportion of copper in the ore can vary considerably. Until fairly recently, the only way to extract pure copper from ore was by using a process that requires large amounts of electric energy, especially if the proportion of copper in the ore is low. New copper-extracting technologies can use up to 40 percent less electricity than the older method to process the same amount of raw ore, especially when the proportion of copper in the ore is high. Therefore, we can expect the amount of electricity used by the copper-extraction industry to decline significantly.
WORDS: 475 TIME: 00:30:00 DATE: 2009/3/6 17:32:50
Comparing the new technologies with the traditional ones, and then based upon the superiority in electricity reducing of the former, the author thus predicted an optimistic perspective of the new copper-extracting skills. However, to prove those hypothesise requires more work of reasoning and more relative background evidences.
To begin with, the author might intensively conceal the purity of copper proceeded and the expenditure of replacing new equipment. Primarily, the quality of the products should not be overlooked. Admittedly, for its important influence in earning profits, cost should be considered as an important factor in comprehensive judgment of new industrial skills, whereas the quality and quantity of the products are even more decisive in determining practical value of certain new technology. As is self-evident, one industrial innovation could be broadly accepted only when its manufactures satisfied customers. If, for example, the new process of copper-extracting technologies failed to extract more pure copper, factories would never be willing to accept new technologies although the traditional one expends more electricity. In addition, the technical costs are undeserved slipped. When the CEO of one copper-extracting corporation endeavor to decrease their daily cost of energy, the primary consideration of him/her would be how much should he/she pay for the new equipment? If the costs of exchanging equipment, for instance, are much higher than the spending of extra electricity, one would require great act of will to eliminate old equipment. Since the expectation of the author established mainly in wide spread and broad using of the new industrial skills, he/she should not neglect the possibilities mentioned above. 该段可精简
What is more, the effects of the new technologies to environment as well face the similar challenge. Are those new industrial skills detrimental to ecosphere? There might be opportunity that the equipment utilizing those technologies would release great amount of detrimental gases or polluted water to our living circumstance. Actually, if certain new technology will be harmful to our generations, it would never be actualized. Since the author rashly skip this possibility while focus merely on the power saving, the optimistic perspective he/she expecting might never emerge. True, new revolutionary industrial technology rarely failed to influence our daily lives, nonetheless, before verifying its practical influences, the positive anticipation is somewhat too hastily. 该段说明新技术可能对环境产生影响，可与上端合并说明新技术未必能广泛应用
Last but not least, the author failed to take into account that there might be other alternative possibilities to reach out to the purpose of energy saving. Do there exist any chemical compounds that could accelerate the copper-extracting action? As is known to all, appropriate catalyst could lower the temperature required in chemical interactions and therefore reduce the cost of electricity. 还有节能的其他措施
In sum, were there detailed background information demonstrating quality of the products and cost of the machine, particular description convincing the essential impact to circumstance, comprehensive deduction excluding other possible approaches, the expectation of the author would be more rational.
The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences, many citizens are experiencing rising costs of electricity.（其他原因） A recent study of household electric costs in Claria found that families who cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electricity than did families using air conditioners alone for cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners spent less on electricity than those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.
In this argument, the arguer points out that the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity. To support his recommendation, the arguer claims that it is based on a recent study. However, at the first glance, the arguer seems to be plausible, but after a close scrutiny, it lies in several fallacies and logical flaws discussed below.
To begin with, the arguer neglects an important factor which the nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. This phenomenon leads to the different temperature in different region. Therefore, in common sense, with different temperature it is absolutely different costs on electricity. For example, A is natural cooler than B, so A must pay less electric money on fans or air conditioners because the residents in A have already felt cooler than B. Consequently, without consider this factor, the arguer's claim is open to doubt. 该段可以再展开，某些地方需要保暖，制冷费用只占整体电费的很低比例
Secondly, the arguer fails to prove that it is the fact that all the electric costs which they have seen is the fans' or air conditioners' using cost. In other word, the arguer commits a false equal relationship between the overall electric cost and the fans' and air conditioners’ cost. It is entirely possible that when the residents are using fans or air conditioners, they also use other electric facilities, such as computers, televisions and so forth. Thus, without ruling out other possibilities about the electric cost, the arguer's claim can not convince us thoroughly. 该段对论点进行了展开
Even if I was to concede that it is the fact that this overall electric cost is equal to the cooling equipments' cost, the arguer's point is also suspect. It is likely that the longer we use the electric facilities, the more probability they happen to malfunction. It is absolutely possible that the saving money is so little that we can neglect it while the electric equipment is mighty expensive. Therefore, it may not save money if these facilities have something wrong as the result of long time usage. 该段推理有些含糊
To sum up, this argument lacks credible because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To better bolster and strengthen it, the arguer needs to provide specific information about the electric cost and offer us more data of local temperature in different regions.
"Many other companies have recently stated that having their employees take the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course has greatly improved productivity. 公司不同 One graduate of the course was able to read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; another graduate rose from an assistant manager to vice president of the company in under a year. (其他原因)Obviously, the faster you can read, the more information you can absorb in a single workday. Moreover, Easy Read costs only $500 per employee-a small price to pay when you consider the benefits to Acme. Included in this fee is a three-week seminar in Spruce City 三周的学习时间对工作的影响 and a lifelong subscription to the Easy Read newsletter. Clearly, Acme would benefit greatly by requiring all of our employees to take the Easy Read.
At first glance, it would seem, according to the logic of the argument, that Acme Publishing Company (AC) will benefit greatly by requiring all of the employers to take the Easy Read, would be a foregone conclusion. However, the reasoning behind the argument is flawed for several reasons: the author's assumption that the employees taking the Easy Read has greatly improved productivity is open to doubt; the author omits the possibility the training may be useless to Acme; and the author fail to provide information to support that all employees of Acme need to take the training.
The author's assumption that the employees taking the training have improved productivity is specious. The author only takes two employees, the number of whom is too small to represent the overall employees taking the training, to support him. Perhaps other employees' productivity has not improved; even worse, taking the three-week seminar will require the employees to take a three- weeks excuse, which will serious affect the normal jobs of the employees. Besides, there may be other factors that explain the achievements of two employees. Perhaps, their abilities have already been very outstanding. Without the training one of them still can read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; while the other still can rise to vice president. In sum, the author should provide more details of the other employees taking the training. 攻击了参加培训的员工可以提高生产率，该段展开较好
The author fail to guarantee other companies' success will apply to Acme. After all they are different companies and belong to different fields. Perhaps the training will not succeed in Acme for its disparities from other companies, such as the company size, the employees' jobs and the education background of employees. For example, maybe the employees of Acme are graduating from those famous universities, and they already have outstanding reading speeds, which do not have to be improved any more. Without considering the dissimilarities between these companies, the author can not assert Acme’s employees need the training. 其他公司成功，A不一定成功，展开较好
Even assuming the employees of Acme have the need to improve their reading speed, the author's proposal that all employees take the training does not make sense. Common sense tells us that a company's employees have various jobs, many of which do not need the employees to read. For example, the company may have cleaners, whose jobs are just to do the cleaning. If require these cleaners to take the training, at the expense of $500 per person, would it not a waste of money? 即使培训有效果，不一定要所有员工培训
Improving the productivity is of great importance to the company; however, the personnel director of Acme should not be hasty to give his proposal. To convince the readers to accept his conclusion, the author has much work to do: he should find if the training really can improve productivity; he should provide data to show whether Acme's employees need to take it and which employees need and which need not the training.
"For many years all the stores in our chain have stocked a wide variety of both domestic and imported cheeses. Last year, however, the five best-selling cheeses at our newest store were all domestic cheddar cheeses from Wisconsin. Furthermore, a recent survey by Cheeses of the World magazine indicates an increasing preference for domestic cheeses among its subscribers. Since our company can reduce expenses by limiting inventory, the best way to improve profits in all of our stores is to discontinue stocking many of our varieties of imported cheese and concentrate primarily on domestic cheeses."
According to the sales of their newest store and the results of a survey by Cheeses of the World, the president of a chain of cheese stores comes to the conclusion that the best way to improve profits in all of their stores is to discontinue stocking many of their varieties of imported cheeses and concentrate primarily on domestic cheeses. Though sound as it seems, the reasoning is flawed in several aspects.
To begin with, in the newest store the domestic cheddar cheeses from Wisconisin are the best selling cheeses does not mean that all the domestic cheeses sell well. It is entirely possible that all the other domestic cheeses nevertheless sell badly. Perhaps, in the newest store, the domestic cheeses except for those from Wisconisin sell not as well as the imported cheeses and the overall sales of imported cheeses are far more than that of domestic cheeses. If this is the case, discontinuing stocking the imported cheeses, the stores, whose overall sales will drop sharply, will definitely lose huge profits. Unless the president finds out the other cheeses' sales, his proposal will not be convincing. 不一定所有的国内奶酪销售都好，有些牵强
Besides, even assuming that in the newest store, the sales of domestic are better than those of imported cheeses, the president's advice still be too hasty. The president has not provided any evidence that the newest can typify all of their stores. There are many disparities among all the stores, such as the geography positions, the economical conditions of the cities where the stores are located, the tastes of the stores' customers, which will lead to different results of the president' proposal in variable stores. To guarantee this proposal can improve profits, the presidents must make an investigation to learn what the sales in other stores and whether the sales of the newest store can represent all the stores' sales. 新店不一定代表所有的店
In addition, the result of the survey by the magazine can lends little support to the president's proposal. The majority of the survey's respondents are the subscribers of the magazine and not representatives of the overall customers of this chain of cheese stores. Perhaps the respondents' tastes differ greatly from the tastes of this chain of stores' customers, who more prefer imported cheeses. If the president wants to know what the tastes of his stores' customers, he should do a survey among the customers of their chain of stores, rather than blindly believing one magazine’s survey. 杂志的调查对象可能与该连锁店完全不同
In sum, there are still many jobs demanding the presidents to do before his proposal's carried out. Such as, making an investigation to learn what the sales of the other cheeses and what the tastes of customers in all the stores of the chains are.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT6 - The following was written as a part of an application for a small business loan by a group of developers in the city of Monroe.
"A jazz music club in Monroe would be a tremendously profitable enterprise. Currently, the nearest jazz club is 65 miles away; thus, our proposed club, the C Note, would have the local market all to itself. Plus, jazz is extremely popular in Monroe: over 100,000 people attended Monroe's jazz festival last summer, several well-known jazz musicians live in Monroe, and the highest-rated radio program in Monroe is 'Jazz Nightly,' which airs every weeknight. Finally, a nationwide study indicates that the typical jazz fan spends close to $1,000 per year on jazz entertainment. It is clear that the C Note cannot help but make money."
In this argument, the author brought out several facts to support his loan plan. First, currently there is no jazz club nearby Monroe (M). Second, jazz is of great popularity in M. Third, nearly $1000 was spent per year in jazz nationwide. A careful inspection will reveal that these facts are not sufficient to guarantee a profitable result of C note.
To begin with, the favor of 'Jazz Nightly' doesn't necessarily indicate that M's resident will also be interested to take part in a jazz club. On the contrary, the highest-rated radio program which airs every weeknight may attract those people, and provide them with a reason not to attend a jazz club. After all, turning on the radio is much more convenient than driving to a club. Neither can the residence of several well-know jazz musicians infer that a jazz club located in M will be warmly welcomed. It is quite possible that those musicians are acting in the nearest jazz club, or on frequent nationwide show.Without evidence that the people in M will be eager to attend a jazz club, I can not accept that C will be so welcomed.
Another critical fallacy the argument suffer is, the nationwide study that typical jazz fan spends nearly $1000 per year on jazz doesn't necessarily apply to M. It is quite possible that the fans in M do not follow these general trends. Besides, the money spend on jazz club may only contribute a little part to the whole budget. Thus, lacking evidence that M's residents will behave similarly as the typical jazz fans do, and they will indeed spend large amount of money on jazz club, the author's conclusion that C Note will make money is unconvincing.
Finally, even assuming the people in M will be crazy about jazz club and they prone to spend a lot of money attending a jazz night, it doesn't means that C Note will definitely be profitable. As we all know, both revenue and cost contribute to the profit. Probably the rent in M is quite expensive, or the salary level in M is relatively high, which will inevitably increase the cost. Unless the author provides more information about supply, demand, and relative costs, it is almost impossible to make sure whether C Note will make money.
In conclusion, the argument is not well reasoned. To strengthen it the author should provide clearer evidence that M's residents will go in for C Note. The author should also clearly analyze the relative costs against its incomings, and make this application more persuasive.
"Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain. This hypothesis has now been proved by preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients. The first group of patients, all being treated for muscle injuries by Dr. Newland, a doctor who specializes in sports medicine, took antibiotics regularly throughout their treatment. Their recuperation time was, on average, 40 percent quicker than typically expected. Patients in the second group, all being treated by Dr. Alton, a general physician, were given sugar pills, although the patients believed they were taking antibiotics. Their average recuperation time was not significantly reduced. Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment."
According to the preliminary result of a study of two groups of patients, the author comes to the conclusion that all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment. Although sound it seems, the argument is flawed in several aspects.
Primarily, maybe other factors other than the taking the antibiotics contributed the different effects of the two treatments in the study. The two groups of patients were treated by different doctors. Except for the antibiotics, there are many differences between the treatments - the doctors' skills, the treatment measures and the equipments the doctor used. Maybe, Dr. Newland has better skills, and the measures and equipments he used were more advanced. All of these advantages can explain why the recuperation time of Dr. Newland's patients was greatly reduced. In addition, the conditions of the patients in the two groups maybe different. Perhaps, the patients of the first group have less serious injuries than those of the latter group, leading the first group easily to recover. 两组结果的差异可能有其他因素引起。该段语言组织一般，表达略有混乱
Besides, the author ignores the negative effects of the antibiotics. Nearly all the medicines have more or less side effects. The author provides no evidence to prove the antibiotics is an exception. The author only mentions the patients' recuperation time, no informing us whether the patients in the first group had some new symptoms, such as headache, nausea, powerless and sleepy. Even if the patients did not have any new symptom, there is no guarantee that in the future they will not have any symptoms caused by the antibiotics. Perhaps, many patients have serious headache three months later. Lacking clinical experiment, the author can not assert that the antibiotics do not have negative effects, considering the safety of the patients. 论点作者忽略了抗生素的副作用
Additionally, given that the antibiotics do not have any side effects and help patients with severe muscle strain recover, the author's proposal that all the patients with muscle strain should take antibiotics is unacceptable. The treatments of the patients with light muscle strain are not the same with those of the patients with severe muscle strain. Perhaps, without taking antibiotics, the patients with light muscle strain will still recover quickly and will not have the danger to get second diagnosed. If this is the case, it is not reasonable to advise those patients to take antibiotics, letting alone the high price of antibiotics. 建议所有病人使用抗生素不合理，轻度肌肉拉伤和重度的治疗应该不同
In sum, the argument is not well reasoned. To strengthen it, the author must prove us that it is the antibiotics rather than other factors explain the difference between the recoveries of the two groups of patients. What is more, the author should prove the antibiotics have no side effects and all the patients with muscle strain need to take them.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT4 - The following was posted on an Internet real estate discussion site.
"Of the two leading real estate firms in our town-Adams Realty and Fitch Realty-Adams is clearly superior. Adams has 40 real estate agents. In contrast, Fitch has 25, many of whom work only part-time. Moreover, Adams' revenue last year was twice as high as that of Fitch, and included home sales that averaged $168,000, compared to Fitch's $144,000. Homes listed with Adams sell faster as well: ten years ago, I listed my home with Fitch and it took more than four months to sell; last year, when I sold another home, I listed it with Adams, and it took only one month. Thus, if you want to sell your home quickly and at a good price, you should use Adams."
In this argument, the author draws a conclusion; one should choose Adams Realty (AR) rather than Fitch Realty (FR), by a series of deductions. However, to my understanding, the suggestion is based on invalid analogies and incogent evidences. 开头简洁，可取
First and foremost, the author emphasizes that AR owns more real estate agents than FR possesses. But he failed to consider possibilities that more workers are by no means 决不 more work efficient. The workers in FR may share comfortable work environment, enough human touch, and surrounded by optimistic attitude which are rarely in AR. Therefore, workers in FR have more motivations to urge themselves to higher profits. Furthermore, the cost of human resource management and operation must be taken in to consideration to judge the final profits. It is highly probably that AR spent more budgets on workers' salaries and daily water rate and electric charge, which potentially influenced its profits. 语言和展开都很好，员工多不意味着效率高
Moreover, high price of home sales may not lead to high profits either. As it is known to us all, profit is produced by sell price minus cost. So besides the price of building, we have to consider another aspect -- production and operation cost. Perhaps FR has many long-term suppliers, and they built mutually beneficial relationships and cooperation together. Hence the prices of materials of FR are much lower than the ones of AR, Which play a crucial role in determining final profits. So the conclusion: AR is more powerful than FR is doubtful. 高销售价格不意味着高利润，该段可从房子本身质量的差异展开
Finally, the author failed to consider the change of price and requirement in real estate market. Maybe customers were poorer than they are now, or probably by the development of the town, the population explosion is emerged. Thus the needs of apartment are obviously elevated, which, result in fast sale. So, the suggestion that buying AR's building lead to quick sell of house is not as cogent as it seems to be.
As is mentioned above, the conclusion is not persuasive to me. The author has to furnish more effective evidences such as the annual bulletins of two companies and more background information just like comparing the economy now to it was ten years ago to readers.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT169 - The following appeared in a letter from a department chairperson to the president of Pierce University.
"Some studies conducted by Bronston College, which is also located in a small town, reveal that both male and female professors are happier living in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the same geographic area. Therefore, in the interest of attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers to our faculty and improving the morale of our entire staff, we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member we hire. Although we cannot expect all offers to be accepted or to be viewed as an ideal job offer, the money invested in this effort will clearly be well spent because, if their spouses have a chance of employment, new professors will be more likely to accept our offers."
In the argument, the arguer recommends that we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member we hire in order to attract the most gifted teachers and researches and improve the morale of our entire staff. The argument is mainly based on some studies conducted by Bronston College. Although the recommendation sounds indeed reasonable at first sight, a series of logical flaws may undermine the argument.
The threshold problem of this argument is that the studies conducted by Bronston College might not be reliable despite of the similar location. The information about the studies is too vague. Neither does the arguer provide information concerning the process of these studies, nor does the arguer offer any evidence that these studies are reliable. Without enough evidence about the study, it is impossible to assess the validity and reliability of these studies.套用模板痕迹严重
In addition, whether the spouse's job offer is the main factor influencing the most largely on the most gifted teachers and researches is questionable. The arguer unfairly assumes that the spouse's job offer is an attractive condition for most gifted teachers and researchers and that it is difficult for their spouses to find proper jobs. However, there is no guarantee that this is the case, nor does the arguer provide any evidence to substantiate the assumptions. It is highly possible that the most gifted teachers and researches focus more on the scientific environment and the level of their fellows instead of their spouse's job. Besides, their spouses might also be capable enough to find a better job in companies or government rather than Pierce University. Without proving the assumptions, the arguer cannot convince me to accept his/her recommendation. 假设配偶没能力找到工作，为配偶提供工作不是接受offer的唯一因素，两点可拆开来说，和在一起有些混乱
Last but not least, the arguer groundlessly assumes that this recommendation would be effective to improve morale of our entire staff. As the arguer mentions, the offer is only for each new faculty member we hire. If so, the old faculty member might feel it is not fair for them and their spouses. As a result, even though the method is able to attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers, it undermines the morale of our old staff. 老员工可能不满
In sum, the argument lack credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide more evidence to prove the reliability of these studies and revise the recommendation in order to fulfill its function of improving the morale of our entire staff.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT188 - A new report suggests that men and women experience pain very differently from one another, and that doctors should consider these differences when prescribing pain medications. When researchers administered the same dosage of kappa opioids-a painkiller-to 28 men and 20 women who were having their wisdom teeth extracted, the women reported feeling much less pain than the men, and the easing of pain lasted considerably longer in women. This research suggests that kappa opioids should be prescribed for women whenever pain medication is required, whereas men should be given other kinds of pain medication. In addition, researchers should reevaluate the effects of all medications on men versus women.
In the argument, the arguer draw a conclusion that kappa opioids should be prescribed for women whenever pain medication is required, whereas men should be given other kinds of pain medication. Besides, the arguer also suggests that researchers should reevaluate the effects of all medications on men versus women. The argument is mainly based on a research about 28 men and 20 women having their wisdom teeth extracted. However, although the conclusion sounds indeed reasonable at first thought, several logical flaws may seriously undermine this argument.
First of all, the arguer commits a fallacy of "hasty generalization". Firstly, the research only tests one kind of painkiller-- kappa opioids without testing other kinds of painkiller's effect. Based on a specific example, it is logically unsounded to make suggestion for all medications. It is very possible that other kind of medications might be completely different from kappa opioids, they might have the same effect on men and women, or might be more effective on men than women. Secondly, the result of the research is limitedly based on one kind of situation--extracting the wisdom teeth. It is likely that this situation is not typical in general and in other cases kappa opioids might have the same effect on men and women. In fact, in the face of such limited evidence, it is fallacious to draw any conclusion at all. 未验证其他的药物，仅限于拔智齿后的疼痛
Moreover, the research cited by the arguer is too vague to be informative. The number of the subjects, 28 men and 20 women, might constitute an insufficiently small sample to draw any reliable conclusion. Also, the sample might be unrepresentative of the most people. It is possible that the women in the group are more health than the men. Without better evidence that the research is statistically reliable, the arguer cannot convince me to accept his conclusion. 样本量小，未说明其他因素相同
Last but not least, the arguer assumes that kappa opioids are more effective to women than men, according to the evidence that the women reported felling much less pain than the men. But it is not sufficient to substantiate the assumption. It is entirely possible that the women might own more powerful ability to stand the pain or the men might express the pain openly. 疼痛为主观感受
To sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to do more scientific and substantial research. To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information regarding the reference of other medications.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT80 - The following appeared as an editorial in a health magazine.
"Clormium 5 is an odorless, tasteless, and generally harmless industrial by-product that can enter the water supply. A preliminary study has linked cooking with water containing clormium 5 to an increased incidence of allergies and skin rashes. Tests of the drinking water in several areas have revealed the presence of clormium 5. Although it is possible to remove clormium 5 from water, the costs of routine testing and purification are higher than many communities can afford. Therefore, in order to prevent allergies and skin rashes, communities that cannot afford to rid their drinking water of clormium 5 should replace drinking fountains in public buildings, such as schools and libraries, with bottled-water coolers."那些负担不起净化c5的社区，应用瓶装水冷却器更换公共建筑里的饮水机
Before the implementation the recommendation in the argument above, there are several evidence which need to be reexamined in some other aspects, as discussed below.
To begin with, the result of study is open to doubt. Firstly, the argument above provide no detail or information concerning how many people participate the study and how they are selected. Common sense tells us that the smaller the sample size is, the less reliable and credible the result of study will be. Perhaps, only 100 people participate the study, if this is the case, this small sample size is insufficient and imprecise to draw any conclusion. Also due to lacking of information concerning how people are selected to participate the study, we cannot conclude whether the result of study is representative enough. Secondly, the study overlooks other factors which can lead to allergies and skin rashes. Perhaps, due to eating some unclean food, some of the participants get allergies and skin rashes. If this is the case, the conclusion renders its incredibility due to ignore other factors which can lead the same symptoms, such as skin rashes. 样本数量、随机性，过敏皮疹可能由于其他原因
In addition, even if the result of the study is substantiated, it does not follow that presence of clormium 5 will definitely cause allergies and skin rashes. Perhaps, the amount of clormium 5 in the drinking water is little so that it is insufficient to cause people sick. Perhaps, some other materials exist in the drinking water too, which prohibit the effect of clormium 5 to cause people sick. Without ruling out all these possibilities above, the conclusion of argument is groundless to me. 过敏皮疹的其他原因吗，可与上段后部合并
Last not the least, even if the foregoing assumptions are all substantiated, it does not follow that replacing drinking fountains in public buildings with bottled-water coolers will be the best solution. The argument overlooks other methods to deal with drinking water containing clormium 5, which maybe more economical and effective. Perhaps, adding some medicines into the water can offset the effects of clormium 5. Further, the argument does not provide any information concerning bottled-water. Perhaps, these bottled-water still contains clormium 5. In this sense, the recommendation amounts to nothing. 忽略解决问题的其他途径
In conclusion, the argument above fails to convince me. To strengthen the argument, the arguer should provide more detail about the preliminary study above and other methods which can be used for dealing with the drink water containing clormium 5.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT15 - The following appeared in a newsletter offering advice to investors.
"Over 80 percent of the respondents to a recent survey indicated a desire to reduce their intake of foods containing fats and cholesterol, and today low-fat products abound in many food stores. Since many of the food products currently marketed by Old Dairy Industries are high in fat and cholesterol, the company's sales are likely to diminish greatly and their profits will no doubt decrease. We therefore advise Old Dairy stockholders to sell their shares and other investors not to purchase stock in this company."
WORDS: 550 TIME: 0:30:00 DATE: 2008/10/21
In this argument, the author claims that Old Dairy company is not worthy for investors, because many products of Old Dairy are high in fat and cholesterol, which make people regard them as unhealthy foods. Yet, just based on the cursory survey and unsubstantiated assumptions, the argument is far away to be convincing.
First of all, the reliability and generalizability of the survey is open to question. In this survey, 80 percent of the respondents want to reduce the intake of fats and cholesterol. However, the 80 percentage could be significant if the overall number of respondents is 10 million, while it could be meaningless if there are only 10 respondents in the survey. What is more, the backgrounds and health conditions of these respondents are also important. If the 80 percent respondents all suffer from obesity, heart diseases or diabetes, the result of the survey cannot represent the attitude of most healthy people. In addition, the location of the survey is kept unknown as well. Common sense informs us that in developed regions where overweight lists as one of the top health problems, people may highly concern about low-fat diets. While in some poverty region, the high-fat product might be more popular. If Old Dairy's markets mainly locate in the poverty regions other than developed regions, the influence of high-fat foods might be little. In a word, without detailed information of the respondents in the survey, the author can hardly draw to the conclusion that most people would refuse to choose Old Dairy's high-fat foods. 质疑调查的可信度，样本容量、调查群体特征、调查地点。展开详实，质疑调查的好段落
Secondly, the fact that low-fact foods abound in many stores lends little support to the conclusion. For one thing, there are many low-fact foods does not mean that high-fat foods are losing their customers. It is entirely possible that the overall sale of low-fat foods is lower than high-fat foods. Some high-fat foods, such as butter, are dispensible to many families. Also, the higher cost for producing low-fat foods may prevent them gaining high profits. For another, the author does not cite whether the low-fat foods are competitors toward Old Dairy's products. If most of the low-fat foods are bread and soft-drink, while Old Dairy focus on ice-cream, the low-fat products can hardly threaten Old Dairy's sales.
Finally, granted the high-fat foods would influence Old Dairy's profit, it is still presumptuous to judge that Old Dairy's stock are not worthy for investing. On the one hand, according to the reputation of Old Dairy, it might still occupy a large market. After all, the price and taste of food are also play vital roles during the selling. Even though many of Old Dairy's products are not healthy, people may still love them. Furthermore, although many products of Old Dairy are high in fat and cholesterol, it does not preclude that Old Dairy also produce many healthy foods which are low in the two ingredients. Perhaps the healthy foods could guarantee Old Dairy’s high profit. 该点有些无力，题目已说明多数产品，可说明公司从事其他产业 On the other hand, even if the price of Old Dairy's stock is declining, it may not the best chance to sell the stocks. If Old Dairy has already realized the problem and has made efforts to develop new healthy foods, Old Dairy's stock would have a high potential to increase. Considering the possible rise of price, it might be a wise investment to buy Old Dairy’s stocks, let alone keep them.
To sum up, the argument is unconvincing as it stands. It can be improved by considering the recent sales of Old Dairy’s products and the price movements of its stock. After all, evaluating an investment needs comprehensive market surveys and long-term perspectives. 结尾很好
TOPIC: ARGUMENT1 - The following appeared in a memorandum written by the vice president of Nature's Way, a chain of stores selling health food and other health-related products.
"Previous experience has shown that our stores are most profitable in areas where residents are highly concerned with leading healthy lives. We should therefore build our next new store in Plainsville, which has many such residents. Plainsville merchants report that sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all-time highs. The local health club, which nearly closed five years ago due to lack of business, has more members than ever, and the weight training and aerobics classes 健美操班 are always full. We can even anticipate a new generation of customers: Plainsville's schoolchildren are required to participate in a 'fitness for life' program, which emphasizes the benefits of regular exercise at an early age."
While it is true that the facts presents above contribute to the idea that the residents in Plainsville concern about leading a healthy life, it can hardly be concluded from the facts that Nature's way company should build its new store in Plainsville.
In the first place, people in Plainsville may in the favor of wearing comfortable clothes during their leisure time since the suits and leather shoes are much too formal in their spare times. Therefore, it will not be surprising that the sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are all-time highs. Moreover, perhaps Plainsville is a location which contains kinds of stadiums 体育场馆, in which various of sports are made everyday. So surely the sales of running shoes and exercise clothing will be high due to the enormous population taking exercise there. Thus, the sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all time highs can not provide enough evidence that the residents in Plainsville are in favor of leading healthy lives as well as health food.
Second, there are many possible alternatives ignored ,which can also greatly influence the health pub’s business. Perhaps the former management faculty of that club failed in increasing the pub’s attractiveness, which includes the quality of service, the infrastructure of the pub and etc, therefore, even people who like exercise would not like to attend the pub. So when the problems mensioned are solved properly, it is quite possible that the pub has more members than ever. Thus, there is no clear causal relationship between the increase of pub members and the increase of people who are interested in leading healthy lives. 该段论据不能有效支持论点
Finally, not all the next generations are participating the “fitness for future” program willingly. Given that people always reject compulsory things, the products of Nature’s way may be rejected subconsciously by the ones who attend the program nilly-willy. Even if all of the future generations participate the program actively, there are obviously differences between regular exercise and health food. It is highly possible that a man who is interested in basketball likes Coca-cola and hamburgers desperately. Thus, it is unwarranted that the next generation who participate the “fitness for life” program is surely the potential customers of the company.
To sum up, the argument is not sound as it stands. To make it logically acceptable, the author has to provide more clear evidence that there are causal relationships between the high sales of running shoes and exercise clothing and the concern of leading healthy lives. To make it more convincing, the author also has to prove that people who participate in 'fitness for life' program would also be interested in health food.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT137 - The following appeared in an editorial in the Mason City newspaper.
"At present, Mason City residents seldom use the nearby Mason River for any kind of recreational activity, even though surveys of the region's residents consistently rank water sports (swimming, fishing, and boating) as a favorite form of recreation. Since there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river, residents must be avoiding the river because they think that it is not clean enough. But that situation is about to change: the agency responsible for rivers in our region has announced plans to clean up Mason River. Therefore, recreational use of the river is likely to increase, so the Mason City council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the publicly owned lands along the Mason River."
WORDS: 554 TIME: 0:30:00 DATE: 2008/10/9
In this argument, the author claims that the Mason City need to improve the publicly owned lands along the Mason River, because after the river is cleaned up, more and more people will use the river for recreational activities. Close scrutiny shows that the evidences lend little support to the conclusion. 文中未提清理干净，是否推理不当？
To begin with, the author unfairly assumes that the residents of Mason City need to use Mason River for recreation. In this argument, the author cites that residents of Mason City are fond of water sports. If it is true, there must be many good places in Mason City for swimming, fishing, and boating. The gyms in this city must all have swimming pools because swimming is popular. There maybe several parks in the city where people can go for fishing or boating. If not, how can the residents consistently rank water sports as their favorite? For that matter, people will not eager to use Mason River as another place for water sports. Therefore, it is not necessary to improve the public lands along the river. 城中还有其他玩水设施，未必增加M河的使用
What is more, the author fails to consider other possible reasons for the seldom using of Mason River. No evidence shows that the quality of the water is the most important reason which prevent people to use Mason River for recreation. It is entirely possible that Mason River is too terrantial to be used for swimming or boating regardless how clean the water it is. Or perhaps there is a chemical factory nearby the river so that eating fish in the river is not healthy. The location of Mason River is also important, is it near the residential area? Without ruling out other possible reasons, the author can not convince me that residents will go to Mason River for recreation after the water is cleaned up. M河使用较少的其他原因
The author also unfairly assumes that the Mason River will be definitely cleaned up. Although the agency has announced plans to clean up Mason River, it can not guarantee that the plans will be effective. Announcement is one thing, operation the cleaning plan is anoher thing. No evidence shows that the agency is responsible enough. If the agency is responsible and efficient, why there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river? If they keep the quality of the water well, there would be no need to clean up it. It would be better to disscuss the budget after the river is truely cleaned up. 计划未必能实现
Even if we accept all the assumptions, it does not necessarily means the Mason City council need to add budget for improvements to the public lands along the river. Nothing is mentioned the condition of the public lands, and we can not conclude that the lands can not meet residents needs. Does people need to use the public lands when they do water sports? In addtion, increasing budget will add the tax of residents, does that worth the cost? 未必需要扩大公用土地
To sum up, the argument is unconvincing as it stands. To substantiate it, the author need to do some detailed suverys about why people seldom use Mason River for water sports, and cite more evidence show that the agency will clean up the river. Furthermore, more datas are needed in order to bolster the plan for improving the public lands along the river.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT38 - The following memo appeared in the newsletter of the West Meria Public Health Council.
"An innovative treatment has come to our attention that promises to significantly reduce absenteeism in our schools and workplaces. A study reports that in nearby East Meria, where fish consumption is very high, people visit the doctor only once or twice per year for the treatment of colds. Clearly, eating a substantial amount of fish can prevent colds. Since colds are the reason most frequently given for absences from school and work, we recommend the daily use of Ichthaid, a nutritional supplement derived from fish oil, as a good way to prevent colds and lower absenteeism."
The author suggests that in order to prevent colds and reduce the rate of absenteeism we should recommend the daily use of lchthaid, which is derived from fish oil. It may seems reasonable on the surface, however, with further scrutiny, I find several faults in this argument. 开头简洁
First of all, the author unfairly associates the high consumption of fish to the low rate of visit to the doctor as result of colds. It is entirely possible that the people in EM are all in good health； accordingly, they seldom catch colds. Or perhaps the doctors' fees are so high in EM that few people can afford to visit doctors when they catch colds. Even assuming the people in EM seldom catch colds, the author also fails to indicate if there are other healthy foods or life-styles of residents in EM accounting for their good health. Without providing sufficient information of the health conditions of residents in EM, the author cannot make me believe high fish consumption contributes to the reducing of colds. 逻辑清晰，推理较好
Secondly, the author assumes that those who are absent from school and work are really because of colds. As we know, some of the absenteeism are is just the result of laziness instead of catching colds, which is just an excuse for their absenteeism. Or perhaps workers and students have some personal reasons which they don't like to make them public. Unless the author could ensure actual cold rates in the whole absenteeism, it is unwarranted for him to reach this conclusion. Additionally, the author doesn't indicate that it is sufficient to reduce absenteeism through the declination of colds.
Thirdly, even assuming that high consumption of fish could reducing colds and the colds are the main factor contributing to the absenteeism, the author also fails to indicate that lchthaid is the useful ingredient of the fish which contributing to the declination of the rate of colds. Without the results of some scientific experiment, the author cannot make it clear that it is lchthaid or other ingredients in fish that play an important role in reducing colds. The less important the lchthaid is , the less convincible of the author's claim about the function of lchthaid. 首句的让步有些冗余，须精简。展开有些不充分
Finally, the author also overlooks other solutions to reduce the rate of absenteeism. For the purpose of decreasing absenteeism, the factories could make the job more profitable and schools could make the study more attractive to students. To build up the body of workers and students, it is also alternative for the government to subsidize some public exercise facilities and promote citizens to exercise frequently.
All in all, this argument does have some merits but is not flawless. For the purpose of better supporting his suggestion, the author needs to provide sufficient information to indicate the it is the high fish consumption contributing to the low rates of colds and in-depth investigation about why workers and students are absent. To better convine me, the author also needs to conduct some experiments to illustrate that lchthaid is the useful ingredients of fish.
By citing that EZ ,which will have more trucks than ABC, collects trash twice per week more than ABC' once and 80 percent of the respondents claimed they were satisfied with EZ, the author wants to convince us that Walnut Grove(WG) town should continue using EZ as their trash disposer. However, after taking a thoroughly/thorough examination, the argument is weakened/weak in several points. 段首句的细节引用可以改为By citing several evidences, the author
On the whole, the author implies us that EZ's performance merits the 500 dollar's surcharge. This is what the entire argument is based on. Yet ,being lacking in more detailed information, the assumption or implication is soundless. 开头有些冗余，简练说明段落中心即可 The author implies us that if ABC is to collect twice per week,ABC will charge $4000 while EZ 'only' charges $2500.So ,EZ is obviously deserved to choose.However,the arguer fails to provide the details about the 2 company's service. 重复题目，与上文意义一样，可精简 It’s quite possible that ABC uses a more advanced and environmentally/environmental harmless technique to deal with the trash while EZ just burn or bury it. Thus considering the saved expenditure in environmental protection, ABC may be a much smarter choice.So, without supplying more details about the 2 company's services, the assumption is groundless. 该句又一次重复，应精简
Secondly, ignoring other possible alternatives/factors, the author simply equates more trucks with better performance. Yet no evidence has shown that EZ will use these additionally ordered trucks to improve its performance in WG.Further more, it’s equally possible that these trucks will be used to expand EZ's service to other towns or cities. If that's the case, these trucks are meaningless to WG.Also, if 20 trucks are enough for the collection in WG, there’s no reason to claim more trucks will have better performance than ABC. Without ruling out these possibilitis, the claim is weakened.
Finally, the survey results actually contribute little in proving EZ is a better choice even when EZ charges 500 dollars more. Even though 80% respondents feel satisfied with EZ, we still can't say EZ will do better than ABC .For 10 years, people in WG have already been used to EZ being their trash disposer.To take a step further, they actually have no idea about whether other company's performance will be better or not. Maybe when WG choose ABC, more respondents will admit they are satisfied. Even if ABC has fewer supporters, is EZ’s performance worthy of the extra $500 ? It still needs to be evaluated statistically. So, the mere fact that the survey provides does nothing in bolstering the argument.
For the reasons above,the argument is not strongly surpported.In order to convince us WG town should continue using EZ, the author should provide more details and statistics for us to evaluate the claim all-sidedly.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT101 - The following appearedin a memo from the president of a company that makes breakfast cereals.
"In a recent study, subjects who ate soy beans at least five times per week had significantly lower cholesterol levels than subjects who ate no soy products. By fortifying our Wheat-O cereal with soy protein, we can increase sales by appealing to additional consumers who are concerned about their health. This new version of Wheat-O should increase company profits and, at the same time, improve the health of our customers."
In this memo, the president suggests that in order to increase the profits of company and improve the health of customers, it is necessary to fortify WO cereal with soy protein. At first glance, president's suggestion seems appealing; however close scrutiny revealsthat there are some logical fallacies in the memo that undermines itscredibility.
The threshold problem with this memo lies in that author fails to provide detailed information about the study such as the total number of subjects in the study. Lacking this information makes his conclusion becomeless statistical reliable. 展开不充分
Even if the study is statistical reliable,the president's suggestion still seems unsound for the simple reason he fails to offer direct evidence that the soy beas is low in cholesterol. Thus, it is entirely other issues such as less eating eggs and red meat that contribute the low in cholesterol. Without ruling out this possibility, author cannot convinceme that eating soybeans would lower cholesterol.
Even if the soybeans do have the functionof reducing cholesterol level, it has no indication that consumers would prefer company's product that mixes it with WO cereal. Perhaps such mixing would result the taste of the product become so bad consumers even those who are most concerned about health are not able to accept its taste. If this is the case,such product will become complete failure in the market. Therefore, failing to accounting this possibility, author cannot make his claim that the product will be appealing to consumers who are concerned their health persuasive. 让步
Finally, even if such product can be accepted by consumers, author's conclusion that it is capable of increasing company's profits is still logical unsound. A common sense informs that the profit of certain product is dependent on its cost and sales. Although this product could gain a good sale in market, its cost is also rising since some soy protein is added to the product.And the president fails to exclude the possibility that the increase in costreaches such a high level that undermines its profits. It this is the truth,president's suggestion become completely unwarranted. 让步，尽量避免二次让步
In sum, this argument is not well-supportedas it stands. To bolster it , president should offer concrete evidence that the product that mixes cereal and soy protein will be good for consumers' health,and this product will be accepted by consumers. Moreover, company should carryout a survey among potential consumers before they make such a decision.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT15 - The following appeared in a newsletter offering advice to investors.
"Over 80 percent of the respondents to a recent survey indicated a desire to reduce their intake of foods containing fats and cholesterol, and today low-fat products abound in many food stores. Since many of the food products currently marketed by Old Dairy Industries are high in fat and cholesterol, the company's sales are likely to diminish greatly and their profits will no doubt decrease. We therefore advise Old Dairy stockholders to sell their shares and other investors not to purchase stock in this company."
In this newsletter, the author recommends that Old Dairy (OD) stockholders should sell their shares and other investors should not to purchase stock in OD. To justify this recommendation, the author points out that people want to reduce their intake of foods containing fats and cholesterol, according to a recent survey, and that low fat products are abound in many food stores. The author also points out that many food products currently marketed by OD are high in fat and cholesterol. Careful scrutiny of these evidences, however, reveals that this recommendation is unconvincing in several respects.
A threshold problem with the argument involves the statistical reliability of the survey. First, we are informed nothing with respects to the way the poll was conducted and how well the respondents represented the public opinions. Secondly, the author provides no evidence that the number of the respondents is statistically significant. Thirdly, it is highly possible that people inclined to caring their intake were more willing to repond to the survey than were other people. If this is the case, the over 80 percent respondse rate is not persuasive.
Even assuming the result of survey is reliable, the author's reasoning that OD's will no doubt decrease is unjustifiable. First, people's concerns about their intake of foods and their eating of these foods is two things. Next, although the author points out that low fat products abound in many food stores, it is possible that a majority of popular foods remain the kind of OD's products. 需要再说明，逻辑有跳跃Thus, without ruling out this possibility, the author cannot conclude that the profits of OD will no doubt decrease.
Before I come to my conclusion, it is necessary to another flaw appearing in this argument: the author draws a hasty conclusion, merely based on these facts cited in the argument, that OD stockholders should sell their shares and other investors should not to purchase stock in OD. Perhaps, the sales of foods containing fats and cholesterol are not the major sources of OD's revenues. For that matter, after perceiving this trends, perhaps OD would take effective measures to change their products in the near future in order to gain a greater profits. In short, absent additional information concerning these scenarios, I find the author's recommendation is unconvincing.
To sum up, tha author fails to provide key evidence needed to support the recommendation. To bolster that suggestion the author must show that the survey is statistically reliable, To better assess the suggestion the author must also show that the foods containing fats and cholesterol are to a great extent lose their market. Also useful would be any information concerning whether OD has other major sources of profits and whether OD will take measures to deal with the trend.
ARGUMENT46 - Although black bears are common in the eastern Canadian province of Labrador, grizzly bears-often similar in color, but much larger-were believed to exist only in the western provinces. Despite a nineteenth-century explorer's account of having startled and narrowly escaped from a grizzly bear deep in the woods in Labrador, modern scientists find no physical evidence that grizzly bears have ever lived in Labrador. But recent research into the language and legends of the Innu, a people who have lived in Labrador for thousands of years, reveals that their language has words for two different kinds of bears, and their ancient legends attribute different characteristics to the two kinds of bears. Therefore, there probably were grizzly bears in Labrador, and the explorer's account probably accurately identified the bear.
The arguer drew two conclusions above. First, there may be grizzly bears in Labrador. Second, the explorer's account probably accurately identified the bear. The reason he provided is that there are two different kinds of bears in the Innu language and the Innu ancient legends attribute different characteristics to the two kinds of bears. There are logical errors in the arguer's deducing, which makes his assertions are unreliable.
For one thing, the main reason the arguer brought forward are the language and legends. 该句逻辑不太严密 The problem is that whether the research of language is useful, or can there be any misunderstanding to the language. Because we don't know whether or not the language research was made by authorities or some one not so professional, we can not firm rely on this search result. 例子有些牵强 Maybe there are some words’ meaning just like grizzly bear, or the description of some other kinds of bears which is similar to grizzly lead the arguer mistaken it as grizzly bears. The legends are neither can be used as evidence. That is only something without evidences support. The arguer seemed to deduce a conclusion with things need warranted, made a serious logical mistake.
Even though there may be grizzly lived in Labrador, no evidence show that the explorer's account is true, let alone to accurately identify the bear. For one thing need to be investigated is whether he really startled and narrowly escaped from a grizzly bear? We must make sure that there were not other reasons that may him to tell a lie. For another, is the report reliable? For it was happened in nineteenth-century, there may be some mistakes in the report which is not so accurate as our contemporary. Another case may be that the explorer had mistaken a bear just be like to the grizzly bear as the grizzly bear.
From analyzed above, we can see that the arguer’s assertions are not persuasive. He should offer more statistic evidence or study reports to give sufficient support to his conclusion, such as studies of the number of grizzly bears or researches did by authorities.
TOPIC: ARGUMENT51 - The following appeared in a medical newsletter.
"Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain. This hypothesis has now been proved by preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients. The first group of patients, all being treated for muscle injuries by Dr. Newland, a doctor who specializes in sports medicine, took antibiotics regularly throughout their treatment. Their recuperation time was, on average, 40 percent quicker than typically expected. Patients in the second group, all being treated by Dr. Alton, a general physician, were given sugar pills, although the patients believed they were taking antibiotics. Their average recuperation time was not significantly reduced. Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment."
In this argument , the author advises that all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment. To substantiate his point, he cites a study consists of two group of people, the people who are given antibiotics recover more quick than other group. At first glance ,this argument seems reasonable, but further inspection shows it suffers from many logical flaws. 第二句繁琐，而且逻辑不严密，可以改为 To substantiate his point, he cites preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients.
First and foremost, the study cited in the argument is lack of credibility. Firstly, the study provides insufficient information about two group people's age , sex and physical condition. Without these information, we may think that the first group is consist of people who are young and more healthier than the those in second group. On the contrary, the people in second group may be some old people who have a poor health condition and recovery speed. In this case, the study is invalid to make a comparison. Secondly, the doctor in the two groups are different. Common sense tells us that the doctor specialized in sports medicine will do better in curing the muscle strain compared with a general physician. Therefore, there is a high possibility that the first group's shorter recuperation time is result form the doctor's better treatment in first group not the function of antibiotics. 该段展开很好，可以再加一句总结性的结束语，以完整结构
Second, the arguer provides no information of the function of sugar pills in the treatment of second group. It's entirely possible that the sugar pill will do some harm in people's recovery. Maybe it is the sugar pill that causes the second group people recuperating slower than group one. Without ruling out this possibility, the arguer can not convince me that the antibiotics will reduce people's recuperation time.
Even if antibiotics could reduce patients' recuperation time, the arguer unfairly assume that all patients must take antibiotics as part of their treatment. Firstly, the arguer provide no evidence that patients who suffered from muscle strain is likely to get secondary infections. There is a good chance that most of patients suffered from muscle strain don't get secondary infections, therefore using antibiotics will have little effects. Secondly, the side-effect of antibiotics should also be take into patients' consideration. If the antibiotics have many side effects such as damaging one's immune system, nausea, 恶心 vomiting,呕吐 choosing use antibiotics only to reduce recuperation time is not a wise decision.
To sum up, this argument relies on an doubtful study, which renders it unconvincing as it stands. To strengthen it , the arguer should provide more details of the function of sugar pill and consider the doctor's effect in the comparison. To better improve it, the arguer should also investigate whether the antibiotics have some side effects.