1006G SPECTACULAR 备考日记 by tequilawine [无]--最初的梦想绝对会到达

tequilawineUID：2702008

Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！）
A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
A conclusion should
•        stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
•        give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
•        leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
Suggestions
•        Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.
Friend: So what?
You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.
Friend: Why should anybody care?
You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.
You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.
•        Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
o        Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.

• Redirect your readers
  • Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.
    • Create a new meaning
      • You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
    • Point to broader implications.

  • 
    For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

    
    
    • Create a new meaning
      • You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
    • Point to broader implications.

    
    For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

  • Strategies

    
    
    • Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
    • Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）
    • 
      Example

    • Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.

      • Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

      Example

      Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）

    • Posing questions:（提出问题

      • Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

    • Example

      Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

    • 
      trategies to Avoid

    • ·
      Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
      ·
      Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
      ·
      Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
      ·
      Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
      ·
      Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
      ·
      Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
    • Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
    • This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say.
    • 
      The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front.
    • This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
    • The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper.
      

tequilawineUID：2702008

【CASK EFFECT】阅读能力基础自测（速度、难度、深度、越障、真题、RAM）
第一次 70分钟
GRE每个大约3辩  科学要两遍 其余的一边就可以。
GRE第一个阅读走神两次，
感觉4
It is in the place that tales occupied in the lives of the slaves and in the meaning slaves derived from them that the clearest resemblances to African tradition can be found. Afro-American slaves did not borrow tales indiscriminately from the Whites among whom they lived.
Regardless of where slave tales came from, the essential point is that, with respect to language, delivery, details of characterization, and plot, slaves quickly made them their own.两处有问题的地方
感觉单词大部分了解，但是就是读不懂句子，不知道是什么问题，而且奇怪的是越简单的单词组成的句子越是难懂。
需要好好的看看GRE的难句。做一本阅读的练习书。
感觉整体测试的难度可以，就是不知道自己测试后该怎么办，


GRE 1错了一个
       2错了2个
LSAT 错了3个

tequilawineUID：2702008

看了10篇AG后感觉，文章的条理清晰真的很重要，有的人写的东西让你感觉，很混乱，同时让你没有办法看完后有个清晰地认识。
同事如果作者自己的主题句不清晰，文章也很容易看不懂。其实看得多了你就发现了，好的文章都是满足了前面联系的几点要求，并且能够用一些比较好的论据来进行补充。所以我感觉还是有模式可以遵循的。

tequilawineUID：2702008

arguement 162
From the upper passage, we can conclude that the author thought that the reason which cause North American Peple suffer more than Asians is that they eat less soy than them.But if we analyze the datas carefully you will find the fallicious of the conclusion.

To begin with, we can easily noticed that what we can not make clear since now is that the lack of soy to Noth Americans sounds no necessary cause-and -effect relationship between them.It may be true of the evidence the arguer take out to show that Asians eat more of soy than North Americans, and the soy contains phytochemicals called isflavones that can contains disease-preventing properties, and hense be recommended to eating for them  for anti-fatigue and chromic depression. The extent of the arguer's inference can only reach this level, to further exploit the aftermath concerning the reason of that still waits for more information, such as the authoriative report proving such potentical nexus, or otherwise, the arguer is only resting the assertion on a gratuitous assumpution.

Another obvious cynosure we facilely notice is that the recommendation of eating more to prevent the diseases, which is more unsubstantial. In the whole article, the  arguer's claim range only spread to the layer of lacking soy, referring to the habits of balance in food is a sudden idea  out of any sign predicted, thus acts the role of invalid deduction. Also, the arguer presumptuously holds the conviction of "any" person who lives in North America, ought to take the soy for preventing it, which works agains commonsencial knowledge of treating different people by choosing different methods, at all no tow individuals are totally equivalent.

To sum up, starting from the ridiculous basement to the final fallacious recommendation the arguer cursorily treat the gross deduction process, and add additional vulnerable annoucement in the brittle body of the argument, which ultimately results the further discretion directly leads to its detiny of rebuff.

tequilawineUID：2702008

昨天继续在看版主给的ARGUE文章，大概看了10篇之后，我发现自己就有点烦了，有很多一样的词语重复的出现，感觉都不愿意看了，而且最要命的是你有的还不知道作者到底要说什么。我发现思路清晰，论证充分真的很重要，同时要能有一些不同就更好了。

tequilawineUID：2702008

文章中的好句：
1  Its aim was “to achieve stabilisation of greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system”.
2 But the usual causes of natural variability do not seem to explain the current trend, so scientists incline to the view that it is man-made.是不是连词过多呀
3 It is a prisoner’s dilemma, a free-rider problem and the tragedy of the commons all rolled into one. 这句话没看懂
4 Not only is the latest round of negotiations mired in difficulty, but the World Trade Organisation’s task is child’s play compared with climate change.
5 The benefits of mitigating climate change are uncertain, since scientists are unsure of the scale and consequences of global warming, and will mostly accrue many years hence. The need for action, by contrast, is urgent.
6 But any global climate deal will work only if the domestic policies through which it is implemented are both efficient and effective.

tequilawineUID：2702008

we both know that if we really wanna have some results or agreements, the countries must to compromise and take their own duties. Not only do the developping countries stop asking for more aid, but also developed countries dedicate more to it. After hearing from the announcement of the conference, it seems like chaos between ruffians bargaining their own benefit, no clue to indicate us that the big gun really care about the weather crisis that is already staring us in the face.
As the author said "to mankind to get even to the threshold of a golbal agreement is a marvel." so what is really left behind for the party of the world.

tequilawineUID：2702008

比起写AW，我还是真的愿意写这种针对性的评论，可能是因为相对简单的问题吧，不过看文章的时候还是能感觉到自己的思路没办法完全的和作者的吻合。

tequilawineUID：2702008

好句：
1 Almost everyone who was interviewed for this special report said that the biggest problem at the moment is not a lack of demand but a lack of good work to sell.
2 One of the biggest changes since the market last peaked in 1989 has been the expansion of the auction houses and the change in the nature of the dealer business.
3 Yet even here there are dark corners.
4 No one was charged at Christie’s, which had blown the whistle on the commission-fixing.
5 With a hugely expanded international client base, it was only a matter of time before both auctioneers started to muscle in on areas that had previously been the preserve of private dealers, matching buyers and sellers and selling new art rather than items that had already been in the market.
the author gave us a overview of the art industry ,which is the same as any other business,and show how does it works so notoriously.by noticeing that, no one can deny nothing is pure once invloving with money.At first, author told us about the trends and change that happens in the field and gave us a clue that the finacial crisis didn't not give it a fatal attack, just as the headline written “suspend animition",which means it will boom up whenever the inclination of recovery of the economy.After that, the passage also showed us the astonishing masterplan of the two companies which is also the only two largest auction houses in the world. Dissatisfying with contemporary situation, they are eager to expand their territory both in horizontal and vertical, no wander they have to muscle in on the dealer’s preserve. Once the balance broken, I think there would become into monopolizing. Maybe we can see they are all things to all men at this moment, but how could you still be confident after they seizing the world.

tequilawineUID：2702008

12        Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness
1  Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers 去掉不必要的限定修饰语
Wordy
Any particular type of dessert is fine with me.
Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help.
More Concise
Any dessert is fine with me.
Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help.
Here's a list of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer:
kind of
sort of
type of
really
basically
for all intents and purposes
        definitely
actually
generally
individual
specific
particular
2  Change phrases into single words  短语用单词代替
   Wordy
The employee with ambition...
The department showing the best performance...
Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing.
As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything else is to try to see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than verbs.
More Concise
The ambitious employee...
The best-performing department...
At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install microfilm equipment in the data processing department.
As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases
3        Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases去掉不必要的从句
Wordy
The report, which was released recently...
All applicants who are interested in the job must...
The system that is most efficient and accurate...
More Concise
The recently released report...
All job applicants must...
The most efficient and accurate system...
4        Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences 比秒过多使用感叹句
Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions creates wordy prose.
Wordy
It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills.
There are four rules that should be observed: ...
There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street.
More Concise
The governor signs or vetoes bills.
Four rules should be observed:...
A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street.
5. Use active rather than passive verbs 主动语态代替被动语态
  Wordy
An account was opened by Mrs. Simms.
Your figures were checked by the research department.
More Concise
Mrs. Simms opened an account.
The research department checked your figures.
6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs 避免过多使用动词的名词形式
  Wordy
The function of this department is the collection of accounts.
The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention.
More Concise
This department collects accounts.
The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention.
7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases 改写罗嗦的不定式短语
Wordy
The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it.
A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customers to become dissatisfied with service.
More Concise
A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.
A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customer dissatisfaction.
8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions 平铺直叙
  Wordy
At this/that point in time...
In accordance with your request...
More Concise
Now/then...
As you requested...
Here are some other common circumlocutions that can be compressed into just one word:
the reason for
for the reason that
owing/due to the fact that
in light of the fact that
considering the fact that
on the grounds that
this is why
        =because, since, why


on the occasion of
in a situation in which
under circumstances in which
        =when


as regards
in reference to
with regard to
concerning the matter of
where ________ is concerned
        =about


it is crucial that
it is necessary that
there is a need/necessity for
it is important that
cannot be avoided
          =must, should

is able to
has the opportunity to
has the capacity for
has the ability to

        =can

        =may, might, could



9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail 省略那些解释显而易见的细节词语
  Wordy
I received your inquiry yesterday. Yes, we do have...
It goes without saying that we are acquainted with your policy on filing tax returns, and we have every intention of complying with the regulations that you have mentioned.
Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess.
Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms of total attendance at ball parks and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play on the field that alternates between times when players passively wait with no action taking place between the pitches to the batter and then times when they explode into action as the batter hits a pitched ball to one of the players and the player fields it.
More Concise
Yes, we do have...
We intend to comply with the tax-return regulations that you have mentioned.
Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.
Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action.
10. Omit repetitive wording  省略重复意思相近的重复词语
Wordy
I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the administrator's dislike of long sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other items drafted for her signature or approval, as well as in all correspondence, reports, and studies. Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short.
The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury.
Our branch office currently employs five tellers. These tellers do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with the rush on Friday and Saturday.
More Concise
Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters, reports, and studies short. Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos drafted for her approval recently have been wordy and thus time-consuming.
The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury.
Our branch office currently employs five tellers, who do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with Friday and Saturday rush periods.
Redundant Pairs
Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete, so the phrase completely finish is redundant in most cases. So are many other pairs of words:
past memories
various differences
each individual _______
basic fundamentals
true facts
important essentials
future plans
        terrible tragedy
end result
final outcome
free gift
past history
unexpected surprise
sudden crisis

A related expression that's not redundant as much as it is illogical is very unique. Since unique means "one of a kind," adding modifiers of degree such as very, so, especially, somewhat, extremely, and so on is illogical. One-of-a-kind-ness has no gradations; something is either unique or it is not.
Wordy
Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various differences among all of the many very unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her future plans.
More Concise
Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences among the unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her plans.
Redundant Categories
Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both. We know that a period is a segment of time, that pink is a color, that shiny is an appearance. In each of the following phrases, the general category term can be dropped, leaving just the specific descriptive word:
large in size
often times
of a bright color
heavy in weight
period in time
round in shape
at an early time
economics field
        of cheap quality
honest in character
of an uncertain condition
in a confused state
unusual in nature
extreme in degree
of a strange type

Wordy
During that time period, many car buyers preferred cars that were pink in color and shiny in appearance.

The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar in nature.
More Concise
During that period, many car buyers preferred pink, shiny cars.
The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms.

tequilawineUID：2702008

继续补上原来的作业，同时感觉自己通过写这两天的东西后，感觉自己的文章干巴巴的，怎么一点感觉都没有，翻来覆去就是那么几个词，也没有什么出彩的东西。晕了

tequilawineUID：2702008

现在开始决定每天都有计划的记住一些阅读中比较号的句子，以后好加以利用。今天开始第三篇了，感觉自己阅读的要更深入一些。

tequilawineUID：2702008

好句：
1 But it also noted that in effect this was a “foreign-exchange version of the cold-war stalemate based on ‘mutually assured destruction’”.
   比喻很多。但是它同时也显明了事实上这是外汇储备上的冷战僵局，建立在可以互相残杀的基础上。这么说对么？
2 It sees America’s plight as a cue to push for the lifting of such barriers and for Chinese companies to look actively for buying opportunities among America’s high-technology industries. 什么意思呀？
3 Nationalism is a powerful, growing and potentially disruptive force.
4 A senior American official says that some of his country’s dealings with China are like those with the European Union; others resemble those with the old Soviet Union, “depending on what part of the bureaucracy you are dealing with”. 可不可以说是看问题一分为二
5 Protests are on the rise, corruption is rampant, crime is surging.  并列句

生词：
wary   contemplate   eclipse precipitate   tenaciously authoritarian    tatter    trade disputes   rubble  chafed at   buying spree   lag behind
turf    status quo    catalyse  

it's is always too complcated for anyone that wanna to explain the relationship between us and china in one word, cause we all know changing situation and all facets lied in two countries cooperation and competition lead to the dilemma let alone the different community organization. from the passage, the author wanna convey spectators  the signal Uncle Sam and eastern dragon making effort to heading up together, though uncertainty indeed exist between triangle relationship,china ,us , taiwan.  i think it is radiculous for some experts to regard china as a it's is always too complcated for anyone that wanna to explain the relationship between us and china in one word, cause we all know changing situation and all facets lied in two countries cooperation and competition lead to the dilemma let alone the different community organization. from the passage, the author wanna convey spectators  the signal Uncle Sam and eastern dragon making effort to heading up together, though uncertainty indeed exist between triangle relationship,china ,us , taiwan.  furthermore, i reckon it is radiculous for some experts to regard china as a potential rival,without considering the whole nation power.
by contrast, china do have some his own problems such as tenaciously authoritarian, governmental corruption and polarization of rich and poor. taking into account any one metioned before, either of that  can lead to a sever stability disaster of the country.

tequilawineUID：2702008

But nobody really knows, and nobody wants to know.喜欢这个语气
Some scientists think that the planet is already on an irreversible journey to dangerous warming. A few climate-change sceptics think the problem will right itself. Either may be correct.Predictions about a mechanism as complex as the climate cannot be made with any certainty.这一段都写得好啊
Three main explanations for this disastrous outbreak suggest themselves. It could be chance. Populations do fluctuate dramatically and unexpectedly. It could be the result of management practices. British Columbia’s woodland is less varied than it used to be, which helps a beetle that prefers pine. Or it could be caused by the higher temperatures that now prevail in northern areas, allowing beetles to breed more often in summer and survive in greater numbers through the winter.
多妙的展开论述啊，什么叫具体，什么叫exhaustive，看看这里，我们的argument若是能写成这个样子，字数根本不用担心。这个段落就是在写argument时，如何具体而详尽用他因法攻击的很好的例子，写成这样，论述才生动具体，而不是干巴巴的几个可能性。

3# tequilawine

3 It is a prisoner’s dilemma, a free-rider problem and the tragedy of the commons all rolled into one. 这句话没看懂---------

大家一起来补充下背景知识吧～～
话说番茄还漏了一个公地悲剧（the tragedy of the commons ）帮手补充一个吧～
另外该自然段中其实也提到了关于交易成本的问题

偶是学经济的小菜··尝试运用一下这些经济知识解释一下气候谈判中出现的危与机～～
个人简单的分析说明，错误疏漏之处请原谅。
一、囚徒困境
囚徒困境说的是关于合作的问题，在博弈论的角度看来，在缺乏交流的前提下（注意，两个犯人是不能够交流的，An important assumption!）～个人追求自身利益最大化从而违背了团体利益最大化。

但是，囚徒困境只是比较简单的博弈矩阵，并不适用于分析多达192个国家的谈判（哥本哈根会议）。通常这个Dilemma是用来分析少数几个Game Player（比如说少数几家企业的寡头垄断，两个国家之间军事、经济政策，或者IBT里提到的毛毛虫和木蚂蚁之间共生的关系）。192个国家，其实用交易成本来解释会更合适。

这里引用囚徒困境觉得主要是为了说明，哥本哈根给予一次全球性的交流，让大家能够更易作出有利于群体利益的决策。

所以作者在提到“The UN is a useful talking shop”, 虽然他还是挺不满意的“but it does not get much done.”

二、交易成本

“At issue is the difficulty of allocating the cost of collective action and trusting other parties to bear their share of the burden. At a city, state and national level, institutions that can resolve such problems have been built up over the centuries. But climate change has been a worldwide worry for only a couple of decades.”

这里实际上有点交易成本（Transaction Cost）的感觉。嗯，简单地说，国家太多了，进行共同决策、达成共同协议、最终签订契约，远远要比两个国家之间的合作花费更多的成本。。具体有什么成本就不展开来说了。

作者做了个对比Contrast，说一个城市、一个洲或是一个国家之内，机构们更易解决环境问题（因为交易成本较低，较易达成共识，多是提出议案最后通过法律之类的）。但是一提到全球性的气候问题，因为涉及范围太广参与讨论的国家太多，交易成本不言而喻地比小范围机构合作的成本要高得多。

三、搭便车

搭便车说的是一部分国家不愿意减排（比如印度），由此而免费享受了其他国家减排带来的全球气候好转。

简单地说，就是耍赖。。。

举个例子，
大家都希望宿舍干净点，但是其中你的舍友I（印度人）觉得舍友A(美国人)/B(英国人)/C（中国人）比他更受不了宿舍的脏，于是I同学就拒绝参与宿舍打扫。随后出现两种结果，要么A/B/C乖乖地打扫因为他们受不了脏脏的宿舍，然后I就搭便车享受了干净的环境；要么A/B/C不爽，怎么I不干活我们干活呢，然后宿舍就没人管了。后者的情况是因为谁也不愿意被搭便车甚至也想搭别人便车，最后环境会越来越脏直到当中的某位同学受不了为止，比如说来自欧洲有洁癖的B同学，要么默默地搞卫生，要么发起飙来强制大家轮留值日。

这里，一间宿舍的人越多，个人打扫卫生的动机就越弱，因为不爽别人的搭便车而希望自己能够搭别人的便车。192个国家对于气候的改善也是类似的情况，地球就是这么一间宿舍。

四、公地悲剧
先引用一段材料：

　　“1968年英国加勒特·哈丁教授(Garrett Hardin)在《The tragedy of the commons》一文中首先提出“公地悲剧”理论模型。

他说，作为理性人，每个牧羊者都希望自己的收益最大化。在公共草地上，每增加一只羊会有两种结果：一是获得增加一只羊的收入；二是加重草地的负担，并有可能使草地过度放牧。经过思考，牧羊者决定不顾草地的承受能力而增加羊群数量。于是他便会因羊只的增加而收益增多。看到有利可图。许多牧羊者也纷纷加入这一行列。由于羊群的进入不受限制，所以牧场被过度使用，草地状况迅速恶化，悲剧就这样发生了。

对于环境的污染，实际上也可以简单地视为“清洁”资源的消耗。

比如说碳的排放，我们肯定是知道健康的大气对于碳总量的承受能力是有限度的。碳的排放是一国工业生产的结果，每一个国家都希望自己的收益最大化，那么每多排放一吨碳，就能多获得这一顿碳背后的经济利益（比如说发电、钢铁制造）。我讲道德，不污染这环境，别人也会去污染。既然如此，我干嘛不去放多几吨碳。

这里一个重要的前提是，环境是公有的，是公共物品，产权难以界定。范围越大，越难以界定。

每一个国家都拥有污染（如排碳）的权力，而没有权利阻止他人污染环境。

“之所以叫悲剧，是因为每个当事人都知道资源将由于过度使用而枯竭，但每个人对阻止事态的继续恶化都感到无能为力。而且都抱着“及时捞一把”的心态加剧事态的恶化。”

解决方法：界定产权，限定排污量，创造碳排放量的交易系统。

这也就是哥本哈根大家吵得最厉害的问题。。。本质上，大家是在分配对地球污染的权利。。

pin on:to blame someone for something, often unfairly
Don't try to pin the blame on me!
They're trying to pin the murder on the boyfriend.

tequilawineUID：2702008

sheikhdom n. 酋长国
eye-watering  adj. 让人流泪的，难以接受的（这就是所谓的泪目吧- -）
put the wind up  使。。。紧张不安起来
chalk up    记下  取得
blow the whistle     检举，揭发


Christie’s, which had blown the whistle on the commission-fixing
quoted company = listed company上市公司
In Paris Galerie Segoura has closed, as has Salvatore Romano in Florence.一个不错的结构

bail-out救市方案, coincided with与……一致. Demise死亡, Impressionists印象派画家, volatile不稳定的，挥发性的, contraction缩进（contract-n.合同v.收缩，感染）, slump衰落，暴跌,  bounce back反弹, Straddle骑跨, shareholder股票持有者, blockbuster轰动, emporiums上场, consignment委托，托运, came to light曝光, inducements诱惑, quoted company上市公司, conspire with和……合作, smarting from伤心, consigned委托, chalked up取得，记下, lose momentum, take a particular interest in, noted collector, muscle in强行侵入
国习惯用语第422讲
我们要学习两个新的习惯用语，都同自然界里的动物有关。第一个同百兽之王狮子有关：lion's share。这个习惯用语的第一部分是名词的所有格，就是名词加上撇号和s。 Lion's, 意思呢，是“狮子的。”这个习惯用语的另一部分是单词：share。 Share在这个词组中作名词，意思是一份、份额。它作动词时的意思是分享。把这个习惯用语直译，就是：狮子的那份儿。
这个习惯用语的使用至少有两百年的历史，但是如果追根寻源的话，可以追溯到两千年前的古希腊寓言。这个故事说，一只狮子和其它一些野兽一起猎取食物，后来终于捕到了一只鹿。在商量如何分食物的时候，狮子提出，它要得到它的那一份儿，也就是一整只鹿。同百兽之王狮子一块分东西，其它野兽还有什么话说呢？只好听之任之。你们猜到这个习惯用语的意思了吗？对了，意思是：最大、最好的那份儿、甚至完全独吞，而不管这样做对其它有关的人是否公平。
下面我们听一段话，进一步理解这个短语的用法。
例句-1：The angry old man changed his will. And his family was shocked to discover he had left the lion's share of all his money to a distant cousin most of them had never even heard of.
愤怒的老人修改了他的遗嘱。他的家人发现，老人把他大部分钱财都留给了他的一个远亲，而他的家人中几乎没人听说过他还有这么一位亲戚。老人的所有家人对此目瞪口呆。
这个用语除了可以形容钱财和物品之外，还可以形容功劳等抽象的概念。我们再听一段话。这段话讲的是一家汽车公司的总裁。他坚决反对生产一种新型跑车，但是董事会否决了他的反对意见，决定把新型跑车投入生产。结果怎么样了呢？请听众朋友仔细听听这段话:
例句-2：Well, to his surprise the car was a great success. And although he'd been opposed, he tried to take the lion's share of the credit by claiming it was his own idea all long.
公司总裁惊奇地发现，这种汽车取得了巨大的成功。虽然他过去一直持反对意见，但是现在却试图贪天功为己有，宣称这始终是他自己的主意。
******
今天学的第一个习惯用语是用狮子做比喻。接下来我们要学的第二个习惯用语是用老虎打比方：have a tiger by the tail。 这个短语的字面意思是：抓住老虎的尾巴。这是非常危险的局面，如果松开手，肯定对付不了凶猛的老虎。但是抓住老虎尾巴不放，看来也是凶多吉少，因为实际上本来也没有任何制服老虎的可能。中文所说的“骑虎难下”其实同这个短语的意思非常接近。不过，英文里也有用“骑在老虎背上”的说法。下面听一段例句。
例句-3：Once you start using heroin, you'll have a tiger by the tail. If you get hooked, you'll need more and more, it'll cost you more money, and you might have to steal to support the habit.
你一旦开始用海洛音,就很难找到退路。上瘾之后,需要量越来越大,需要更多的钱,甚至还要为了满足毒瘾去偷窃。
毒品是老虎尾巴，说话不算话也可以是老虎尾巴。乔治.布什在竞选美国总统成功以后就有这样的教训。他1988年竞选的时候许诺说，当选后绝不增加征收联邦税。但是他登上总统宝座之后怎么样了呢？请听下面这段话:
例句-4：He found he had a tiger by the tail. Despite his promise he had to raise taxes to cope with the deficit. And this helped Bill Clinton beat him in his try for re-election in 1992.
布什打破自己的许诺，增加征税，结果最终在连任竞选中被克林顿击败。也许老虎尾巴还是不抓为好。