看孙远网络课堂我总结的一些笔记 大家凑合看吧~

tottiUID: 184291

2005年1月24日星期一        晴
看孙远讲座
1。掌握一些基本分析技巧
2。开头结尾要有一个框架模式
3。注意掌握闪光句型
4。煜っ康捞獠⒆急柑岣?
备考策略
审题：一句话论述背景
author的claim or conclusion :so therefore hence consequently
evidence :facts examples statistics authorities
assumption 作者的一种观点 一种想法

证据－假设－结论：攻击假设
profits :the situation of the market, supply and demand competition, customers, cost.

典型逻辑错误问题
1。数据类问题：调查survey 数据是否有代表性：
a） 把调查的对象分成几个组成部分 group－subgroups
b） 确定子群在总群中的比例
c） 按比例随机取样 representative
写作步骤：
快速审题2min
第一段5min：1指出原论证的结论－2、3原论证的论据或假设－4表明对原论据的判断
正文提纲3min：写出正文每段的topic sentence
正文14min：把每一个topic展成段落，段间空一行，每段顶头。
结尾3min：
检查3min：

开头写作
1) In this argument/analysis, the arguer concludes/recommends/claims/advocates  that 原论证的结论～

2) To support /substantiate the conclusion, the arguer points out /cites that 论者论据的复述
To justify this claim, the arguer provides the evidence that
This recommendation is based on the observation that~
In support of this prediction, the arguer claims that~
3) In addition, the arguer reasons/assumes that~
Meanwhile, the arguer assumes that
However, the arguer assumes that this attempt has three benefits:
he cites the result of a recent study that说出原论证的一个假说the xxx2 will gain similar benefits from xxx1 .
4) This argument suffers from several critical fallacies.
A careful examination of this argument would reveal how groundless the conclusion is.
This argument is unconvincing/ problematic for several critical flaws/reasons.
This argument is fraught with(充满)vague, oversimplified and unwarranted assumptions.
a) 完整忠实的复述原论据，假设；b) 抓住主要的； c) 只谈论据或假设

首段注意事项：
1。归纳原论证信息时用自己的词汇和句式
2。关键核心词汇可以保留
3。注意动词时态
a 分析性词汇，批判主体为一般现在时
b 复述原文证据保留原文中的时态


2005年1月25日星期二        晴
正文的写作
1。段落数量： 2－4段 一个逻辑错误一段
2。每段开头必须有一个topic sentence
  In the first place, ~  In the second place, ~   Last but not least, ~
  The major problem with argument is that~
  Another flaw that weakens this argument is that~
  In addition, the arguer ignores /fails to consider several other factors that might undermine the argument.
24个可以作为正文每段开头的句式：
1) The argument rests on the gratuitous/unreasonable assumption that…
  The argument is based on a hasty generalization.
2) The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between A and B.
3) The major problem with this argument is that…
4) The arguer unfairly assumes that…
5) The arguer’s conclusion depends on the questionable assumption that…
6) The arguer fails to take into account/consider/explain other possible reasons why…
7) The arguer fails to provide any evidence that…/information concerning…
8) Another point worth considering is that…
9) The reasoning that… is open to doubt/problematic/questionable/unconvincing/unwarranted.
10) Another assumption in short of legitimacy is the causal relationship claimed between A and B.
11) The arguer ignores other relevant factors concerning…
12) The arguer oversimplifies…
13) The arguer overemphasizes the importance of …
14) The conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and probably misleading.结论
15) The conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. 结论
16) The arguer commits a fallacy of… 你很清楚什么逻辑错误
17) The fact that …says little/nothing about…
18) The fact that … does not ensure that …/lends no strong support to…不能给出有力支持
19) The arguer fails to convince us that…
20) The evidence provided in this argument is not sufficient to validate the assumption that…
21) The statistical evidence/the result of the survey upon which the argument relies if too vague to be informative.

3。攻击的方法
1）例证法：举出反例 for instance
2）假设法：if      even if即使怎样,也不会  granted that 姑且承认 we can not ensure that
   only when  unless  in this /that case,  even so,
3）推测法： It is possible that… It is equally possible that…
            It is likely that… Possibly , Perhaps, may, might

4。正文要有比较漂亮的分析性句型
1) The argument simply equates A with B, which is unwarranted.等同于。。。未证实。。。
2) The mere fact that … is insufficient evidence to conclude that 仅仅如下事实并不足以证明
3) The argument fails to rule out the possibility that A engages in … as well as 并未排除。。。可能性
4) Common sense tells us that …常识告诉我们
5) Consequently, the mere fact that …does not support the claim that
6) While this may be true in some cases, it is equally possible that… 可能成立
7) One can infer from the survey’s result that…推出。。。结论 并非唯一
8) If so, even though… the arguer’s argument that …would be seriously weakened.既便。。作者如下观点也会被削弱
9) In addition, while it is true that …, this is not true of everyone.
10) Consequently, unless the author can demonstrates that…, the author’s concern about these issues is unfounded. 除非能证明什么。。担心没有根据
11) The arguer ignores other likely benefits of … that affect… 只看坏处
12) However, unless … , there is a good chance …除非  否则很有可能
13) Without such evidence, we cannot accept the author’s conclusion that…
14) Finally, the author unfairly trivializes… by … 小看，轻视什么
15) Comprehensive analysis is necessary to identify the actual cause(s) …全面分析是必要的
16) The statistics offered … warrants only the conclusion that …只能支持一下结论，放大了
17) Therefore, any decision aimed at addressing the problem of xxx must be based on more thorough investigation to gather sufficient data in order to narrow down and locate the actual cause(s) of problem.
18) From the survey quoted in the argument, however, we find no sign of such procedures for random sampling, and have good reason to doubt if the sample is representative enough to reflect xxx as a whole.  找不到任何调查随机抽样的迹象
19) When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generation they are used to support, so that historical changes will not invalidate the generalization. 抽样时间尽可能接近
20) But we are told nothing about the poll was conducted and how well it represented… 这个抽样代表什么
21) But the problem is that the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction.  不具有相似性使类比推理
22) The example cited, while suggestive of these trends, is insufficient to warrant their truth because there is no reason to believe that the data brawn from xxx is representative of … 可以暗示倾向，不能代表更大的范围
23) The fact that … doesn’t necessarily imply that… 不一定意味着


2005年1月26日星期三  晴
Argument 的结尾写作：
完整的框架 不该有实质性内容，主要为归纳建议。
两大任务：指出原论者未能完全有效支持自己的结论
          指出原论者可从正文攻击的几个方面加强原论证
程序性写作 运用套路
1) In conclusion, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between A and B…
照应题目第一段
  To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide evidence that…
   如何加强原论证，作者必须提出证据来表明
2) To sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains.结论缺少可信度
  To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide more evidence concerning the percentage of …
  To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information regarding…需要更多的信息来加强论述，relevant to…与什么相关
3) As it stands, the argument is not well reasoned. To make it logically acceptable, the arguer would have to demonstrate that … Additionally, the arguer must provided evidence to the rule out other possible causes of …
4) To conclude, this argument is not persuasive as it stands. 不具有说服力的
Before we accept the conclusion, the arguer must present more facts to demonstrate that …
To solidify the argument, the arguer would have to produce more evidence concerning …
5) In summary, the conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and misleading.结论是无效的，误导的。
To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide that …
  Moreover, I would suspend my judgment about the credibility of the recommendation until the arguer can provide concrete evidence that …
  Otherwise, the arguer is simply begging the question throughout the argument.

注意事项：
1）want 过于随意，不要用 intend to do sth.
2) I believe 不要写 运用理性来直接写

argument 题目中的逻辑问题
1。数据调查要考虑的基本步骤
1）程序procedure
   调查并未保证全面性和随机性 调查的地区 人数 科目（子类）
   correlation 相关性与 causal relation 因果关系 混淆
   sweeping generalization 以偏概全的概述
   调查的样品 涉及的总的对象，所占的比例
   错误类比 The arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy. 其他方面不一定都可以类比
   完整性问题 complete 掩盖了不利的数据
   数据是否重要 数据与要说明的问题无必然联系，只是牵强的表层关系
   居民更关系的价格和频率 The arguer fails to provide necessary evidence about whether residents are more concerned about the frequency of the waste collection than the amount of money they are charged. 80％被调查的人并不是80％的居民
   The arguer fails to indicate the attitude of the residents to the ABC’s performance.
2）数据是否模糊 vague misleading
   捐款 base amount
   调查的时候问的是什么？会设计一些误导，暗示，陷阱性问题，来操纵被调查者的选择 loaded question 暗示性问题
3) 平均数的问题 average
   关键性的假设 并不能表明每个城镇都是一样的

4）confusing causal relation with correlation 因果关系与相关性混同起来
   有更高的比例的人，并不能够因果的导致… 怎样～
必须拿出直接证据说明…有怎样的素质和能力促进…
相关性不是唯一原因
  
  其他类型的逻辑错误：
  1) begging the question 循环论证
    假定一个关键性假设在未经证实的情况下是成立的。
  2) fallacy of missing evidence 证据缺失，证据不足  
    promise能兑现吗？ Counter example
  3) false analogy 错误类比
  只看到所比较的两事物的表层相似性，忽略深层差异
  tourists town－inland town agriculture town
  4) false dilemma/either or fallacy 两难处境
    将一个问题的解决途径化为非此即彼两种，明显看出一个不好，则只好选择另一个。
    Arg9: 对高分的数量给予限定 limit the percentage of students who received the high
          让老师提供试卷样卷Sample exam paper
         将学生评价和老师同行内的评价结合起来
         学生给老师评分的好处没有看到
  5) non sequitur (casual) relationship 非因果关系
    无任何证据表明新拿到驾照的人喜欢sports car，必须拿出数据
  6) After this, therefore because of this 把时间先后关系混同为因果关系
    overstocking the works written by small-town authors;  market; maybe profits will be increased; there is no evidence show that 大城市作者的作品卖不出去。
  7) concurrence 可能有因果关系，但不一定
    电视和犯罪：education broken families problem children unemployment
  8) Incomplete comparison or selective comparison 不完整的比较或有选择的比较
    两段修路：道路情况 保养maintenance 交通traffic  weather  climate
    购买新设备 质保人 另一公司没有说 雇佣的manager 是不是competent manager
    performance
  9) composition and division 整体与部分关系
    对于整体是真实的判断，对其构成部分不一定是真实的判断，反之对于构成部分是真实的判断，对于整体不一定是真实的判断。
    对全国的判断不一定适用于个体城镇
    只调查一种运动形式和局部地区，却要求禁止所有团队形式的运动是不合适的。
    教育专家并没有说所有的运动都浪费时间
    论者忽略了这些运动带来的好处 ignores the positive effects of youth-league
    促进健康contribute to children health   培养团队精神 cultivate team spirits among ~



Issue 的写法
1. 写作时间45分钟
2. 字数 550－600字之间  argument 400－500字
3. 论证有力
4. 具体写法：
1) 第一段要提出立场
2) 文章结构合理，思路清楚
3) 在论证中，要有能够有效支持论点的理由
4) 每个理由的证据
  名言 事例 数据
5) 语言 句式多样有变化
5. 大段地背诵
   西方文明史 Western civilization Terry miller ?
   孙远工具箱

备考策略
1. 熟悉题库
2. 准备并背诵每道题的提纲，结合是否可以举出充分的理由来选择所取的立场，而理由
有充分证据的，可以写成段落的。
3. 掌握论证技巧和写作的套路
4. 限时训练与不限定时间训练结合 考前要两篇作文一起写issue & argument
5. 背诵相关段落或文章

Issue的典型立场
1. 赞成
2. 反对
3. 有保留地赞同
4. 有保留地反对
5. refuse to take sides 两个都重要,不站在任何一边

四种典型结构
1. 归纳式: 针对完全赞同和完全反对立场的文章 直线式的单方面列举理由
          085 直线单方面提出三个理由来反对政府对艺术的赞助
  1)  introduction
  2)  in the first place     to begin with     support1
  3)  in the second place   in addition       support2
  4)  last but not least     last/finally       support3
  5)  conclusion   
2. 让步式: 有保留的赞同或反对 既要以主要篇幅提出自己的理由,同时又要对对方的理由做出适当的尊重, 承认, 接受.
  1)  introduction
  2)  in the first place     to begin with     support1
  3)  in the second place   in addition       support2
  4)  Admittedly…/ However, it should be admitted/confessed that…                        
  5)  conclusion   
3. 对照式: 不站在任何一边的立场
  1)  introduction
  2)  side A   A 的重要性/ 过分A的危害 On the one hand
  3)  side B   B的重要性 On the other hand
  4)  conclusion   
4. 反驳式: 就对方的理由进行逐一的批驳11-3的传统文学艺术vs现代文学艺术

开头的技巧
必须让读者了解你所探讨的问题
必须让读者了解你的立场
能抓住读者的好奇心和注意力或加强作者的可信度
1. 背景描述+论点:  Background description + position
11-4 issue 103
2. 陈述相互冲突的观点+立场:  Stating conflicting views + position
3. 提问+观点: Question + (Typical answer) + position
提问+引用专家观点+自己的立场
4. Anecdote + position
  The lesson we can draw from this story is clear and simple:
5. Restating title statement + brief comment + position
  Some people claim that … However, this claim seems to be more of a normative statement than an empirical observation. The issue is more complex than the speaker suggests.
6. Position + main reasons

实战句型:
1. According to the title of the statement …然后表态
  There is every reason for us to support this viewpoint. (赞成)
  As opposed to this commonly held view, I would argue that …
  Although many people believe that, I insist that …
  Obviously, people will find almost impossible to come to agreement on this highly controversial issue. In the last analysis, I am inclined to support/refute the title statement
2. There is a growing public concern over … The speaker in the title statement advocate that … By contrast, some people may argue that … On balance, I would side with the former opinion.

论据的形式:
1. Facts examples
2. statistics 可以编造
According to a recent survey conducted by the sociology department of our university among ten
top universities in China, twenty-percent of ~. The result of the survey also indicates ~
3. Authorities/ quotations
  When you know a thing, to hold that you know it. And when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it. This is knowledge. Confucius 孔子 Analects 论语
A distinguished scholar of sociology/pedagogy/political science/ethics/economics
4. anecdotes/cases/stories
  A case in point is that …
  (Something) serves as a typical example …
5. Personal experience
6. 有可能发生的事情,有可能出现的情形 预测与展望
  Imagine/suppose that …
7. Analogy 类比 间接的证据 13-2

结尾写作策略
1. restate your position 重申立场
From what has been discussed above ( Taking into account all these factors / Judging from all evidence offered ), we may draw/come to /arrive at the conclusion that …
All the evidence discussed in the above analysis supports the conclusion that …
2. restate your position and summarize your reasons 且总结理由
3. restate your position and add some relative remarks  并做相关议论
  提出建议  强调自己立场的重要性  发出号召,展望未来
一些套路: 13-4

As oppose to this trend, I would argue that …

注意信号词:
1. 结论:  in conclusion, in sum, to conclude, to sum up
2. 肯定:  certainly, clearly, obviously, plainly, apparently, surely, undoubtedly, naturally, for certain, for sure,
3. 某种保留: possible,  perhaps,  likely,  probably  potentially  presumably, to some extend
   in a large sense  in some sense  in a sense  generally normally ideally.
4. 引出新观点: for one thing … for another (并列相同性质)
              on the one hand … on the other hand (对照相反关系)
5. 引出详细解释: specifically  particularly  in this case  as well as  in that…  such as…
   in addition to…
6. 表示对照: otherwise however nevertheless although meanwhile instead anyway unlike
           on the contrary by contrast  by comparison  in any case  at any rate  in spite of
           rather than  even if  apart from  even so
7. 表示证据出现: since because actually  in fact  as a matter of fact
8. 表示推理: as a result  accordingly  consequently  hence  thus  ultimately  thereby
            therefore  as a consequence  if so  if not  according to.
9. 表示反复说明: in other words  briefly that is

<妙手著文章> 世界知识出版社
http://superwriter2000.vip.sina.com

issue 部分也没啥可总结的,太活了,靠自己吧:)

dezhiUID: 156141

谢谢分享：）

clausiusUID: 147331

顶一下

so猫UID: 148633

good job~~~

花之颜色UID: 187195

好人啊~偶就是一写Argu就忘了该怎么用那些模式的句子了~所以写的很慢:(

viviansiUID: 190413

太善良了，写的时候总是忘

poohUID: 146994

辛苦！