考研英语写作基本理论及得高分基本方法研究ZZ

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考研英语写作基本理论及得高分基本方法研究

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　　一、主考官的盲点、兴奋点和残留点
　　(一)短文写作部分评卷人的弱点
　　通过问卷调查和社会分析，许多人都有或多或少的致命弱点，因此我们可以欣喜地下一个结论：作为普通人的考研短文写作部分评卷人也同样有“致命弱点”。


　　1.厌倦(?Bored?)：就实际而言，大部分考生写作能力都不太高，而对短文写作部分评卷人而言，在较短时间内批阅大量的短文往往会产生厌倦感。据科学测试，人在单一环境中干同一工作往往有一个承受限度，即心理负荷度，一旦超出该限度就会产生诸多不适。这就是?Bored?!试想：短文写作部分评卷人终日埋头于批阅短文，产生?Bored?的心理感受是理所当然的。
　　2.疲劳(?Tired?)：这是?Bored?的延伸，且与工作数量、工作时间成正比。短文写作部分评卷人的工作数量不可能不大，工作时间不可能不长，所以他必然会?Tired?。疲劳感在所难免。
　　3.气恼(?Fretful?)：如果短文写作部分评卷人能把某篇文章掂量再三，这篇文章必定有不同之处。可阅卷人在?Bored?和?Tired?的双重攻击之下，难免会产生一种?Fretful?，这正是?Bored?和?Tired?的“升华”!
　　其实，无论是谁，找个空闲时间，拿出考研试卷15份优秀范文，猛读一气，基本是到了第4、5篇时就开始走神。据测试统计，读完12篇后才走神的人极少。可想想看，读的这些全是优秀作文呀!，思路清晰，事例恰当，行文流畅，但还是会很快就受不了了，直打哈欠——没办法。
　　以上就是短文写作部分评卷人的弱点，但这些弱点并非是?total disaster?。它们也只是在一定限度之内表现出来，因为在这些阅卷专家的脑子里牢牢地嵌着一些框架，他们可以在极短的时间内将你的文章往框架里套，再根据套入框中的采分点的个数下意识地给出一个分数。
　　所以考生要使行文如“箭”，准确射中对方这一“要害”。
　　(二)短文写作部分评卷人的兴奋点
　　这些兴奋点其实是评卷人大脑中的框架——考研作文评分标准。
　　按顺序从高到低排列，评卷人的兴奋点分别是：
　　(1)脉络(?Organization?);
　　(2)细节及论据(?Details and Examples?);
　　(3)行文(?Facility in the Use of Language and Appropriate Word Choice?)。
　　短文写作部分评卷人的兴奋点=考研作文评分标准。
　　(三)短文写作部分评卷人的盲区
　　这些盲区在短文写作部分评卷人大脑中兴奋度很低，除非有大的冲击力，否则较难被激活。按其兴奋度从低至高排列，分别是：
　　(1)选择什么样的论点；
　　(2)在文章中犯的少量拼写、标点错误；
　　(3)论据是否天衣无缝。
　　(四)短文写作部分评卷人的残留点
　　所谓残留点是指短文写作部分评卷人在两眼发直、身心疲惫、大脑混沌状态下飞速地浏览完文章后在他的脑子里残留着的印象。这绝非耸人听闻，评卷人在阅卷时绝对是边看边忘。虽然绝大部分记不住，可还是有少数内容进入了他的潜意识，他就是靠这点残留的潜意识给文章评分。考生可能会想，我这不太冤枉了吗，费好大劲写的作文他仅凭一点残留印象给分?!更要注意的是，进入他潜意识中的那点东西同他的兴奋点几乎完全是等同的映射关系。其残留点就是兴奋点的兴奋残留物。激活他兴奋点的越多，程度越大，残留的东西也越多，面积也越大，得分也就越高。这些残留点实际上就是对本篇写作的浓缩评语。
　　二、东西方思维模式差异的影响
　　由于存在不同的社会、历史、文化背景，东西方思维模式也存在着明显的差异。这种不同的思维模式又对写作的布局谋篇起着至关重要的作用。
　(一)英语语篇线性修辞模式
　　英语语篇思维有三种模式：
　　(1)一般特殊型(?Generalization?Particular Pattern?);
　　(2)问题解决型(?Problem?Solution Pattern?);
　　(3)匹配比较型(?Matching Pattern?)。
　　根据对历年来研究生入学考试短文写作部分的分析，考研作文构架基本都能在这三种模式中得到各自的定位。其中，一般特殊型使用尤为广泛，并常与比较型甚至问题解决型结合起来组成复杂的思维模式。
　　1.一般特殊型
　　一般特殊型又称“直线型”(?Linearity?)，其写作特点是，开门见山第一句往往是概括主题思想，然后再引出具体事例或细节对其进行发展。
　　一般特殊型思维模式在英语语篇中占主导地位。这种思维模式不但广泛用于自然科学和社会科学的论说文中，而且也常用于记叙和描写文体里。这种模式实际上体现了英语族人的线性思维模式，所以，无论是“匹配比较型”文章，还是“问题解决型”文章，“一般特殊型”的主题句语段结构模式可以说是无处不有。段落如此，语篇也不例外。
　　2.问题解决型
　　问题解决型修辞模式的特征是首先说明情况，然后提出问题，接着做出反应，解决问题(问题也可能没有解决或没有完全解决)，最后给予适当的评价。
　　1992～1996年研究生作文题目虽均为论说文体，但题目提纲所要求的写作模式却全属问题解决型，即使1997～2002年的图表作文，总体布局上也万变不离其宗。
　　3.匹配比较型
匹配比较型思维模式用于对比语段，常与一般特殊型一起组成复杂的思维模式。对比包括两种类型：立足于两种事物之间的相似之处对其进行比较；立足两者之间的不同





之处对其进行对照，从而突出中心。
　　1991年作文试题“?Where to Live—in the City or the Country?”?就从?Live in the city?和?Live in the country?两个方面比较。
　　(二)汉语螺旋型语篇修辞模式
　　中国人的思维模式属典型的东方“螺旋型”(?Spirality?)。中国学生在英语写作时，往往按汉语的修辞模式组织英语语段，很少能写出在英语语篇修辞模式中占主导地位的“一般特殊型”语段，如主题句段落等。在开始说明情况时，思维深处已经隐伏着问题，但又不明确议论主题，而只是先用思维内容推理暗示，然后由暗到明逐步提示问题的存在，最后针对问题点明主题。
　　《科技英语学习》主编、上海交通大学毛荣贵教授与美国天普大学?Dorine S.Houston?教授合作，曾通过互联网对中国大学生英语作文进行评改。其中30%的习作，?Dorine S.Houston?教授是就主题句的准确设定及其位置问题提出了异议和修改意见。可见写好主题句语段是摆在中国学生面前的一项值得注意的任务。
考研英语短文写作中语言和句子的常见错误

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考研英语写作的基本步骤

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　　写作犹如装修房屋，装修以前，要有设计方案。根据方案筹划装饰材料，然后粉墙刷壁、装材料。房屋初现雏形，则着手做细致的工作，直至满意为止。写作也是这样，通常有四个步骤：理解题意(?Learning the theme?)，整理思路(?Organizing the thought?)，起草成文(?Drafting?),修改润色(?Revising?)。
　　由于短文写作部分往往是控制性作文，所以只需根据题目，深入推敲提纲、主题句或


图表等的内容，适当整理思路、搜集素材，就可着手写作，并立即修改定稿。
　　许多学生经常跟我讲写文章开头最难，一开始不知如何落笔，尤其是开头的几句话不知写什么。由于某种原因，有些人开头就是很难，哪怕是最好的作家也难逃过这样的一个问题。下面我们就帮助大家解决这样一个问题。
　　1?文章的开头(Introduction):
　　绝大多数文章，或者段落，都可以分为以下三个步骤：
　　Introduction(Beginning)
　　Body(Middle)
　　Conclusion(End)
　　这一节的重点就是Introduction,字典这样定义introduction:“anything that introduces or prepares the way.”开头的最基本的要领就是：①to state and narrow the topic of the essay.②to interest the reader.
　　文章的Introduction是很重要的，它的长度至少是一句话、一段或者是几段。在开头的引导中作者要让读者明白你文章的题目，主题思想；你要让读者感兴趣或者制造悬念。文章的开头一般分为两种：直接或间接(direct or indirect)
　　(1)直接开头
　　直接开头很简单，顾名思义，就是开门见山地表明你要说什么。
　　例如：
　　①The purpose of my paper is to explain why college is expensive.
　　②I have observed two groups of adult education students: GED and ESL.I feel qualified to compare the two.
　　③On my next vacation why not relax for eight days and nights aboard an elegantocean liner? Booking a cruise is easy.
　　④I believe that not enough attention is given to American writer John Steinbeck.In the next few paragraphs I will explain why people should read Steinbeck?s books.
　　⑤When I was seventeen,I dropped out of high school. There were three reasonsfor this decision, and I would like to explain each of them.
　　我们可以看到“直接”开头法是很直接的。但作者也有一定的灵活性。直接开头法一般能最清楚地表达文章的重心，这也是开头的最重要的特点。
　　(2)间接开头
　　间接开头，顾名思义就是开头是间接的，间接开头往往是为了吸引读者。间接开头的方法是：
　　①演绎法
　　例如：
　　There are many, many people dying everyday. Some of these deaths, caused by disease and by old age, cannot be helped. There are, however, many deaths that could be prevented. One way to prevent many senseless deaths would be to implement some form of handgun control.
　　这种开头是从一般(there are many people dying everyday)到具体( deaths due to handguns)。这种从一般到具体的方法叫做“演绎法”(deduction)。这种间接开头不但能宣布主题而且能引人入胜。
　　②比较与对照法
　　例如：
　　Converging on the rocks of a river bank or the rim of the city?s main well, thewomen of ancient ages met to beat and scrub their family?s clothing clean as they reviewed their activities and savored the latest bits of gossip.With the airy openness of a seashore, Bob Stanton?s Laundromat in Palos Hills echoes of this past as it throbs to the pulsating rhythm of modern mechanization and the suburban life-style.
　　③“引言”(quotation)
　　例如：
　　In his poem“I sang,”Carl Sandburg wrote of love,“I sang to you and the moon butonly the moon remembers....”In a sense, all of us can identify with the speaker?s emotions. Most of us have no doubt experienced the feeling of loss that is aresult of unrequited love or of love gone wrong. There is,I think, a valuablelesson for all of us to learn from this very human experience.
　　④修辞学上的提问法(rhetorical question)
　　例如：
　　Are you tired of sleeping in a wet blanket that pretends to be a sinking boat? Have you had it with gnats and mosquitos in your outdoor cooking? Does the phrase“back to nature”mean that you sit and rest in a patch of poison ivy? Have you ever considered that your next vacation should follow my plan of renting a camper?
　　⑤以“例子”作为间接开头
　　例如：
　　My sister has always had a difficult time with spelling and with basic math. When she was little, my family transferred from one state to another, from one job to another, and from one school district to another. Only my sister was at the age when basic skills were being taught, and only my sister?s education was affected so drastically. Our family?s frequent moves have left other traces on my sister; unfortunately, the“corporate family,”as my father?s company labels us,is very common in this country. I would like to examine the negative problems the corporate family faces and offer suggestions on how to counter these negative effects.
　　⑥从具体到一般的“归纳法”(induction)式的间接开头
　　例如：
　　Johnnie Jones is four years old. Yesterday he hit his sister with a broom. Johnnie?s friend is four and one-half year old Brad Smith. Yesterday, Brad hit his pet Beagle with one of his toy trucks. Both boys learned these gestures from watching TV.Television shows teach children many acts of violence. In the next severalpages, I would like to examine some of the violent television shows and illustrate their effects on children.
　　(3)下面是一些不同的开头供你学习和模仿
　　①“A fool and his money are soon part
　　ed”seems to have been uttered by someone who knew me. In the past six months Ihave become the target of every door?to?door salesman. It?s only in the last two days, however, that I have finally learned how to say“No!”to these hucksters. I feel it is my mission in life to share this newfound secret with you.?Ozzie Lawson?
　　②Good eyesight is a valued gift that every individual treasures.Many people, however, need help to maintain and acquire clear vision. One specific type of eyestrengthener is the contact lens. This type of lens can greatly improve and often correct eye deficiencies. Many individuals shy away from using this type of lens because they don?t know how to apply them correctly. The method described below is one of the many ways that one can insert hard contacts quickly and efficiently.
　　?Debbie McHugn?
　　③The purpose of this essay is to convince you to buy an English Sheepdog.?Debbie Walters?
　　④Not many people know who I am, and those who meet me soon forget me. Teachersnever remember my name. The bank always asks for reendorsement, and I?m constantly asked for identification. No one ever remembers me. I sometimes fantasize what it would be like if everyone remembered me.?Nancy Likes-Jakovickas?
　　⑤Hello! I know that this is your first day working as a cashier at the grocery.Don?t be nervous!Let me explain to you the few basic steps of running the cash register.?Eileen Cassidy?
　　⑥Watching my son, Jason, play can really be amazing. He always seems to amuse himself no matter if he has store-bought toys or a cardboard box.Jason has what all children seem to possess:imagination.
　　?Michele Reczynski?
　　⑦When most people getsintosa car they notice the interior and the handling. I am different; I look at and listen to the stereo. Factory installed stereos often look cheap and have terrible sound. Buying and installing a stereo system that suits your own tastes means that your car?s stereo will look good and sound good. Installing your own car stereo isn?t as hard as it sounds if you follow a few simple steps.
　　?Wally Danczak?
　　⑧The Webster New World Dictionary defines the word embarrass as“to cause tofeel self?conscious, to hinder, or to be in doubt.”In my opinion, this definition doesn?t describe the degree of embarrassment felt or the psychological self?doubt it might cause a person which could affect a person?s later life.?Daniel Marx?
　　⑨Do you recall looking at the rundown condition of your pool after a long, cold winter and wondering how you will get it finished by the time the warm weatherarrives? A torn liner, green murky water, and rotted deck boards make you wonder if you?ll ever swim again. With a little work and know-how, however, you can start filling your pool in as little as two days.?Chuck Kalvelage?
　　2?文章的结尾(Concluding Paragraphs)
　　文章或段落的结尾和开头一样对整个文章来说是非常主要的。这是作者最后一次和读者交流的机会，这里可以进一步的进行解释，加强，或者总结你在文中所阐述的观点和看法。一个好的结尾可以使你留住读者，同样一个不好的结尾会使读者失望和扫兴。不幸的是我们不少同学在文章的阐述部分下了很大的功夫，而在结尾却匆匆了事，这样文章就没有达到预期的效果。
　　(1)文章结尾的种类：
　　有几种结尾方式，其中绝大多数和开头的方式相似。现在请学习以下几种结尾的方式。
　　①总结式(summary)
　　例如：
　　As you can see from the proceeding examples, you only need to be steady and confident when you approach that first customer.A neat appearance, a pleasant smile, and a nonpushy attitude certainly contribute, but self-confidence really is the biggest factor.
　　?Jack Hudson?
　　②另外一种总结的方式(classifying thingssintosseveral categories)
　　例如：
　　Obviously, not all students fitsintosthese categories, but I think that most of them do: the walkers, the talkers, and the students. Why not look around and see if you find any of these students in your school?
　　?Tim McArthur?
　　③总结归纳式(generalization)
　　例如：
　　All of these incidents have taught me that no matter what the activity-soaking in the tub, puttering around the workshop, lounging in the pool-any activity is enhanced by music. From now on, any time I find myself ready to take it easy, I?mgoing to find my radio to take along.
　　④引言式(quotation)
　　例如：
　　The dictionary defines the word teacher as“one who educates; gives lessons to,”or as“one who disciplines.”I entirely agree. I have written this essay toshow the various ways a human being can experience these procedures. I believe we encounter learning experiences every day of our lives and that all of us are teachers of others.
　　?Sandra Schmidt?
　　⑤比较与对比式(comparison and contrast)
　　例如：
　　So, as the old, worn-out sayings go, love is like a roller coaster: it has its ups and its downs; love is like a rosebush: it has its blossoms and it has its thorns. But in all honesty, love is summarized by those sayings. The sayings are old, but then so is love.
　　?Jill Fisher?
　　一个好的结尾与好的开头一样同样是非常重要的。如果你还未认识到这一点，你就应该在这方面多下一些功夫，一定要把结尾写好。
　　(2)供你学习和模仿的较好的结尾
　　①I realize that a lot of people might very easily get bored with such small town living, but this sleepy, unexciting, little town isswheresI feel most comfortable. It is home.
　　?Leslie Chersi?
　　②A dictionary definition does not come close to saying all the things a friendreally is. True friends are much more than“trustworthy companions.”They are a very important part of our lives.
　　?Donna Morrey?
　　③Our family has found a common interest that we can all relate to and it has brought us closer together. Camping has definitely become an enjoyable learning experience for my whole family and I am glad that we have found it.
　　?Sharon Doyle?
　　④After you have completed this last step you have finished pin striping the rightside of your car. You should feel good knowing you have saved yourself approximately fifty dollars, plus you did it yourself! Well, there?s only one thing leftto do now: the left side of your car.
　　?Bob Sikora?
　　⑤As you can see, high school and college differ greatly in these three respects. I must say, after experiencing both high school and college: I much prefer the responsibility which comes with attending college.
　　?Gail Staszak?
　　⑥I wonder if people realize that animals can feel pain. Do people even realize what kind of pain the animals must be in? All this senseless killing for a luxury!People do not need furs to survive, but animals do.
　　?Jill Hultquist?
　　⑦These are only a sample of the many different patients you encounter in the hospital. The next time you visit a patient at the hospital, try to guess which category he or she falls into. It becomes a rather fun game to play.
　　?Kathleen Falica?
　　⑧Both forms of education can work well if used for the right purpose. A formaleducation cannot teach how to find the best large?mouth bass in a small lake. An informal education would be equally useless in learning higher mathematics orbiochemistry.
　　?Jon Asplund?
　　3.文章主体(body)部分的展开模式
　　文章中的主体部分一般是按照一定的顺序和方法展开的，如时间顺序、空间顺序，分类法、列举法、比较对照法等等。请阅读下列各种写作手法，并在空格中填入适当的用词，这样能使你更好地提高写作水平。请千万不要在没有努力的情况下，就轻而易举地去对照答案，这样没有收获。
　　(1)时间顺序法
　　Riding a bicycle has proven dangerous for me.①②encounter which led me to this conclusion was at age five.③④bike and I were hit by a station wagon. This accident resulted in one broken huffy and needless to say, one broken person, yours truly.⑤⑥experience, although not as physically damaging as⑦⑧, came as a greater mental shock. I was riding through a shopping center parking lot until a car and I decided to occupy the same place at the same time.⑨⑩, I found myself on top of the car?s hood (车盖) staringsintosthe driver?s shocked face. I got down and found my body intact (未受损的) but my mind ashambles (被轰炸后的废墟，大混乱).?bike incident I had was at age fifteen. A friend and I were racing when I hit his back tire (I was losing); this caused me to flip off the bike head first. Saving my head, I broke my arm.?, I now walk agreat deal.
　　(2)空间顺序法
　　Cleaning our house requires some organization. We usually begin upstairs, doing all four bedrooms and both bathrooms.①it is down to the next level for the living room, dining room, kitchen, and my father?s den (小而舒适的书斋).②③，we retreat to the basement and straighten up the recreation room, the den, and my father?s workshop.
　　④we are really ambitious, our cleaning moves out to the garage. The⑤⑥is out back to the patio(天井，院子). A redwood lounge chair and a cold drink indicate it is quitting time.
　　(3)分类法
　　分类文(classification)是一种按一定标准和原则将人或客观事物分门别类，以总结各类事物不同特征的文章形式。这种方式适合于说明性段落。较常见的是先说次要的，把最主要的留在后面。也有按相反顺序来写的。
　　任何一篇分类文中的主旨句和段落的主题句的主要内容都是阐明分类的事物、分类原则和类别。
　　1)分类主旨句
　　①Clouds are classified cumulus and status according to how they are formed.
　　②Clouds are classified by altitudesintosfour families: big clouds, middle clouds, low clouds, and towering clouds.
　　③It is possible to define five general types of audience of any rock-and-roll concerts on the basis of dress, manner, consumption, age, and music taste.
　　④The marijuana user, on any given campus, may be placed in one of three categories: a dabbler, a user, and a head.
　　⑤What we see growing around us is a sort of social stratifcation in which the highbrows are the elite, the middlebrows are bourgeoisie, and the lowbrows are hoipolloi.
　　一般来说分类文(段)具有以下基本框架：
　　首段Introduction(含点明分类标准和类属的主旨句)
　　类型1Type 1
　　类型2Type 2
　　类型3Type 3，4，5，……
　　尾段Conclusion
　　下例就是按这一框架写成的段落：
　　2)主题句
　　There are three kinds of book owners according to the way they deal with their books. (Type 1: nonreaders) The first has all the standard sets and best-sellers unread, and even untouched.(Type 2: occasional readers)
　　The second has a great many books-a few of them read through, most of them dipped into, but all of them as clean and shiny as the day they were bought. (Type 3: devoted readers)
　　The third has a few books or many-every one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back.(conclusion) In a word, these categories of books owners are different in the number of books you own and in the extent they make use of their books.
　　分类法填空练习(请做下列填空)
　　Meteorites (陨石) are of three general①: irons-composed 98 percent or more of nickel-iron; stony irons?②?roughly half andhalf of nickel iron and of a kind of rock known as olivine; and, finally, stones. The stones are further③, depending on whether they contain tiny bodies of the minerals olivine and pyroxene. The stones that possess them-more than 90 percent or all known meteoritic stones-are called chondrites. The few stones④lack these minerals are known as achondrites. All these categories offer useful⑤to those who try to reconstruct the history of the earth, for not only are meteorites fellow members of the solar system,⑥radioactive dating indicates that they are as old as the earth itself.
　　(4)比较对照法(请做下列填空)AOrinda is a different town today from①it was a few years ago. Many changes have taken place. In just a few years Orinda has been transformed from a small country village②everyone knew each other to a large suburban communityswherespeople who rush home each night from city office barely have time to get acquainted. Just a few③ago the children of Orinda walked to one small school through pear orchards and tomato patches.④they ride to several schools in cars and buses, driving past well-trimmed lawns and swimming pools. Orinda⑤to be quiet, rural town.⑥it is bustling and sophisticated. The rocking chair has been replaced by the aluminum recliner (活动躺椅)。Community suppers have given?⑦?to country club parties. The horse drawn plow has been replaced by the tractor and rototiller (旋转碎木器). The two-lane road⑧town has moved aside for a wide new freeway.
　　There are a few oldtimers left in Orinda who probably wonder whether all the changes that have taken place rightly⑨to be called progress, but most of the people are caught up in the new life and seem to be satisfied with it.
　　B
　　Two different worlds exist side by side today beneath the great central mountains of Java, but the ancient rural way of life appears to be prevailing①the recently westernized cities. The bamboo tubes②
　　carry water to the terraced rice fields of the countryside are more durable③the cracked pipes of the cities. The simple wooden huts of the villages are more enduring④the unpainted, cracking facades (房屋的正面) of the Western-style buildings in the city. The hammered copper utensils of the countryside are both handsome⑤more durable than the cheap, patched tinware used by city dwellers. The colorful sarongsin the countryside are more attractive than the bunchy (围裙) and poorly cut Western dresses seen on the city streets.⑥the twentieth century seems to deteriorate before one's eyes, the ancient vigor of the Javanese peasant survives in its timeless way.
　　

11yaoyaoUID: 177037

　　(5)例证文
　　例证文(exemplification)是一种用实例说明、证实或论证一个道理、一种观点、一种意见和一个理论的篇章形式。
　　举例时往往大量使用以下词语和词组：
　　for example, for instance, to illustrate, as proof, as a matter of cause, to cite, to quote, typically, generally, on the whole,等。例如：
　　In this century, the presidents are much more cut off from contact with the people than①earlier times. Ordinary citizens,②③, could get to see Abraham Lincoln directly in the White House and make their requests to him in person. (例证1) Quite the④, President Nixon was hard to reach, even by his own staff. (例证2) As⑤President Jimmy Carter, although he made some efforts tobe available by visiting several private citizens in their homes, the presidentand his home-the white House-are hardly⑥(例证3). Time has made a⑦in the contact between the presidents and their people in this country.
　　(6)定义文
　　定义文(definition)是一种对事物、词语和概念进行解释，以确定其本质内容和意义范围的篇章形式。
　　1)简单定义形式
　　①Psychology is the science of human and animal behavior.
　　②Meteorolgy is the science of weather and climate.
　　③Identification is a defense mechanism in which we imagine that we arenot like another person.
　　④A doctor is a person who is a physician or surgeon.
　　⑤A doctor is a person licensed to practice any one of the healing arts.
　　2)定义的扩充形式
　　①Democracy (term to be defined) refers primarily to a form of government (genus) by the many (difference) as opposed to government by one-government by the people (clarification of the difference) as opposed to government by a tyrant, or an absolute monarch.
　　在有些扩充的定义形式中，作者首先指出被定义的词的意义范畴，然后用描述的方法说明其特定的意义内涵，性质或特征，例如：
　　②A tiger, a member of the cat family, is native to Asia, usually weighs over 350 pounds, and has tawny and black-striped fur.
　　文章主体(body)部分的展开模式练习答案
　　(1)时间顺序法
　　①The②first③My④first⑤My⑥next⑦the⑧first⑨Seconds
　　?B10?later?B11?The?B12?last?B13?consequently
　　(2)空间顺序法
　　①Then②After③that④If⑤final⑥step
　　(3)分类法
　　①classes②composed③subdivided④that⑤clues⑥but
　　(4)比较对照法
　　1)①what②where③years④Now⑤used⑥now⑦way⑧through⑨deserve
　　2)①over②which③than④than⑤and⑥While
　　(5)例证文
　　①in②for③example④opposite⑤for⑥accessible⑦change



考研英语写作的基本要素

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　　(一)基本要素：词、句、段
　　1.选词
　　选词的标准是，所选词语意义清晰、准确达意、形象生动、语法准确，并符合语言习惯。


　　下面是一些用词不当的例句：
　　1)The meeting was shut off when the chairman fell ill. shut off停止(供应煤、水、汽油等)，应改为cut short (中断)。
　　2)When he was at school, he won first reward for good behavior.此句中用reward(酬劳)词不达意，应改为prize(奖励，奖金)。
　　3)He is as strong as a cow.按照英语的习惯表达法，此处cow应改为horse或lion。
　　2.造句
　　“千里之行，始于足下”。无论是世界名著还是小学生作文，都是由句子组成。要做好短文写作，也必须从句子开始，狠下功夫，不断练习。要写好单句，必须使所写的句子具备下列特点。
　　(1)完整(?Unity?)
　　句子的完整性包括两个方面，即意思的完整性和结构的完整性。
　　意思的完整性是指一个句子应该表达一个相对完整的思想。
　　结构的完整性指的是句子在语法结构方面没有缺损。如：
　　It is incredible to many people. Cigarette smokers spend money for illness.
　　原句中it的意思不明确。可用it作形式主语，使句子结构完整。即：
　　It is incredible to many people that cigarette smokers spend money for illness.
　　为了使句子保持结构完整，还要注意避免融合句(?Run?together Sentence?)，所谓融合句，就是两个或两个以上的句子之间没有适当的标点符号或连词而融合在一起。如：
　　I do not care for any more fruit, I have had enough.
　　可改成：I do not care for any more fruit, for I have had enough.
　　(2)连贯(?Coherence?)
　　句子的连贯性包括两点，即句子各部分之间意义上的连贯和结构上的连贯。如：
　　1)She told my sister that she?was wrong.
　　句中代词?she?所指意思模棱两可，可用：“You are wrong,”she said to mysister.
　　2)On squeezing on to the bus, my wallet was lost.动名词的逻辑主语与句子主语不一致，可改成：On squeezing on to the bus, I lost my wallet.
　　(3)清晰(?Clarity?)
　　句子的清晰度包含以下四点：句子的主要意思突出；修饰语运用正确；修饰语位置适当；标点符号正确。如：
　　1)They were just turning the corner, when they heard the noise of a shot.
　　该句主要意思不突出，句子要表达的主要信息应放在复合句的主句中，所以这一句可改成：They heard the noise of a shot, just as they were turning the corner.
　　2)I have interesting something to tell you.
　　该句修饰语位置不对，可改成：I have something interesting to tell you.
　　3.组段
　　(1)段落和段落的组成
　　段落(?Paragraph?)是扩展中心思想的一组意义密切相关的句子。它本身是一个单元(?Unit?)，同时又是文章的基本部分。
　　段落一般由三部分组成：主题句(?Topic Sentence?),扩展句(?Development Sentence?)和结论句(?Concluding Sentence?)。
　　主题句点出段落主旨，各段落的主题句构成一篇文章的骨架，阐述全文的中心思想(?Central Idea?)，扩展句说明主题句或为主题句提供论证，结论句总结、归纳或概括主题句所点出的主旨。
　　硕士研究生英语入学考试大纲规定，考生应在40分钟内写出一篇200词的短文。如果短文由3-4段组成，那每段也只有50词左右。所以一般说来，每段只要有4-5句就够了。考生如按主题句、扩展句、结论句的数量比例适当安排行文，要写成段落也就不难了。
　　(2)过渡词
　　过渡词(?Transitional Words?)是一种关系指引词，是连接句子与句子、段落与段落的纽带。过渡词一般由副词或起副词作用的短语承担。此外，代词、连词、上下文的近义词等也可作过渡词。过渡词能使文章启、承、转、合，融会贯通，连成一体。
　　过渡词的分类根据过渡词在文章中的作用，大致可分四类：
　　1)用于“启”的过渡词语
　　first, first of all, at first, in the first place, firstly, to being with, to start with, recently, now, at present, in recent years, and so on.
　　2)用于“承”的过渡词语
　　second, similarly, in addition, besides, then, furthermore, moreover, what is more, what is worse, for example, for instance, certainly, surely, obviously, in other words, especially, particularly, in particular, indeed, still, third, truly, in fact, in plain terms, for the most part(基本上)，at the same time, no doubt，and so on.
　　3)用于“转”的过渡词语
　　however, on the other hand, on the contrary, in contrast, in any case, at any rate(无论如何)，conversely(相反地)，nevertheless(虽然如此)，otherwise, or, or else, while...,whereas..., but, despite..., in spite of ..., yet, instead，and so on.
　　4)用于“合”的过渡词语：
　　consequently, as a consequence, therefore, as a result, above all, thus，after all(毕竟)，generally speaking, in general, finally, at last, eventually, hence, inshort(总之)，in conclusion, in a word(总之，简言之)，in sum(总之)，on the whole(就整体而言)，to sum up，and so on.
　　(3)段落扩展
　　段落扩展(?Paragraph Development?)是根据主题句的思想来阐明问题的某一方面。好的段落应该是主题单一、内容完整、连贯，长度适中。
　　段落扩展的方法很多，但由于研究生英语入学考试的写作实际上只是微型作文，这里介绍几种最常用的扩展方法，以供参考。
　　1)描述法(?Description?):描述法是段落扩展中最常用的一种方法。描述一个过程或程序时，常用一般现在时的被动语态，这是“一般描述”；报导某一特定的程度或过程时，其涉及到的只是过去某一特定的情况，所以经常使用一般过去时的被动语态。如果描述不涉及到某特定的过程或程序，则经常用一般现在时的主动语态。此外，在描述过程或报导事件时，顺序很重要。
　　2)举例法(?Exemplification?):用具体事例来阐述主题句的中心思想。
　　3)比较与对比法(?Comparison and Contrast?):比较与对比是阐述段落主旨的常用方法；通过比较指出事物的异同，通过对比找出事物的差异。
　　下面列出须熟记的10个表示比较的常用句型：
　　句型?a?.A is different form B in that…
　　句型?b?.With regard to…, A is bigger than B
　　句型?c?.A and B are different in every way(respect)
　　句型?d?.One of the differences between A and B is that :
　　句型?e?.A and B have a little(something, much etc.) in common
　　句型?f?.A is quite (completely, entirely, totally) different from B
　　句型?g?.A is not quite as/so big (expensive, interesting etc.) as B
　　句型?h?.On (the) one hand, A is (has, does) :;on the other (hand), A is (has, does):
　　句型?i?.A is exactly(precisely, just, practically, more or less, almost, nearly, approximately, about) the same as B
　　句型?j?.A is much(a great deal, a lot, considerably, somewhat, a bit, al
　　ittle, slightly, hardly, scarcely, only just) smaller (bigger, cheaper) than B[ZK)]
　　4)因果法(?Cause and effect?):通过分析事物发生的起因，来说明由此而产生的种种结果。
　　下面列出须牢记的8个表示因果的句型例句：
　　句型?a?.Bad weather is due to
　　caused by an increase in air pollution.
　　句型?b?.If
　　When there is an increase in air pollution, (then) the weather gets bad.
　　句型?c?.An increase in air pollution often
　　causes
　　leads to
　　results in
　　produces worse weather.
　　句型?d?.As
　　Since
　　Because
　　Now that the air pollution has increased, the weather gets worse.
　　句型?e?.The cause ofreason for worse weather was an increase in air pollution.
　　句型?f?.The/One resulteffectconsequenceof an increase in air pollution is worse weather.
　　句型?g?.The air pollution has increased.
　　So,Now,Thus,Hence,Therefore,As a result,Accordingly,Consequently,Because of this, For this reason, the weather is worse.
　　句型?h?.The weather gets worse, as
　　since
　　because
　　through
　　owing to
　　there is
　　because of
　　as a result of
　　on account of an increase in air pollution.
　　除上述四种扩展段落的方法外，还有许多其他的方法，如综合法、归纳法、分析法和演绎法等。
考研英语写作基本理论及得高分基本方法研究

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　　一、主考官的盲点、兴奋点和残留点
　　(一)短文写作部分评卷人的弱点
　　通过问卷调查和社会分析，许多人都有或多或少的致命弱点，因此我们可以欣喜地下一个结论：作为普通人的考研短文写作部分评卷人也同样有“致命弱点”。


　　1.厌倦(?Bored?)：就实际而言，大部分考生写作能力都不太高，而对短文写作部分评卷人而言，在较短时间内批阅大量的短文往往会产生厌倦感。据科学测试，人在单一环境中干同一工作往往有一个承受限度，即心理负荷度，一旦超出该限度就会产生诸多不适。这就是?Bored?!试想：短文写作部分评卷人终日埋头于批阅短文，产生?Bored?的心理感受是理所当然的。
　　2.疲劳(?Tired?)：这是?Bored?的延伸，且与工作数量、工作时间成正比。短文写作部分评卷人的工作数量不可能不大，工作时间不可能不长，所以他必然会?Tired?。疲劳感在所难免。
　　3.气恼(?Fretful?)：如果短文写作部分评卷人能把某篇文章掂量再三，这篇文章必定有不同之处。可阅卷人在?Bored?和?Tired?的双重攻击之下，难免会产生一种?Fretful?，这正是?Bored?和?Tired?的“升华”!
　　其实，无论是谁，找个空闲时间，拿出考研试卷15份优秀范文，猛读一气，基本是到了第4、5篇时就开始走神。据测试统计，读完12篇后才走神的人极少。可想想看，读的这些全是优秀作文呀!，思路清晰，事例恰当，行文流畅，但还是会很快就受不了了，直打哈欠——没办法。
　　以上就是短文写作部分评卷人的弱点，但这些弱点并非是?total disaster?。它们也只是在一定限度之内表现出来，因为在这些阅卷专家的脑子里牢牢地嵌着一些框架，他们可以在极短的时间内将你的文章往框架里套，再根据套入框中的采分点的个数下意识地给出一个分数。
　　所以考生要使行文如“箭”，准确射中对方这一“要害”。
　　(二)短文写作部分评卷人的兴奋点
　　这些兴奋点其实是评卷人大脑中的框架——考研作文评分标准。
　　按顺序从高到低排列，评卷人的兴奋点分别是：
　　(1)脉络(?Organization?);
　　(2)细节及论据(?Details and Examples?);
　　(3)行文(?Facility in the Use of Language and Appropriate Word Choice?)。
　　短文写作部分评卷人的兴奋点=考研作文评分标准。
　　(三)短文写作部分评卷人的盲区
　　这些盲区在短文写作部分评卷人大脑中兴奋度很低，除非有大的冲击力，否则较难被激活。按其兴奋度从低至高排列，分别是：
　　(1)选择什么样的论点；
　　(2)在文章中犯的少量拼写、标点错误；
　　(3)论据是否天衣无缝。
　　(四)短文写作部分评卷人的残留点
　　所谓残留点是指短文写作部分评卷人在两眼发直、身心疲惫、大脑混沌状态下飞速地浏览完文章后在他的脑子里残留着的印象。这绝非耸人听闻，评卷人在阅卷时绝对是边看边忘。虽然绝大部分记不住，可还是有少数内容进入了他的潜意识，他就是靠这点残留的潜意识给文章评分。考生可能会想，我这不太冤枉了吗，费好大劲写的作文他仅凭一点残留印象给分?!更要注意的是，进入他潜意识中的那点东西同他的兴奋点几乎完全是等同的映射关系。其残留点就是兴奋点的兴奋残留物。激活他兴奋点的越多，程度越大，残留的东西也越多，面积也越大，得分也就越高。这些残留点实际上就是对本篇写作的浓缩评语。
　　二、东西方思维模式差异的影响
　　由于存在不同的社会、历史、文化背景，东西方思维模式也存在着明显的差异。这种不同的思维模式又对写作的布局谋篇起着至关重要的作用。
　　(一)英语语篇线性修辞模式
　　英语语篇思维有三种模式：
　　(1)一般特殊型(?Generalization?Particular Pattern?);
　　(2)问题解决型(?Problem?Solution Pattern?);
　　(3)匹配比较型(?Matching Pattern?)。
　　根据对历年来研究生入学考试短文写作部分的分析，考研作文构架基本都能在这三种模式中得到各自的定位。其中，一般特殊型使用尤为广泛，并常与比较型甚至问题解决型结合起来组成复杂的思维模式。
　　1.一般特殊型
　　一般特殊型又称“直线型”(?Linearity?)，其写作特点是，开门见山第一句往往是概括主题思想，然后再引出具体事例或细节对其进行发展。
　　一般特殊型思维模式在英语语篇中占主导地位。这种思维模式不但广泛用于自然科学和社会科学的论说文中，而且也常用于记叙和描写文体里。这种模式实际上体现了英语族人的线性思维模式，所以，无论是“匹配比较型”文章，还是“问题解决型”文章，“一般特殊型”的主题句语段结构模式可以说是无处不有。段落如此，语篇也不例外。
　　2.问题解决型
　　问题解决型修辞模式的特征是首先说明情况，然后提出问题，接着做出反应，解决问题(问题也可能没有解决或没有完全解决)，最后给予适当的评价。
　　1992～1996年研究生作文题目虽均为论说文体，但题目提纲所要求的写作模式却全属问题解决型，即使1997～2002年的图表作文，总体布局上也万变不离其宗。
　　3.匹配比较型
　　匹配比较型思维模式用于对比语段，常与一般特殊型一起组成复杂的思维模式。对比包括两种类型：立足于两种事物之间的相似之处对其进行比较；立足两者之间的不同之处对其进行对照，从而突出中心。
　　1991年作文试题“?Where to Live—in the City or the Country?”?就从?Live in the city?和?Live in the country?两个方面比较。
　　(二)汉语螺旋型语篇修辞模式
　　中国人的思维模式属典型的东方“螺旋型”(?Spirality?)。中国学生在英语写作时，往往按汉语的修辞模式组织英语语段，很少能写出在英语语篇修辞模式中占主导地位的“一般特殊型”语段，如主题句段落等。在开始说明情况时，思维深处已经隐伏着问题，但又不明确议论主题，而只是先用思维内容推理暗示，然后由暗到明逐步提示问题的存在，最后针对问题点明主题。
　　《科技英语学习》主编、上海交通大学毛荣贵教授与美国天普大学?Dorine S.Houston?教授合作，曾通过互联网对中国大学生英语作文进行评改。其中30%的习作，?Dorine S.Houston?教授是就主题句的准确设定及其位置问题提出了异议和修改意见。可见写好主题句语段是摆在中国学生面前的一项值得注意的任务。

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11辛苦~好贴子啊~

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强顶一个！

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ding

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强人！感谢！

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谢谢啦(*^__^*) 嘻嘻……