1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by 中原527--战胜自己

中原527UID：2707367

1) 以y结尾的专有名词，或元音字母+y 结尾的名词变复数时，直接加s变复数：
　
如：　two Marys
the Henrys

monkey---monkeys　 holiday---holidays
　比较：
层楼：storey ---storeys　 story---stories

2) 以o 结尾的名词，变复数时：
　　a. 加s，如： photo---photos
piano---pianos
　　　　　　　　
radio---radios　
　zoo---zoos；
　　b. 加es，如：potato--potatoes　tomato--tomatoes
c. 均可，如：zero---zeros / zeroes

3) 以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时：
　　a. 加s，如： belief---beliefs　roof---roofs
　　　　　　　　 safe---safes　 gulf---gulfs；
　　b. 去f,fe 加ves，如：half---halves　　
　　　knife---knives　leaf---leaves　wolf---wolves
　　　wife---wives　life---lives　thief---thieves；
　　c. 均可,如：　handkerchief:
　　　　　　　 handkerchiefs / handkerchieves

3 名词复数的不规则变化
1）child---children
　foot---feet　
tooth---teeth
　　mouse---mice　　
man---men　 woman---women　
注意：与 man 和 woman构成的合成词，其复数形式也是 -men 和-women。
　如： an Englishman, two Englishmen.但German不是合成词，故复数形式为Germans；Bowman是姓，其复数是the Bowmans。

2）单复同形　如：
　　deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese
　　li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin　
但除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。
如:
a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters

3）集体名词，以单数形式出现，但实为复数。
　
如： people　police　cattle 等本身就是复数，不能说 a people，a police，a cattle，但可以说 a person，a policeman，a head of cattle, the English，the British，the French，the Chinese，the Japanese，the Swiss 等名词，表示国民总称时，作复数用。
　　　如： The Chinese are industries and brave.　中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。

4）以s结尾，仍为单数的名词，如：
　　 a. maths, politics, physics等学科名词，为不可数名词，是单数。
　　 b. news 是不可数名词。
　　 c. the United States，the United Nations 应视为单数。
　　　The United Nations was organized in 1945. 联合国是1945年组建起来的。
　　 d. 以复数形式出现的书名，剧名，报纸，杂志名，也可视为单数。
　　　"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.
　　　<<一千零一夜>>是一本非常有趣的故事书。

5) 表示由两部分构成的东西，如：glasses (眼镜)　trousers,　clothes
　
若表达具体数目，要借助数量词 pair(对，双);　suit(套); a pair of glasses; two pairs of trousers


6）
另外还有一些名词，其复数形式有时可表示特别意思，如：goods货物，waters水域，fishes（各种）鱼
4 不可数名词量的表示
1）物质名词
　　a. 当物质名词转化为个体名词时。
　　　
比较：　Cake is a kind of food.　蛋糕是一种食物。 (不可数)
　　　　　　　 These cakes are sweet.　这些蛋糕很好吃。 (可数)
　　b. 当物质名词表示该物质的种类时，名词可数。
　　　This factory produces steel.　(不可数)
　　　We need various steels.　(可数)
　　c. 当物质名词表示份数时，可数。
　　　Our country is famous for tea.
　　　我国因茶叶而闻名。
　　　Two teas, please.
　　　请来两杯茶。

2）
抽象名词有时也可数。
　　four freedoms 四大自由
　　the four modernizations四个现代化
　　物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。
　　如：
　　a glass of water 一杯水　
　　a piece of advice　一条建议

5 定语名词的复数
名词作定语一般用单数，但也有以下例外。
　1) 用复数作定语。
　　
如：sports meeting 运动会
　　　　 students reading-room 学生阅览室　
　　　　 talks table 谈判桌　
　　　　 the foreign languages department 外语系

2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时，其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。
　
如：men workers　　women teachers
gentlemen officials

3) 有些原有s结尾的名词，作定语时，s保留。
　
如：goods train (货车)
　　　 arms produce　武器生产
　　　 customs papers 海关文件
　　　 clothes brush衣刷

4) 数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。
　如：two-dozen eggs　两打/（二十四个鸡蛋)　
　
　 a ten-mile walk 十里路　

　　 two-hundred trees 两百棵树
　
　 a five-year plan.　一个五年计划
　　
个别的有用复数作定语的，如： a seven-years child

6 不同国家的人的单复数
名称　      　总称(谓语用复数）　一个人　　两个人

                     the                    a/an　　　　two
中国人　　the Chinese　　  a Chinese　 two Chinese
瑞士人　　the Swiss            a Swiss　　   two Swiss
日本人　　the Japanese　　a Japanese　 two Japanese
法国人　　the French　    a Frenchman　 two Frenchmen
英国人　　the English　　an Englishman　 two Englishmen
德国人　　the Germans　　a Germans　　two Germans
澳大利亚人Australians　　  an Australian　two Australians
俄国人　　the Russians　　a Russian　　  two Russians
意大利人　the Italians　　 an Italian　       two Italians
希腊人　　the Greek    　　a Greek　　    two Greeks
美国人　　the Americans　an American　  two Americans
印度人　　the Indians　　  an Indian　　 two Indians
加拿大人　the Canadians　a Canadian　 two Canadians
瑞典人　　the Swedish　　a Swede　  　two Swedes　　


7 名词的格
在英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系，带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格，如：a teacher's book。名词所有格的规则如下：
1）
单数名词词尾加"'s"，复数名词词尾没有s，也要加"'s"，
如the boy's bag 男孩的书包，men's room 男厕所。
2）
若名词已有复数词尾-s ，只加"'"，
如：the workers' struggle　工人的斗争。
3）
凡不能加"'s"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系，
如：the title of the song 歌的名字。
4）
在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，
如：the barber's 理发店。
5）
如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有"；只有一个's，则表示'共有'。

如：John's and Mary's room（两间）　　John and Mary's room（一间）
6）
复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。
　
如：a month or two's absence

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3、名词用法难点

一、 关于特殊名词的具体考点如下：、
　　1．容易误用为复数的不可数名词：(这些名词一般不能用作复数，谓语动词用单数)
　　advice 建议，忠告 living 生活，生计
　　equipment 装备，设备 progress 前进，发展
　　furniture 家具，设备 scenery 风景，景色
　　information 通知；信息 machinery 机器，机械
　　knowledge 知识，学问 traffic 交通流量
　　baggage / luggage 行李，皮箱 trouble 烦恼，麻烦
　　cash 现金 thunder 雷声，轰隆声
　　apparatus 仪器 weather 天气，处境
　　clothing 衣服 work 工作，劳动
　　paper 纸，钞票 luck 运气，幸运
　　technology 工艺，技术 jewelry 珠宝
　　2． 复数形式的名词用于单数概念，其谓语动词用单数。(这些名词一般为表示学科或疾病的名词)
　　economics 经济学 measles 麻疹
　　physics 物理学 mumps 腮腺炎
　　mathematics 数学 rickets 软骨病，佝偻病
　　dynamics 动力学 news 新闻
　　The United States 美国 The New York Times 纽约时报

二、与名词相关的主谓一致关系（再次重温主谓一致原则~~~~~~~）
　　英语中，主语和谓语在数、性和格上应该保持一致，但在实际应用中很容易被忽视，尤其是主语和谓语之间出现插入语，故考试中经常考到主谓一致。除了以上特殊名词谓语有特殊要求外，现将主谓一致的考点归纳如下：
　　1． 复数原则：两个或者两个以上的名词由and连接作主语时；主语由both … and … 连接时，谓语动词用复数。
　　Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.
　　Both bread and butter are sold in that grocery. 那个杂货店既卖面包，也卖黄油。
　　
2． 就近原则： 由 either … or … ; neither … nor …; not only…but also…; …or …； there be …等引导的主语， 谓语动词的单复数取决于最靠近动词的名词的单复数。
　　Not only the students but also their teacher is invited to attend the party.

　　3． 就远原则：主语，＋ as well as +另一个主语，谓语动词的单复数取决于第一个主语的名词的单复数。
　　My mother, as well as my two brothers, has a key to the office.
　　我母亲，还有我的两个哥哥都有一把办公室的钥匙。
　　同例：with…; together with…; along with…; including…; in addition to…; besides …; except…; as much as…; accompanied by …; rather than…等等

　　4． 表示时间、距离、价值、量度的复数名词作主语时谓语动词用单数。
　　One hundred dollars is a large sum for the poor .
　　Twenty days have passed since I met her last time.
　　自从我上次见到她到现在已经过去二十天。 ( twenty days 这里不作整体看待， 故谓语动词用复数。)

　　5． and连接两个名词表示一个概念做主语时，谓语用单数; 若表示的是多个不同的概念时，谓语动词用复数。
　　War and peace is a constant theme in literature.
　　战争与和平是文学中永恒的主题。(War and peace是一对概念，看作一个主题)
　　同例： ham and eggs n.火腿蛋 steam and bread
　　law and order
bread and butter
　　apple pie and ice cream
folk and knife
　　wheel and axle 轮轴
needle and thread
　 love and hate
egg and rice 蛋炒饭
　
The writer and translator is delivering a speech in our university tonight. (指同一个人)
　 The writer and the translator are delivering a speech in our university tonight. (指两个人)


A black and a white dog are playing in the yard. (指两只狗)
　　A black and white dog is playing in the yard. ( 指一只狗)

　　6．动词不定式、动名词、名词性从句做主语时+单数谓语
　　 Early to bed and early to rise makes one healthy, wealthy and wise.
　　( 指“早睡早起”一件事)
　　To work hard is necessary
　 What I said and did is of no concern to you.
　 Reading three classical novels and making some social investigations are assignments for the students during the holiday. ( 注意： 指不同性质的两件事，谓语用复数 )

　　7． many a, more than one + 单数可数名词，尽管表示复数意义， 谓语仍用单数。
　　Many a student has made such a mistake.
　 More than one stranger agrees with me.
　　[注意]
　　在“more + 复数名词 + than one”结构作主语时，谓语动词用复数。
　　More persons than one have been involved. 卷入其中的远不止一人。

　　8． 由 every …and every …; each … and each…; no … and no…; many a …and many a … 等连接的并列主语，谓语动词用单数。
　　Every man and every woman working here is getting along well with me.
　　No difficulty and no hardship has discouraged him.

　　9. 由 all of, most of, half of , a lot of, part of 等加名词构成的主语，谓语动词的数取决于该名词的单复数。
　　 All of us are going to see the game.
　　All of his time was spent on gambling
　　 Three-fourths of the people are illiterate.
　　 同例： plenty of…， one fourth of…， none of…， some of …， majority of …， … percent of …， the rest of …， reminder of …。

　　10. a number of ( a total of , an average of ) +复数名词，谓语动词用复数。
　　the number of ( the total of, the average of ) + 复数名词， 谓语动词用单数。
　　A total of ten thousand dollars were donated last month.
　　The total of dollars donated last month was 100,000 dollars.
　　同例： a / the variety of；a / the group of

　　11. 定语从句的谓语动词注意与先行词保持一致，但注意the only one of… 的用法。
　　 One of those men likes to drive fast.
　　 One of those men who like to drive fast is her son.
　　 He is the only one of those men who likes to drive fast.

　　12. 由some，any, no，every 构成的复合词如somebody, nothing, nobody, anything, everybody等代词作主语，谓语动词用单数；由each, every one, no one, either, neither, another, the other作主语时，谓语动词用单数；由either, neither, each, every修饰名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如：
　　More than one example is necessary to make the students understand this rule clearly.
　　Neither is satisfactory.
　　Is either of the singers reading now?

　　13. the + adj / v-ed 表示一类人时， 用复数谓语动词; 表示抽象概念时， 谓语动词用单数。
　　The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.
　　病人得到了医治，失踪的也找回来了。
　　同例： the poor / dumb / innocent / guilty / unemployed / aged / oppressed / exploited…
　　We can do the difficult first. The impossible takes a little longer.
　　我们先从难题开始，不会的可能花的时间长一些。
　　The best is yet to come. 好戏还在后头。

　　14. a pair of + 由两部分物体构成的名词(如：shoes, scissors, glasses, jeans, pants, trousers)作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
　　My new pair of pants is being altered. 我的一条短裤正在修改。

　　15. 当主语被one ( a ) and a half 修饰时，谓语动词用数。

　　One and a half apples is left on the plate.

　　16. 当主语由 a series of…， a portion of …， a species of …， a kind of …， a sequence of …， a chain of…， a piece of … 加名词(单数或复数)构成时， 谓语用单数。
　　A series of lectures on psychology is said to be given by Mr. Li.
　　A large portion of her poems was published after her death.

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代词
3）指代车或国家，船舶的名词，含感情色彩时常用she。（额，我还真不知道这个可以用she。。。感觉像情人或母亲）
注意： 在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。
a. 在承认错误，承担责任时，

It was I and John that made her angry.

是我和约翰惹她生气了。
b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称， 如：I and you try to finish it.
c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时，
d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
3.6 双重所有格

物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置，修饰一个名词，而必须用双重所有格。
公式为：
a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。如：
a friend of mine.
each brother of his.

3.7 反身代词
1） 列表

2）做宾语
a. 有些动词需有反身代词

absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave

We enjoyed ourselves very much last night.我们昨晚玩得很开心。

Please help yourself to some fish.请你随便吃点鱼。
b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词

take pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth.

I could not dress (myself) up at that time.那个时候我不能打扮我自己。
注：有些动词后不跟反身代词， get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up 等。
Please sit down.请坐。
3） 作表语； 同位语
be oneself: I am not myself today.我今天不舒服。
The thing itself is not important.事情本身并不重要。

4） 在不强调的情况下，but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如：
No one but myself (me) is hurt.
注意：
a. 反身代词本身不能单独作主语。
(错) Myself drove the car.
(对) I myself drove the car.我自己开车。
b. 但在and, or, nor 连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself 作主语。
Charles and myself saw it.

5）第二人称作宾语，要用反身代词。
You should be proud of yourself.你应为自己感到骄傲。


2） 相互代词的句法功能：a. 作动词宾语；
People should love one another. 人们应当彼此相爱。
b. 可作介词宾语；
Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other.吠、鸡鸣、蛙儿对唱。
说明：传统语法认为，相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other， 存在于两个以上人和物之间用one another。现代英语中，两组词交替使用的实例也很多，例如：
He put all the books beside each other.
他把所有书并列摆放起来。
He put all the books beside one another.
他把所有书并列摆放起来。
Usually these small groups were independent of each other.
这些小团体通常是相互独立的。
c. 相互代词可加-'s构成所有格，例如：
The students borrowed each other's notes.
学生们互借笔记。
指示代词
说明1：指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人，但作其他句子成分时只能指物，不能指人，例如：
(对)That is my teacher.那是我的老师。（ that作主语，指人）
(对)He is going to marry this girl.他要和这个姑娘结婚。（this作限定词）
(错)He is going to marry this.（this作宾语时不能指人）
(对)I bought this.我买这个。(this指物，可作宾语)

说明2：
That和those可作定语从句的先行词，但this和 these不能，同时，在作先行词时，只有those可指人，试比较：
(对) He admired that which looked beautiful.他赞赏外表漂亮的东西。
(对) He admired those who looked beautiful. 他赞赏那些外表漂亮的人。（those指人）
(错) He admired that who danced well.（that作宾语时不能指人）
(对) He admired those who danced well.他赞赏跳舞好的人。（those指人）
(对) He admired those which looked beautiful. 他赞赏那些外表漂亮的东西。（those指物）

2） 疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前，没有性和数的变化，除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which, whose还可作限定词。试比较：
疑问代词：Whose are these books on the desk?
桌上的书是谁的？
What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion?
美国的领土扩张是朝哪个方向的？
限定词：Whose books are these on the desk?
桌上的书是谁的？
What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States?哪些事件使密西西比河以东的大部分土地归属于美国？
说明1：
无论是做疑问代词还是限定词，which 和 what 所指的范围不同。what所指的范围是无限的，而which则指在一定的范围内，例如：
Which girls do you like best?

你喜欢哪几个姑娘？
What girls do you like best?

你喜欢什么样的姑娘？
说明2：
Whom是who的宾格，在书面语中，它作动词宾语或介词宾语，在口语中作宾语时，可用who代替，但在介词后只能用whom, 例如：
Who(m) did you meet on the street?
你在街上遇到了谁？（作动词宾语）
Who(m) are you taking the book to?
你要把这书带给谁？（作介词宾语，置句首）
To whom did you speak on the campus?
你在校园里和谁讲话了？（作介词宾语，置介词 后，不能用who取代。）
说明 3：
疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时，过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首，现代英语中，疑问代词在句首，介词在句未，例如：
For what do most people live and work?
大部分人生活和工作的目的是什么？（旧文体）
What are you looking for?
你在找什么？（现代英语）
说明4：
疑问代词还可引导名词性从句，例如：
I can't make out what he is driving at.
我不知道他用意何在。
Can you tell me whose is the blue shirt on the bed?
你能告诉我床上的蓝衬衣是谁的吗？
Much of what you say I agree with, but I cannot go all the way with you.
你说的我大部分同意，但并不完全赞同。
2） 不定代词的功能与用法
a.除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词，也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。
I have no idea about it.

b. all 都，指三者以上。
all 的主谓一致：all的单复数由它所修饰或指代的名词的单复数决定。
All goes well.一切进展得很好。
all 通常不与可数名词单数连用，如：不说 all the book，而说 the whole book。
但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用，如 all day，all night， all the year； 但习惯上不说 all hour，all century。
all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用，如 all China，all the city，all my life， all the way

3)both都，指两者。
a. both 与复数动词连用，但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。

b. both, all 都可作同位语，其位置在行为动词前， be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省去，则位于助动词或情态动词之前。
Who can speak Japanese?We both (all) can.

4)neither两者都不
a.neither作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
b. 作定语与单数名词连用，但neither… nor 用作并列连词，可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。
c.可用于下列句型，避免重复。
She can't sing，neither (can) he.

neither 与nor
d.如前句是否定式从句，则主句用neither，而不用 nor。
If you don't do it，neither should I.如果你不干，我也不干。
e. 如后连续有几个否定句式，则用nor，不用neither。
He can't sing，nor dance，nor skate.
3.13 none, few, some, any, one, ones

一、 none 无
1) none作主语，多与of 构成短语 none of。在答语中，none可单独使用。
Are there any pictures on the wall?None.
2) none作主语，谓语动词单复数均可。但如做表语，则其单复数与表语一致。
It is none of your business.

二、few 一些，少数
few 作主语时，谓语动词用复数，多用于肯定句。
三、some 一些
1) 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。
2) 当做"某一"解时，也可与单数名词连用。（= a certain）
You will be sorry for this some day.
总有一天，你会后悔这件事的。
A certain (some) person has seen you break the rule.
某些人不同意你的看法。
注意：
(1)在肯定疑问句中用some代替any。
(2)some用于其他句式中:
a.肯定疑问句中：说话人认为对方的答案会是肯定的，或期望得到肯定回答时。
Would you like句式中，表委婉请求或建议，如：
Would you like some coffee?
b.在条件状语从句中表示确定的意义时，如：
If you need some help，let me know.
c.some位于主语部分,
Some students haven't been there before.
d.当否定的是整体中的部分时，some可用于否定句。如：
I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
这些年我没有收到一些老朋友的信。
四、any 一些
1)any 多用于否定句和疑问句和条件状语从句中。
当句中含有任何的意思时，any可用于肯定句。
Here are three novels. You may read any.这有三本小说，你可任读一本。
五、one, ones 为复数形式
ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前，则用some, any，而不
用 ones。
Have you bought any rulers?Yes，I 've bought some.

中原527UID：2707367

3.14 代词比较辩异 one，that 和it

one表示泛指，that和it 表示特指。that与所指名词为同类，但不是同一个，而it 与所指名词为同一个。
I can't find my hat. I think I must buy one.(不定)
我找不到我的帽子了。我想我该去买一顶。
The hat you bought is bigger than that I bought.(同类但不同个)
你买的那顶帽子比我买的大。

I can't find my hat. I don' t know where I put it. ( 同一物)
我找不到我的帽子。我不知道我把它放在哪了。
1．anyone 和 any one
anyone仅指人，any one既可指人，也可指物。

2．no one 和none
a)none 后跟of短语，既可指人又可指物，而no one只单独使用，只指人。
b)none 作主语，谓语动词用单，复数均可，而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。

None of you could lift it. 你们中没有人可举起它。
---- Did any one call me up just now?-- 刚才有人打电话给我吗?
---- No one.--没有。

3．every 和each
1)every 强调全体的概念， each强调个体概念。

Every student in our school works hard.我们学校的学生都很用功。

Each student may have one book..每个学生都可有一本书。

2)every 指三个以上的人或物(含三个)，each指两个以上的人或物 (含两个)。

3)every 只作形容词，不可单独使用。each可作代词或形容词。

Every student has to take one.

Each boy has to take one.

Each of the boys has to take one.

4)every不可以作状语，each可作状语。

5)every 有反复重复的意思，如 every two weeks等； each没有。

6)every 与not 连用，表示部分否定； each 和not连用表示全部否定。
Every man is not honest. 并非每个人都诚实。
Each man is not honest.这儿每个人都不诚实。
only a few (=few)not a few (=many)quite a few (=many)
many a (=many)
Many books were sold.
Many a book was sold.
卖出了许多书。

中原527UID：2707367

第9期 动词的时态

5 be going to / will

用于条件句时， be going to表将来
will表意愿
If you are going to make a journey, you'd better get ready for it as soon as possible.
Now if you will take off your clothes, we will fit the new clothes on you in front of the mirror.

6 be to和be going to

be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事。
be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。
I am to play football tomorrow afternoon.(客观安排)
I'm going to play football tomorrow afternoon. (主观安排)
10 比较过去时与现在完成时

1）过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情，强调动作；现在完成时为过去发生的，强调过去的事情对现在的影响，强调的是影响。

2）过去时常与具体的时间状语连用，而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用，或无时间状语。
一般过去时的时间状语:
yesterday, last week，…ago, in1980, in October, just now, 具体的时间状语
共同的时间状语:
this morning, tonight, this April, now, once，before, already, recently，lately
现在完成时的时间状语
for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till / until, up to now, in past years, always,
不确定的时间状语

3）现在完成时可表示持续到现在的动作或状态，动词一般是延续性的，如live, teach, learn, work, study, know.
过去时常用的非持续性动词有come, go, leave, start, die, finish, become, get married等。
举例：
I saw this film yesterday.
（强调看的动作发生过了。）
I have seen this film.
（强调对现在的影响，电影的内容已经知道了。）
Why did you get up so early?
（强调起床的动作已发生过了。）
Who hasn't handed in his paper?
（强调有卷子，可能为不公平竞争。）
She has returned from Paris.
她已从巴黎回来了。
She returned yesterday.
她是昨天回来了。
He has been in the League for three years.
(在团内的状态可延续)
He has been a League member for three years.
(是团员的状态可持续)
He joined the League three years ago.
( 三年前入团，joined为短暂行为。)
I have finished my homework now.

---Will somebody go and get Dr. White?
---He's already been sent for.
句子中如有过去时的时间副词（如 yesterday, last, week, in 1960）时，不能使用现在完成时，要用过去时。
（错）Tom has written a letter to his parents last night.
（对）Tom wrote a letter to his parents last night.
11 用于现在完成时的句型

1）It is the first / second time…. that…结构中的从句部分，用现在完成时。
It is the first time that I have visited the city.
It was the third time that the boy had been late.

2）This is the… that…结构，that 从句要用现在完成时.
This is the best film that I've (ever) seen.
这是我看过的最好的电影。
This is the first time (that) I've heard him sing.这是我第一次听他唱歌。
12 比较since和for

Since 用来说明动作起始时间，for用来说明动作延续时间长度。
I have lived here for more than twenty years.
I have lived here since I was born..
My aunt has worked in a clinic since 1949.
Some new oilfields have been opened up since 1976.
I have known Xiao Li since she was a little girl.
My brother has been in the Youth League for two years.
I have not heard from my uncle for a long time.

注意：并非有for 作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。
I worked here for more than twenty years.
(我现在已不在这里工作。)
I have worked here for many years.
(现在我仍在这里工作。)
小窍门：当现在完成时+一段时间，这一结构中，我们用下面的公式转化，很容易就能排除非延续动词在完成时中的误使。
1)(对) Tom has studied Russian for three years.
= Tom began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.
2)(错) Harry has got married for six years.
= Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.
显然，第二句不对，它应改为 Harry got married six years ago.或 Harry has been married for six years.

13 since的四种用法

1) since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。
I have been here since 1989.

2) since +一段时间+ ago
I have been here since five months ago.

3) since +从句
Great changes have taken place since you left.
Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.

4) It is +一段时间+ since从句
It is two years since I became a postgraduate student.

14 延续动词与瞬间动词

1) 用于完成时的区别
延续动词表示经验、经历； 瞬间动词表示行为的结 果，不能与表示段的时间状语连用。
He has completed the work.他已完成了那项工作。 (表结果)
I've known him since then.我从那时起就认识他了。(表经历)

2)用于till / until从句的差异
延续动词用于肯定句，表示"做……直到……" 瞬间动词用于否定句，表示"到 ……，才……"
He didn't come back until ten o'clock.
他到10 点才回来。
He slept until ten o'clock.
他一直睡到10点。
典型例题
1. You don't need to describe her. I ___ her several times.
A. had metB. have metC. metD. meet
答案B. 首先本题后句强调对现在的影响，我知道她的模样，你不用描述。再次，several times告知为反复发生的动作，因此用现在完成时。

2.---I'm sorry to keep you waiting.
---Oh, not at all. I ___ here only a few minutes.
A. have beenB. had beenC. wasD. will be
答案A. 等待的动作由过去开始，持续到现在，应用现在完成时。
16 用一般过去时代替完成时

1)两个动作如按顺序发生，又不强调先后，或用then，and，but 等连词时，多用一般过去时。
When she saw the mouse， she screamed.
My aunt gave me a hat and I lost it.

2 ) 两个动作相继发生，可用一般过去时；如第一个动作需要若干时间完成，用过去完成时。
When I heard the news, I was very excited.

3)叙述历史事实，可不用过去完成时，而只用一般过去时。
Our teacher told us that Columbus discovered America in 1492.
19 不用进行时的动词

1) 事实状态的动词
have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure, continue
I have two brothers.
This house belongs to my sister.

2) 心理状态的动词
Know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need, forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate
I need your help.
He loves her very much.

3 ) 瞬间动词
accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse.
I accept your advice.

4) 系动词
seem, remain, lie, see, hear, smell, feel, taste, get, become, turn
You seem a little tired.

中原527UID：2707367

In this argument, the author claims that the Mason City need to improve the publicly owned lands along the Mason River, because after the river is cleaned up, more and more people will use the river for recreational activities. Close scrutiny shows that the evidences lend little support to the conclusion.
开头进行了一番逻辑推理
M城市需要发展the publicly owned lands along the Mason River，是因为河水变干净后会有越来越多的人来利用河来娱乐。
To begin with, the author unfairly assumes that the residents of Mason City need to use Mason River for recreation. In this argument, the author cites that residents of Mason City are fond of water sports. If it is true, there must be many good places in Mason City for swimming, fishing, and boating. The gyms in this city must all have swimming pools because swimming is popular. There maybe several parks in the city where people can go for fishing or boating. If not, how can the residents consistently rank water sports as their favorite? For that matter, people will not eager to use Mason River as another place for water sports. Therefore, it is not necessary to improve the public lands along the river.
M城居民有其他更好的进行水上运动的场所
What is more, the author fails to consider other possible reasons for the seldom using of Mason River. No evidence shows that the quality of the water is the most important reason which prevent people to use Mason River for recreation. It is entirely possible that Mason River is too terrantial to be used for swimming or boating regardless how clean the water it is. Or perhaps there is a chemical factory nearby the river so that eating fish in the river is not healthy. The location of Mason River is also important, is it near the residential area? Without ruling out other possible reasons, the author can not convince me that residents will go to Mason River for recreation after the water is cleaned up.
河水的干净如何其实不影响有的水上运动比如划船->河水净化后不一定会吸引更多居民进行水上运动
The author also unfairly assumes that the Mason River will be definitely cleaned up. Although the agency has announced plans to clean up Mason River, it can not guarantee that the plans will be effective. Announcement is one thing, operation the cleaning plan is anoher thing. No evidence shows that the agency is responsible enough. If the agency is responsible and efficient, why there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river? If they keep the quality of the water well, there would be no need to clean up it. It would be better to disscuss the budget after the river is truely cleaned up.
这段是空话..我不懂这段的逻辑，agency的计划不一定有效，事实上，我们攻击的是推理，不是质疑题目本身提出的措施，比如说agency说净化河水是为了吸引居民在这里玩（ETS思路）这里应该抨击的是”不一定能够吸引居民”这个过程，而不是质疑agency到底能不能净化河水。
Even if we accept all the assumptions, it does not necessarily means the Mason City council need to add budget for improvements to the public lands along the river. Nothing is mentioned the condition of the public lands, and we can not conclude that the lands can not meet residents needs. Does people need to use the public lands when they do water sports? In addtion, increasing budget will add the tax of residents, does that worth the cost?
河岸土地和净化水源以及吸引游客没关系
To sum up, the argument is unconvincing as it stands. To substantiate it, the author need to do some detailed suverys about why people seldom use Mason River for water sports, and cite more evidence show that the agency will clean up the river. Furthermore, more datas are needed in order to bolster the plan for improving the public lands along the river.
逻辑需要好好地梳理下，开头蛮好，到后来就不行了

中原527UID：2707367

第十期 连词
1 并列连词与并列结构

并列连词引导两个并列的句子。
1)and 与or
判断改错：
(错) They sat down and talk about something.

(错) They started to dance and sang.
(错) I saw two men sitting behind and whisper there.
(对) They sat down and talked about something.
(对) They started to dance and sing.
(对)I saw two men sitting behind and whispering there.

解析：

第一句： and 连接两个并列的谓语，所以 talk 应改为 talked。
第二句：and 连接两个并列的动词不定式，第二个不定式往往省略to，因此sang 应改为 sing。
第三句：and 连接感观动词saw 后面的用作的宾补的两个并列分词结构，因此whisper应改为whispering。
注意：and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。（or也有此用法）


Make up your mind, and you'll get the chance.

= If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance.

One more effort, and you'll succeed.

= If you make one more effort, you'll succeed.

2)both …and两者都
She plays (both) the piano and the guitar.

3)not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且）
She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar.


注意： not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。

Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.

4)neithe…nor 意思为"既不……也不……"谓语动词采用就近原则，与nor后的词保持一致。
Neither you nor he is to blame.

2 比较and和or
1) 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。

2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点：

There is no air or water in the moon.

There is no air and no water on the moon.
在否定中并列结构用or 连接，但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构，因此要用and。
典型例题
---I don't like chicken ___ fish.
---I don't like chicken, ___ I like fish very much.
A. and； and B. and； but C. or； but D. or；and
答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but 表转折。
判断改错：
(错) We will die without air and water.
(错) We can't live without air or water.
(对) We will die without air or water.
(对) We can't live without air and water.


3 表示选择的并列结构
1) or意思为"否则"。

I must work hard, or I'll fail in the exam.

2) either…or意思为"或者……或者 ……"。注意谓语动词采用就近原则。

Either you or I am right.


4 表示转折或对比

1) but表示转折，while表示对比。

Some people love cats, while others hate them.

典型例题
--- Would you like to come to dinner tonight?
--- I'd like to, ___ I'm too busy.
A. and B. so C. as D. but
答案D。but与前面形成转折，符合语意。而表并列的and， 结果的so，原因的as都不符合句意。

2) not…but… 意思为"不是 ……而是……"

not 和but 后面的用词要遵循一致原则。

They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being.

5 表原因关系

1) for
判断改错：

(错) For he is ill, he is absent today.

(对) He is absent today, for he is ill.

for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。

2) so, therefore
He hurt his leg, so he couldn't play in the game.

注意：

a. 两个并列连词不能连用，但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。
You can watch TV, and or you can go to bed.
He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in the game.


b. although… yet…，但although不与 but连用。

(错)Although he was weak, but he tried his best to do the work..

(对)Although he was weak, yet he tried his best to do the work.

6 比较so和 such

其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副
词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。

so + adj. such + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + a(n) + n. such + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. [不可数]such +n. [不可数]

so foolish such a fool
so nice a flower such a nice flower
so many/ few flowers such nice flowers
so much/little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people


so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。

so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。

中原527UID：2707367

第十一期动词 动词语态
7 助动词should, would的用法

1）should无词义，只是shall的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，只用于第一人称，例如：

I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week.

我昨天给他打电话，问他我下周干什么。
比较：

"What shall I do next week?"I asked.

"我下周干什么？"我问道。（可以说，shall变成间接引语时，变成了should。）

2） would也无词义，是 will的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，用于第二、第三人称，例如：
He said he would come. 他说他要来。
比较：
"I will go," he said. 他说："我要去那儿。"
变成间接引语，就成了：
He said he would come.
原来的will变成would，go变成了come.
动词的语态
==========================


语态有两种：主动语态和被动语态。
主语是动作的发出者为主动语态；主语是动作的接受者为被动语态。
1）若宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，变为被动语态时，该不定式前要加"to"。此类动词为感官动词。
feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch

The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
We saw him play football on the playground.
--> He was seen to play football on the playground.

2）情态动词+ be +过去分词，构成被动语态。

Coal can be used to produce electricity for agriculture and industry.

1 let 的用法

1）当let后只有一个单音节动词，变被动语态时，可用不带to 的不定式。

They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.

2） 若let 后宾补较长时，let 通常不用被动语态，而用allow或permit 代替。
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.
----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.

2 短语动词的被动语态

短语动词是一个整体，不可丢掉后面的介词或副词。
This is a photo of the power station that has been set up in my hometown.
My sister will be taken care of by Grandma.
Such a thing has never been heard of before..

3 表示"据说"或"相信" 的词组

believe, consider, declare, expect, feel , report, say, see, suppose, think, understand
It is said that… 据说
It is reported that… 据报道
It is believed that…大家相信
It is hoped that…大家希望
It is well known that… 众所周知
It is thought that…大家认为
It is suggested that…据建议
It is taken granted that… 被视为当然
It has been decided that… 大家决定
It must be remember that…务必记住的是
It is said that she will leave for Wuhan on Tuesday.

4 不用被动语态的情况

1) 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand
break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比较： rise, fall, happen是不及物动词；raise, seat是及物动词。
(错) The price has been risen.
(对) The price has risen.
(错) The accident was happened last week.
(对) The accident happened last week.
(错) The price has raised.
(对) The price has been raised.
(错) Please seat.
(对) Please be seated.
要想正确地使用被动语态，就须注意哪些动词是及物的，哪些是不及物的。特别是一词多义的动词往往有两种用法。解决这一问题唯有在学习过程中多留意积累。


2) 不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语：
fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to
This key just fits the lock.

Your story agrees with what had already been heard.

3) 系动词无被动语态：
appear, be become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn

It sounds good.

4) 带同源宾语的及物动词，反身代词，相互代词，不能用于被动语态：
die, death, dream, live, life
She dreamed a bad dream last night.

5) 当宾语是不定式时，很少用于被动语态。

(对) She likes to swim.

(错) To swim is liked by her.

5 主动形式表示被动意义

1)wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell, drive…
The book sells well.这本书销路好。
This knife cuts easily. 这刀子很好用。

2)blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build
I was to blame for the accident.
Much work remains.

3) 在need, require, want, worth (形容词), deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。
The door needs repairing.= The door needs to be repaired.
This room needs cleaning. 这房间应该打扫一下。
This book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。

4) 特殊结构：make sb. heard / understood (使别人能听见/理解自己)，have sth. done ( 要某人做某事)。

6 被动形式表示主动意义

be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
He is graduated from a famous university.
他毕业于一所有名的大学。
注意： 表示同某人结婚，用marry sb. 或get married to sb. 都可。
He married a rich girl.
He got married to a rich girl.

7 need/want/require/worth

注意：当 need, want, require, worth(形容词)后面接doing也可以表示被动。
Your hair wants cutting.你的头发该理了。
The floor requires washing. 地板需要冲洗。
The book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。
典型例题
The library needs___, but it'll have to wait until Sunday.
A. cleaning B. be cleaned C. clean D. being cleaned
答案A. need (实意) +n /to do，need (情态)+ do，当为被动语态时，还可need + doing. 本题考最后一种用法，选 A。如有to be clean 则也为正确答案。
典：done，"不可能已经"。must not do 不可以（用于一般现在时)。

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3) 当不定式作主语的句子中又有一个不定式作表语时，不能用It is… to…的句型
(对)To see is to believe.百闻不如一见。
(错)It is to believe to see.
4 It's for sb.和 It's of sb.

1）for sb. 常用于表示事物的特征特点，表示客观形式的形容词，如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等：

It's very hard for him to study two languages. 对他来说学两门外语是很难的。
2）of sb的句型一般用表示人物的性格，品德，表示主观感情或态度的形容词，如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。

It's very nice of you to help me. 你来帮助我，你真是太好了。

for 与of 的辨别方法：
用介词后面的代词作主语，用介词前边的形容词作表语，造个句子。如果道理上通顺用of，不通则用for。如：

You are nice.(通顺，所以应用of)。

He is hard.(人是困难的，不通，因此应用for。)
7 不定式作状语

1）目的状语
To… only to (仅仅为了),in order to,so as to,so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus.他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。
I come here only to say good-bye to you.我来仅仅是向你告别。

2）作结果状语，表事先没有预料到的，要放在句子后面。
What have I said to make you angry.（我每次都这样说：what have i said makes you angry,现在一看才知道我是错的....）
He searched the room only to find nothing.

3)表原因
I'm glad to see you.

典型例题
The chair looks rather hard, but in fact it is very comfortable to ___.
A. sit B. sit on C. be seat D. be sat on
答案：B.如果不定式为不及物动词，其后应有必要的介词。当动词与介词连用时，常位于"形容词+动词不定式"结构的末尾。
9 省to 的动词不定式

1） 情态动词 ( 除ought 外，ought to)：
2） 使役动词 let, have, make：
3） 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。
注意：在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。

I saw him dance.
=He was seen to dance.

The boss made them work the whole night.
=They were made to work the whole night.
4） would rather，had better：
5） Why… / why not…：
6） help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth：
7） but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。
8） 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：
9） 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：

He is supposed (to be) nice.他应该是个好人。
举例：

He wants to move to France and marry the girl.
He wants to do nothing but go out.

比较： He wants to do nothing but go out.

He wants to believe anything but to take the medicine.
11 不定式的特殊句型too…to…

1）too…to 太…以至于…
He is too excited to speak.
他太激动了，说不出话来。

---- Can I help you ? 需要我帮忙吗?

---- Well, I'm afraid the box is too heavy for you to carry it, but thank you all the same.不用了。这箱子太重，恐怕你搬不动。谢谢您。

2) 如在too前有否定词，则整个句子用否定词表达肯定， too 后那个词表达一种委婉含义，意 为"不太"。

It's never too late to mend.(谚语)
改过不嫌晚。

3)当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是：非常… 等于very。

I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高兴能帮助你。

He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。
2)so kind as to ---劳驾

Would you be so kind as to tell me the time?

劳驾，现在几点了。

15 动名词与不定式

1） 动名词与不定式的区别：还是得在具体运用中才能体会这些区别
动名词表达的是： 状态，性质，心境，抽象，经常性，已发生的
不定式表达的是： 目的，结果，原因，具体，一次性，将发生的


a. 动词后加动名词doing作宾语 V. + doing sth
admit 承认　　　appreciate 感激,赞赏　avoid 避免　　　　
complete 完成　 consider 认为　　　　 delay 耽误　　 deny 否认　　　 detest 讨厌　　　　　 endure 忍受　　　　enjoy 喜欢　escape 逃脱　　　　　 prevent阻止    fancy 想象　　　finish 完成　　　　　 imagine 想象　　 mind 介意　　　 miss 想念　　　　　　 postpone 推迟　　　　　　　 practice 训练　 recall 回忆　　　　　 resent 讨厌　　　　　 resist 抵抗　　 resume 继续　　　　　 risk 冒险     suggest 建议　　face 面对　　　　　　 include 包括　　　　stand 忍受　　　understand 理解　　　 forgive 宽恕keep 继续

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1 独立主格

（一）：独立主格结构的构成：
名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词；
名词(代词)+形容词；
名词(代词)+副词；
名词(代词)+不定式；
名词(代词) +介词短语构成。

（二） 独立主格结构的特点：（说实话，大段大段的语法我看不懂，看例子才懂了............）

1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。

举例：
The test finished, we began our holiday.
= When the test was finished, we began our holiday.
考试结束了，我们开始放假。

The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
= After the president was assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
总统被谋杀了，举国上下沉浸在悲哀之中。

Weather permitting, we are going to visit you tomorrow.
如果天气允许，我们明天去看你。
This done, we went home.
工作完成后，我们才回家。

The meeting gone over, everyone tired to go home earlier.
会议结束后，每个人都想早点回家。

He came into the room, his ears red with cold.
他回到了房子里，耳朵冻坏了。

He came out of the library, a large book under his arm.
他夹着本厚书，走出了图书馆

2 With的复合结构作独立主格

表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语
举例: He stood there, his hand raised.

= He stood there, with his hand raise.

典型例题

The murder was brought in, with his hands ___ behind his back。
A. being tied B. having tiedC. to be tiedD. tied
答案D. with +名词（代词）+分词+介词短语结构。当分词表示伴随状况时，其主语常常用with来引导。由于本句中名词"手"与分词"绑"是被动关系，因此用过去分词，选D.

注意:

1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：

当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制

A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.

( hand前不能加his)。

2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分 词，不及物动词用过去分词。

He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.


典型例题：
Weather___, we'll go out for a walk.
A permitted B permitting C permits D for permitting

答案 B. 本题中没有连词，它不是复合句，也不是并列句。句中使用了逗号，且we 小写，可知其不是两个简单句。能够这样使用的只有独立主格或with的复合结构。据此判断，本句中使用的是独立结构， 其结构为：名词+分词。由于permit在这里翻译为'天气允许'，表主动，应用现在分词，故选B。
如果不会判断独立结构作状语的形式，不妨将句子改为条件句，例如本句改为If weather permits, we'll go out for a walk. 然后将if 去掉，再将谓语动词改为非谓语动词即可。


==========================
                            特殊词（上一期的遗留的问题得到了解答~）
==========================


1 stop doing/to do

stop to do停止，中断做某事后去做另一件事。
stop doing停止做某事。
They stop to smoke a cigarette. 他们停下来，抽了根烟。
I must stop smoking. 我必须戒烟了。
典型例题
She reached the top of the hill and stopped ___on a big rock by the side of the path.
A. to have restedB. resting C. to restD. rest
答案： C。由题意可知，她到了山顶，停下来在一个路边的大石头上休息。因此，应选择"stop to do sth. 停下来去做另一件事"。而不仅仅是爬山动作的终止，所以stop doing sth.不正确。

2 forget doing/to do

forget to do忘记要去做某事。(未做)
forget doing忘记做过某事。(已做)
The light in the office is stil on. He forgot to turn it off.
办公室的灯还在亮着，它忘记关了。(没有做关灯的动作)
He forgot turning the light off.
他忘记他已经关了灯了。 ( 已做过关灯的动作)
Don't forget to come tomorrow.
别忘了明天来。 (to come动作未做)
典型例题
---- The light in the office is still on.
---- Oh，I forgot___.

A. turning it off B. turn it off C. to turn it off D. having turned it off

答案：C。由the light is still on 可知灯亮着，即关灯的动作没有发生，因此用forget to do sth.
而forget doing sth表示灯已经关上了，而自己忘记了这一事实。此处不符合题意。

3 remember doing/to do

remember to do 记得去做某事 (未做)
remember doing记得做过某事 (已做)

Remember to go to the post office after school.
记着放学后去趟邮局。
Don't you remember seeing the man before?
你不记得以前见过那个人吗?

4 regret doing/to do

regret to do 对要做的事遗憾。(未做)
regret doing 对做过的事遗憾、后悔。(已做)
I regret to have to do this, but I have no choice.
我很遗憾必须这样去做，我实在没有办法。
I don't regret telling her what I thought.
我不为告诉她我的想法而后悔。
典型例题
---You were brave enough to raise objections at the meeting.
---Well, now I regret ___ that.
A. to do B. to be doing C.to have done D.having done
答案：D。regret having done sth. 对已发生的事感到遗憾。regret to do sth. 对将要做的事感到遗憾。本题为对已说的话感到后悔，因此选D。

5 cease doing/to do

cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事。
cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做。

That department has ceased to exist forever.
那个部门已不复存在。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
姑娘们在老师走过时，停了会聊天。

6 try doing/to do

try to do努力，企图做某事。
try doing 试验，试着做某事。

You must try to be more careful.
你可要多加小心。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
我试着种果木花卉，但未成功。

7 go on doing/to do

go on to do做了一件事后，接着做另一件事。
go on doing 继续做原来做的事。

After he had finished his maths，he went on to do his physics.

做完数学后，他接着去做物理。

Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one.

作完这个练习后，接着做其他的练习

8 be afraid doing/to do

be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。

She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬着，而不敢在草丛中再走一步。
She was afraid to wake her husband.
她不敢去叫醒她丈夫。
She was afraid of waking her husband.
她生怕吵醒她丈夫。

9 be interested doing/to do

interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 对某种想法感兴趣，doing 通常为想法。

I shall be interested to know what happens.
我很想知道发生了什么事。 (想了解)
I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you have any idea about that?
我对在瑞士工作感兴趣。你想过这事吗? (一种想法)

10 mean to doing/to do
mean to do 打算、想
mean doing意味着
I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to.
我想去，但是我父亲不肯让我去。
To raise wage means increasing purchasing power.
赠加工资意味着增加购买力。

11 begin(start) doing/to do

begin / start to do sth
begin / start doing sth.

1)谈及一项长期活动或开始一种习惯时，使用doing.

How old were you when you first started playing the piano?

你几岁时开始弹钢琴？
2)begin, start用进行时时，后面动词用不定式to do
I was beginning to get angry。
我开始生起气来。
3)在attempt, intend, begin, start 后接 know, understand, realize这类动词时，常用不定式to do。
I begin to understand the truth。
我开始明白真相。
4)物作主语时
It began to melt.

12 感官动词 + doing/to do

感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do 表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性

I saw him work in the garden yesterday.
昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调"我看见了"这个事实)
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.（强调"我见他正干活"这个动作）
昨天我见他正在花园里干活。
典型例题
1）They knew her very well. They had seen her ___ up from childhood.

A. grow B. grew C. was growing D. to grow

答案：A。因题意为，他们看着她长大，因此强调的是成长的过程，而非正在长的动作，因此用see sb do sth 的句型。

2）The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing B. to be playingC. play D. to play
答案A. 本题强调其动作，正在河边玩，应此用see sb. doing sth句型。

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一开电脑就看到草木的选人贴了，一排一排地看心都凉了
到最后一个才出现我的名字吓我一跳...
蹦蹦跳跳的心终于可以放回心窝窝里了

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第十四期
Further Suggestions for Using Passive and Active Voices

1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.避免在一个句子里从主动态突然转到被动态

Unnecessary shift in voice	Revised
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.	Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.	He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers （垂悬修饰语，啥语法啊？貌似草木贴前面提过...)caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dangling modifier with passive voice	Revised
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)	To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)	Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgment, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.(呵呵，我就没怎么信过WORD文档的语法修改，不过连WORD都查出来的语法问题，自己得好好琢磨琢磨)

Verbs- Voice and MoodActive and Passive voice:Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs in the passive voice show something else acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more forceful and tend to stay away from passives unless they really need them.

ACTIVE: Tim killed the chicken hawk.

PASSIVE: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim.

Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood:Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates a fact or opinion:

Examples:
·He was here.
·I am hungry.
·She will bring her books.

Some verbs are in the imperative mood（祈使式[语气]）, which expresses commands or requests. Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.

Examples:
·Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.)
·Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.)
·Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.)

When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are in the subjunctive mood.

When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was:



Examples:（前面一期的语法已讲过）
·If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.)
·I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.)
·It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you haven't brought them.)

INDICATIVE: I need some help.
IMPERATIVE:Help me!
SUBJUNCTIVE: If I were smart, I'd call for help.

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argument段落间的让步关系。

我是一个学计算机的人，从小学开始就接触程序设计，一直到现在。所以我非常崇尚的就是计算机的“绝对逻辑”，什么意思？就是说无论你从什么地方划一道线，上面的程序和下面的程序，必然是绝对的紧耦合关系，去掉任何一句话，都会导致最终结果的偏差。我想，在某些方面，尤其是逻辑方面来说，写议论文，和写程序，是相通的。

当谈到段落之间的逻辑结构的时候，不得不提到的八股是著名的“让步理论”。现在的AW市场（原谅我用市场一词来形容），放眼望去，铺天盖地的让步，甚至有的童鞋，除了让步以外什么都不会了，开头-第一段-让步第二段-让步第三段-结尾成了套路，我估计这种情况，已经泛滥到让ETS谈让步色变的地步了，是啊，无论是谁，看了一整天的even if/even though/even/granted that…都会觉得恶心想吐，更不用说你看上10年试试？

无用质疑，XDF的课堂和老师在给新一代的祖国栋梁的洗脑上，做出了不可磨灭的贡献。说到让步这个论证方式，我想最开始的源头应当是来自一篇ETS的官方Argument， 在The country Myria这篇6分范文里面，作者采用了大量的让步论证方式来完善自己的逻辑结构，进而让人们看到了一种希望的曙光：这样写，我也会！我也能拿6分！于是在XDF某些知名教授的推崇下，让步论证似乎变成了一种万能的钥匙，能够打开一切无法解决的问题。 某些名师干脆就大声疾呼：你就不停的让步就行了，让步是最有效，最快捷，最方便，最可以量产的逻辑，有人能够通过让步拿6，你也可以！而且，出于它的其他一些好处：几乎前半句就是原封不动的重复上面提到过的话，方便了很多以“字数至上”的考生在短时间内显著的凑出可观的字数，让步如今泛滥成灾也就不足为奇了。

但是，童鞋们啊，当被漫天的速成，捷径误导的同时，你们真的就静下心来，想过让步到底是个什么东西了么？我曾经问过某个同学：“什么是让步？”他的答案让我好笑：“就是even though之类的从句就行了”我想，很多考生的想法也就是如此。 功利！ Even though可以表现出让步，所以让步就是even though了么？ 我是人，人就是我么？ 根本就不知道让步的内涵，能够去合理的用它么？当ETS普遍打出3分，3.5分的成绩的时候，中国人的通病就是不但不从自己找原因，反而开始漫骂ETS，甚至有这种话语在其中：“我I写了700字，A写了550+，凭什么我只能拿3.5？”感情这个考试不是考逻辑，不是考思维，而是考抄录速度了？

什么是让步？按照我浅薄的个人理解，让步应该是一种：以对方的观点为基础，推导出深层的逻辑谬误，或者直接归谬否定原命题的辩证的论证方式。所以我们必须明确的两点就是：

1让步必须建立在你要批驳者的观点上，对于argument来说，就是作者的观点上。我见过有的文章，上来就让步接让步，当时我就很怀疑：作者真的有那么多话可以来给你让步么？结果果不其然，让步两次以后他就开始 even though + 自己以前的推论, 然后推到离题十万八千里的地方去了，偏偏本人还感觉良好，认为是神来之作。从这里我们可以看出：二次让步一般来说是不合逻辑的，因为第二次让步的东西，实际上是你第一次让步后得出的结论，而不是作者本来的意思。

2让步的作用是为了找出更加隐晦，更加深层的逻辑谬误，或者直接归谬否定。对于argument来说，就是从外表错误推断到本质错误的一个过程。有的童鞋不管三七二十一，不管这个逻辑到底有没有深层谬误（实际上，大部分的推论，是没有深层逻辑谬误的），先让步了再说。结果呢？自然是ETS杀你没商量。
可能光是理论上的东西感觉很深奥，那么我通过例子来说明：（随机选取，感谢janettaowei童鞋。）

61
The following appeared in a report by the School District of Eyleria.
"Nationally, the average ratio of computers to students in kindergarten through grade 12 (K-12) is 1:5. Educators indicate that this is very good ratio. This means that across the country, all students have access to and can use computers daily in their classrooms. In Eyleria's K-12 schools, the ratio of computers to students is 1:7. This number is sufficient to ensure that all of Eyleria's students, by the time they graduate from high school, will be fully proficient in the use of computer technology. Thus, there is no reason to spend any of the schools' budget on computers or other technology in the next few years."

Janettaowei童鞋的中间三段论证过程是这样的（ts已经取出）:
First, since the ratio of computers to students is 1:7 in Eyleria, which is lower than the national average level, it is possible that the computers there may be insufficient.（这段对我做例子没啥用，可以不用看这句ts）

Second, even if the number of computers is enough at present time, there is no guarantee it would be sufficient when they graduate from high school.

Last but not least, even Eyleria does not need to buy any computers, there still a lot of money need to be spent on computer.

好了，我们可以很清楚的看出他/她是用了两个让步来组织段落的内部结构的，接下来按照我一般的逻辑思维方式，我们把这个argument的逻辑联系理顺一下，恩，这是一篇相对比较难的逻辑连接了：

National average ratio(已给) à 所有学生日常都能够用电脑（推论1）

某个地区的 average ratio 1：7à number is sufficient(推论2，注意这个推论是三无：无调查，无证据，无理由) à 学生fully proficient in the use of computer(推论3)

推论3 à 1:7就足够（推论4，注意这里的循环论证，实际上，是1：7的ratio推出的推论3，然而作者继续把这个推论3作为推出1:7这个ratio的理由）+ 推论1（1：5也足够）à 1：7这个ratio是合理的（推论5）

最后由推论5 à 结论

从我给的这个逻辑图中可以明显的看出， jane童鞋的论证偏题了，原因是什么？我想，让步的滥用绝对是罪魁祸首之一，我们来看他的第二论证段的TS：Second, even if the number of computers is enough at present time, there is no guarantee it would be sufficient when they graduate from high school.

按照我所述的让步的两大最基本原则，分析一下这个让步为什么会导致偏题：

1 让步必须建立在你要批驳者的观点上。 在这篇argument里面，作者在什么地方提到过：the number of computers is enough at present time? 这个仅仅是第一个论证段，jane童鞋自己的推理而已，这个让步的错误性直接指向了一种后果：否定掉你自己前面写的东西，搬起石头砸了自己的脚，而不是作者的脚。

2 让步必须揭示更深层次的逻辑谬误。 蓝色字体的句子，是主句，也是由让步而衍生出来的逻辑问题，然而句话揭示的东西，不仅仅是一个虚幻的推论，更重要的是，它跟让步的从句的关系是并列关系，而不是递进关系！这才是当我们读到：“第二，即使电脑数量目前足够，也没有证据表明它们以后会足够。”感觉荒谬的真正原因所在！换言之，如果没有递进的逻辑深度关系，用让步就是一种可笑的举动。

至于jane童鞋的第三个让步，那就更不用说，一步步让下来，直接已经不知道离题多少万里去了，有兴趣的童鞋们可以自己用两大基本原则来分析一下这句话，我在这里托个大，当成课后作业了。

现在，让我们回过头来看看那篇被誉为经典让步的6分范文：

TEST 1: ARGUMENT TOPIC
The country Myria, which charges fees for the use of national parks, reports little evidence of environmental damage. This strongly suggests that for the country Illium, the best way to preserve public lands is to charge people more money when they are using national parks and wilderness areas for activities with heavy environmental impact. By collecting fees from people who overuse public lands, Illium will help preserve those lands for present and future generations.

它的让步过程：
Second, even if we concede that there is in fact negligible amounts of environmental damage, this does not necessarily mean that by collecting money from individuals who are using the parks one can use these funds to maintain the land for future generations.

Finally, even if we accept that the situation in Myria is successful in that country, we cannot assume that this same scenario will work in Illium.

从我标注的颜色上，童鞋们，你们看到了么，什么是真正的满足第一条让步原则？经典让步的所有的让步条件，都是从原文里面抓出来的，目的是为了深刻的批驳原文的其他错误。现在，大家回过头去想一想，你们的让步论证，到底是一个什么过程？有没有注意到这个原则，还是随便发挥自由发扬最后离题万里自尤不知？如果是，那就要赶紧改过来了！

然后我们retrospect第二个经典让步原则：但是在此之前，我希望能够把段落的逻辑理一下，这个逻辑链很简单，典型的地区性对比：

Myria 的 Charge fees这条措施（已给）à 钱都用在环境上了（推论1） à
little environmental damage(推论2) à 这种方法对任何环境下都有效（推论3）+Illium也面临相似的问题（已给）à Illium也应该采纳这种方法(结论)

接下来让我们回到第二条原则：递进式逻辑，或者直接归谬否定。
这篇范文的作者在某种层次上将这条原则运用的炉火纯青，很明显的，他的第一个让步是为了深入的驳斥上面的逻辑链的第二个箭头：这种方法有效。 而第二个让步则是为了直接把结论归谬，从而否定作者的推理，这里我不说太多，因为很多东西都已经在前面说的很清楚了，我希望童鞋们自己能够在这个地方去想一想，毕竟只有自己想明白的东西，才是自己的东西。

另外我还要从自己专业的角度来说一下这个让步的东西，实际上我一直认为，逻辑是相通的，不论你做什么工作。因此我认为，这种让步的论证方式，其实是很类似于算法当中的“回溯逻辑”。在计算机算法里面，回溯是一个很容易简化程序设计过程的一种方法，再长的东西，都能够简单成一个步奏以内的长度，因为不停的改变参数，重复调用它就行了。然而它的用途，非常非常的窄，除开纯理论以外，根本就没有地方用得到回溯这种东西。为什么？因为它的使用条件限制了一切：首先必须是链式逻辑，其次在链式逻辑当中，绝对不能够有其他的因素掺杂在里面。所以说当遇到我们生活当中常见的“剪枝，分叉，加权”等等逻辑的时候，它就是一个彻底的废物，如果强行的使用它，会出现很多的错误。

我想，让步作为一个类似的回溯机制，实际上也有着它自身能够使用的逻辑环境，绝不是像新东方类型的教导：什么万能的公式大家套就是了，如果这句话是真的，那么为什么没有见到杂志报刊论文辩论上张口就是“即使…”? 事实上，范文为什么能够用让步？因为它的逻辑，就是一个最典型的链式逻辑，每一步的推论，都是递进式的，这个时候，让步才有效的发挥了它的作用。但是如果不恰当的运用在其他的逻辑环境里，就会和计算机的计算结果一样，荒谬可笑！

退一步海阔天空，这句话，不仅仅能够真实的反映出让步的作用，借这个题目，我也希望能够提醒各位：当逻辑链无法使用让步的时候，往上面焦头烂额的硬套不是一个明智的决定，退一步，你会发现：海阔天空。

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在批改草木布置的30篇阿狗时，看到了2篇666的批改，在没看她的批改前，我是认为没啥好说了，但看了她的批语后再回头看看那篇文章，逻辑漏洞百出，再后来的文章慢慢地摸出点门路来了，这篇是关于常识在阿狗里面怎么用。很多时候，当阿狗感觉没话批了，可以尝试从常识部分入手，当然，是要符合大众的常识，而不是你个人的常识，像我前面有一篇是这样说的（谁的文章我不记得了...以下是改草木30篇阿狗的第5篇其中的某一段落）
Secondly, the author asserts different way of cooling the house causes the decrease of electricity consuming just because they happen together. （巧合因素，感觉不够充分）Obviously, the evidence for the casual relationship is too vague to believe. Furthermore, to satisfy the same requirement, common sense informs us air condition costs more electricity than fans. （应该在题目角度上反驳而不是就着这类无意义的细节讨论）Thus, there must be other reasons causing the decrease of the electric consumption. The most reasonable one is that the expense for air condition is so money-consuming that the citizens would like to tolerate the hot weather rather than pay for it.（此论点想反驳什么？空调耗电费导致人们宁愿忍受炎热所引导出来的结论是什么？）红字部分虽然看似合理，但这常识偏了点，类似于5分范文里面的那个批评家不可信的理由。


666出品
本文系寄托天下作者原创，转载请保持文章完整，并请务必注明真实作者和出处 --- 这篇是早就想写的东西了，主要是涉及到一些对argument论证的思考，出于某些原因拖到现在。

最近十来天一直在攻克A,虽然各项事务繁忙不敢说100%concentrating on,可能连50%都没有，不过前期的积累和最近的顿悟使得我对A的理解清楚了不少，也有了一些很新的想法来给大家分享，希望同样追求自我价值实现和真正愿意踏实地来研究一些AW里面关于逻辑和行文的同学们，如果真的还有这样的人，能够在我这条曲折的抛弃新东方和模板的道路上走的顺畅一些。

Argument，众所周知，是由前提开始，从一步步过程当中层层批驳作者的逻辑推理错误的驳论文。感谢XDF在入门的方面给予同志们的多种取巧办法，现在的考生对于A的大的批驳方向确定没有问题的，然而不幸的是，段落内部的结构却不是一个简单的模板就能够讲的清，辩的明。在几乎所有的argument段落论证当中，最为实在的内容，恐怕就是反例了，尤其是在版面上现在充斥着肤浅的：开头句模板+2个possibilities+结尾句模板=一个段落 的结构当中，反例，是唯一能够给考官展现论证能力的东西。

为了找到一堆反例来凑字数或者显示自己的强悍思辨实力，不少童鞋挖空心思，无所不用其极，找出的可能性千奇百怪，不但有的几乎没有发生的可能性，有的还更是自相矛盾，削弱了自己的主题句的立场，成为了文章的硬伤，自己还一无所知，感觉良好。

如何使你的文章更有说服力？实际上，作文版的各个前辈已经回答过这个问题，我想借使徒的一段论证来重新回答一次：


这个步骤中很重要的一步就是“常识”，符合常识的，即为合理推断，无关常识的，为一般推断，不符合常识的，为脑残推断。所谓的“论据不足”，根本上讲就是因为这些论据不足以填满我们常识中需要形成固定结果的条件，因此它才不足。写ARGUMENT的时候怎么说明这种不足就成了很重要的话题。


那么，这里又延伸出另一个关键的问题：怎样的论述才是“符合常识”的论述？这个问题，恐怕很难有固定的答案，但是我希望能通过这篇东西，给自己，也给童鞋们，一个思维的突破口。

按照惯例，首先搬出铁证，ETS的范文，题目如下:


The following is taken from a memo from the advertising director of the Silver Screen Movie Production Company.
"According to a recent report from our marketing department, fewer people attended movies produced by Silver Screen during the past year than in any other year.  And yet the percentage of generally favorable comments by movie reviewers about specific Silver Screen movies actually increased during this period.  Clearly, the contents of these reviews are not reaching enough of our prospective viewers; so the problem lies not with the quality of our movies but with the public's lack of awareness that movies of good quality are available.  Silver Screen should therefore spend more of its budget next year on reaching the public through advertising and less on producing new movies."


在这篇关于电影评论的5分和6分ETS范文里面，同样的批驳上色的那段逻辑推理，给出了两种不同方向的论述：

5分范文：批评家不可信。然后给出可能性：可能虽然涨了但批评家还是大多不喜欢电影。
6分范文：人们很少相信批评家。然后发展观点：电影要讨好大众。再解释下观点，说明人们与批评家的观点不一定一致。

从常识层面来讲，哪一个更有说服力？我想，6分的已经在这个方面明显高出一个档次。事实上，ETS给出的commentary也证实了这一点。

咱们再来看几篇板油的习作：

第一篇习作来自jlmjacky童鞋的Argument45。在论述关于猎人的report的可信度的时候，他的论证出发点是这样的


As all we know, the hunters could not have enough knowledge of the statistics, and this judgment must decide from their own experience, maybe with some mistakes in a huge probability.


他将猎人的报告不可信的原因归结为：猎人没有足够的相关知识。怎么样，是不是很熟悉，XXX没有足够的OOO方面的知识或者经验 这种论述，应该是经常出现在大家的文章里面吧？

然而这个论述有说服力么？据我浅薄的知识面来讲，猎人更应当被看作是experts of wild lives,长期和动物打交道的他们，如果都没有足够的知识来说明动物最近的情况，那么难道在校的大学生有这样的知识？因此这种论述明显是不足以让人信服的。

怎么样的论述更加合理？在我写过的同样的A45当中，我是这样来说明这个report不可信的（仅供参考）：


(however,) even hunters could be misled by the switch of the migration habit of Arctic deer.


把猎人的报告不可信的原因归咎于他们可能被动物可能的迁移路线改变所误导了。按照常识来讲，动物的迁移路线并非一成不变的。因此我相信这样的反例，就比前面提到的那个更加有说服力。

第二篇习作来自justdoit童鞋的Argument65, 在反驳关于“合并垃圾部门接到群众抱怨少，所以效果好”的论述中，他是这样写的：


Common sense tells that few complaints cannot be behalf of the satisfactory service, it is probable that the service of the new department did not improve, since the people in P and C maybe more shy or some other factors.


他将政府收到抱怨少的原因归咎于人们的腼腆，或者对政府的一种害怕情绪，实际上，在我们的生活中，有多少人是因为害羞而没有去投诉的？我想几乎没有。更加符合常理的可能性应该是这样：


People in P and C might not be willing to waste their time in phoning or trudging long to report an inconvenient trifle about garbage collecting to government.


政府部门接到的抱怨少是因为可能在市民们看来，垃圾收集的不便只是一件小事不足以劳动他们大驾专程向政府抱怨一次。

好了，我想从上面的三个例子当中，同学们应该能够很充分的认识到符合常识的论述的重要性了，那么下面就是解决这个关键的问题：如何使论述更加符合常识性？

事实上，任何一个论述，都是有一套完整的前提A，推论B和背景C的，正是这三个东西加上一些推理性的词语，构成了整个逻辑的链接，一般来讲就是：A à B(基于C的背景下)，无论ABC哪一个出了问题，都无法支持这个推理，现在我们所面临的最大问题就是：思维僵化，只会从A当中找突破口。其实如果是从B或C为基点出发，找到一些与A有关的可能性，同样能够推翻作者的推理。

我们重新分析一下范文题目里的这个错误的推理逻辑结构： And yet the percentage of generally favorable comments by movie reviewers about specific Silver Screen movies actually increased during this period（A）à the contents of these reviews are not reaching enough of our prospective viewers（B） （这里没有明显的背景C） 可以看出这个推理涉及到2个名词：reviewers和viewers.

在5分的范文中，作者就是从A当中寻找突破口，草率的提出：reviewers不可信这个论断。
而6分的范文里，则更加关注于从viewers(B)的角度来对reviewers(A)寻找突破口，找到更加符合常识的推论：viewers很少相信reviewers。

同样的我们来分析A45关于猎人报告的推论：According to reports from local hunters, the deer populations are declining（A） à the decline in arctic deer populations is the result of deer being unable to follow their age-old migration patterns across the frozen sea(B) (基于背景They search for food by moving over ice from island to island during the course of a year.（C）的前提下)

在justdoit童鞋的论证里面，就是典型的从（A）local hunters的角度来对report寻找突破反例，最终他找到的是：猎人知识面有限
而从我写的那一段论述中，是从背景C moving 这个词的角度来对 report寻找反例的：猎人可能被moving的路线改变所误导。

从上面两个例子我们可以看出，当各位焦头烂额的想不到合适的论证方式的时候，不妨从背景和结果的角度来重新审核你所要批驳的内容，从而启发灵感，使文章更加有说服力。在熟练的分析题目的段落逻辑结构以后，可以很快的明确A,B,C的关键词从而综合的考虑辩证角度。当然，对于投机的同学来讲，很不幸，这个是需要专门训练之后才能达到熟练的一个东西，短时间内是无法速成了。

另外需要补充的一点就是：由于对某个关键词入手角度的不同，即使是同样的突破口，也会有不一样的结论。上面讲到的关于argument65投诉少的2个论证角度就是一个典型的都从A来突破，但是最终考虑的方向决定了论述合理性的例子。这里，就需要平时更多的积累和观察，从而方便在考场上第一时间想到最合理的方向。

中原527UID：2707367

这几天一直在做6级卷子，非常丧气...
阅读大致看懂了题目却错了很多
大概总结了下
主要集中在推测题（把握作者思想总是不太好）
然后就是细节题，原文与题目中个别单词替换型严重暴露出我词汇量的不足
最最最可怕的是
阅读速度太慢了....