艺术部分参考资料: the meaning of art and beauty[分享]

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What is the meaning of art and beauty? This is not a philosophical question for intellectuals to juggle in their minds during their leisure time. Art and beauty are in fact matters of everyday life. They profoundly affect us all. How we interpret art and beauty thus have immense social, political, and economic ramifications.
         Some have said that the actions of Prajak Petchsingha, a former monk who has played a crucial role in preserving the Dongyai forest, and of Sulak Sivaraksa and his colleagues who are protesting against the construction of gas pipelines in Kanchanaburi province are responsible for preserving and promoting beauty: they are trying to preserve natural beauty as well as to expose the truth to the public.
         On the other hand, many have praised the present King of Siam for his multifaceted artistic talent. For example, His Majesty’s version of The Story of Mahajanaka, which concerns a story from the Tripitaka, is widely acclaimed as an artistic project with an objective of teaching people more about Buddhist wisdom. Such praises—however sincere—are expected. However at times, I wonder how profoundly the king understands the meaning of art and beauty. Is not he the same person who has ordered the construction of huge dams, which are responsible for environmental degradation and for uprooting many local and traditional communities? How necessary are these dams for our society? And particularly for the scope of this speech, what are the aesthetic contributions of these dams?
I

         There are indeed many different and even opposing conceptions of art and beauty. The selection that I have chosen below provides the necessary context for the rest of my speech.
         In the book On Beauty and Being Just, Elaine Scarry draws the connection between beauty, on the one hand, and morality and religions, on the other hand. Scarry however contends that this dimension of beauty is weakening, if not disappearing. She argues that individuals who seek or are basking in happiness along with the ones who are protecting beauty do not necessarily have to be beautiful—that is ethically beautiful—persons. On the contrary, individuals who seek or are protecting the truth and honesty must know the distinction between right and wrong, must also be virtuous and just persons. She insists that although we can behold the beautiful sky we cannot see justice. The sky is a matter; justice is not. Beauty is reflected in matters. But matters may reflect justice via beauty. In sum, beauty and justice are interconnected.
         In the book Conjunctions and Disjunctions by Octavio Paz, real beauty is depicted as something beyond the apparent world, beyond the temporary and the transient. He argues that if we look deeply at our faces, it will dawn upon us that they are no different from our buttocks: our buttocks are not aesthetically different from our faces. Paz’s view is quite similar to Buddhist teachings.
         Let us now turn to the thoughts of the eminently quotable Vaclav Havel. In a 1990 speech, Havel laments that although we know a lot more empirically about the universe and the natural environment than our ancestors, we do not understand their essence or substance as well as our forebears. In many respects, Havel continues, our lives have benefited substantially from the advancements in technology—from modernity. But at the same time, we feel at a lost. We do not know where to turn to. We become increasingly estranged from our lives—from the meaning and contents of living. With a heavy heart, Havel concludes that the postmodern world is verging towards nihilism where everything is possible, where anything goes.
        Almost seven decades ago, Kumarswarmi pointed out the distinctive features of Indian and Chinese arts. He noted that Indian art mirrors the experience of community life, and like food it serves life. Indian art reflects the wants and needs of local communities. In contrast, the modern world prioritizes the importance and desire of individuals.
         Discussing the nature of Chinese art, Kumarswarmi explained that it is based on a long and rich tradition. Chinese artists do not emphasize novelty or uniqueness, do not focus on the unexpected. If there are any discernible changes in the form or substance of artistic outputs, the artists generally did not will so. Rather, these changes provide invaluable glimpses into the changing way of life in a particular period and locality. Again, Chinese art reflects the power of life and the shifting taste of the people. In other words, tradition is alive. Tradition is not something that mummifies art; tradition is not a static model to be copied or emulated. In conclusion, Kumarswarmi insisted that for the Chinese there is no such conception as art for art’s sake because art is inseparable from life. An artistic manifestation is not an expression of the love of art but of the love of life.
         Let me end this introductory section with a few remarks about the meaning of art and beauty by highlighting the differences between the Eastern and the Western conceptions of life. In the West, the people are taught that the more is the better: they should seek more of everything everyday. In the East, we are taught from our cradles to constantly reduce our attachments or wants. In the West, the quality or number of personal gains and possessions marks the good life. In the East, the good life simply means successfully overcoming the attachment to those gains and possessions. Lastly, in the West most people near the end of their lives simply want to lead a carefree lifestyle unburdened by work or stress. In the East, we hope to have successfully extinguished all worldly attachments by the twilight of our lives, preparing ourselves for the next world.
II
         Any visitor to Luang Prabang will be struck by its unassuming beauty. The royal palace is a single-storied building, humbly and harmonically coexisting with the surrounding temples and natural environment. The French colonnades that were subsequently built are also unimposing. In fact, they even help enrich the beauty of Luang Prabang. The French seemed to have understood well the meaning of beauty. They also did a remarkably job in renovating Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, enabling beauty and ancient glory to blend with the surrounding forests and hills.
         The city of Chiang Mai was also once very beautiful. Its charm and beauty appreciably declined after it lost the autonomy to govern itself. The Chiang Mai rulers were important patrons of the art and beauty and hence of goodness. As a result, the temple served as the symbol and the center of beauty and goodness. As you all can see, there are many beautiful temples in this city. The Buddhists believe that beauty and goodness help pave the road towards the highest truth.
         Equally important, the rulers of Chiang Mai enabled their subjects, including ethnic minority groups, to express their artistic talents freely—to search for beauty according to their beliefs or faiths. In large part, this meant allowing their subjects to live according to their distinct hopes and traditions.
         The rulers of Chiang Mai and not to mention of Luang Prabang were also at the forefront of environmental preservation in their regions.
         Against this backdrop, to offer a vivid example, the hill peoples were able to live among the forests, mountains, and streams, upholding beauty and goodness as their standard of living. They had their own rich cultures and traditions. The rotational farming practices of the hill peoples never contributed to deforestation. Although they also hunted for food, the hill peoples never threatened wild animals and fish with extinction. They hunted for survival, not greed. In this context, they related harmonically and beautifully with nature for hundreds of years. Of course, the hill peoples did fight among themselves. After all, conflict is a natural part of human existence. But they did not resort to violent arms that lead to disproportionate harm and immeasurable suffering.
         Artistic beauty as expressed through music and dancing was not a monopoly of the northern kingdom of Chiang Mai. In the past, whenever a ruler or official representative from Bangkok visited Chiang Mai, the northern ruler would dance to welcome and entertain his distinguished guest. The southern guest would likewise dance along with the host as they entered the city together. Needless to say, it was an impressive spectacle.
         When Prince Damrong Rajanubharb first visited Chiang Mai he no longer knew how to dance along with his host. He had to send an envoy to do so for him. This was a sign that the sun of the old form of beauty was setting. During the reign of King Rama V, Siam began to incorporate—at times unequivocally—the Western way of life into its social fabric.
         Even war was transformed into science, devoid of artistic beauty. War was no longer conceived as a sport.
         Life in the countryside was also greatly and negatively impacted. Beauty and goodness inherent in the traditional way of life were being undermined. In the past, farmers often wove their own clothes, including the ones they wore to till the land. While weaving their clothes, songs were often sung and musical instruments were played. Similarly, songs were often heard while tilling the lands or harvesting the crops. The food crops that were reaped were also shared with neighbors and presented to the monks. Beauty and goodness were interwoven with such lifestyle. Additionally, the people’s way of life reflected the harmony between the seasons and traditions—between nature and human beings.   
         In Buddhism there is a saying that goes as follows. If a monarch upholds dhamma, his officials will do likewise. The head of each household and the clerics will also uphold dhamma—and so will all the citizens. When all the inhabitants of the society practice dhamma, there will be equilibrium in nature. In other words, there is a connection between morality, beauty, and harmony in nature. Buddhism envisages moral conduct as the natural state of being, as natural as the cycles of nature.
         Technology and modernity—often couched in terms such as progress and civilization—are uprooting and destroying the traditional way of living and the traditional conception of beauty and goodness. Ugliness is supplanting beauty. The color of goodness is now gray. The quest for truth is now steered by falsity and injustice, is now guided by money and power. All this is done in the name of ‘being civilized’ or Western civilization. Science and technology are said to provide the answer to every question. The fact that the latest science and technology may trample beauty and goodness is easily and conveniently discarded. For instance, self-reliance has immeasurably weakened; nature is raped and diversity is not nourished in human relations with nature; and millions of people are being exploited in the name of progress.
III
         What does civilization or being civilized mean? Rabindharanand Tagore once said that the civilization or culture of Asia is derived from the jungle whereas the civilization of the West has its roots in the city. The term civilization is often incorrectly defined either as the human race or as a society and its culture and way of life during a particular period of time or in a particular part of the world. But civilization does not really refer to any type of society. In Latin, civilization originally meant the city way of life. Thus being civilized simply means living like the city folks.
         The Greek philosopher Aristotle even unabashedly declared that living in the city is the only way to develop oneself and cultivate beauty, goodness, and truth. He argued that an individual living in the forest would have no time to do so. The bulk of that person’s time would be spent simply on survival—on finding food, maintaining sanitation, fending off bandits, etc. The larger and more complex the city, the higher it is in the hierarchy of progress, Aristotle argued. Beauty, stability, political power and technological superiority are indicators of progress and civilization. The Romans, even more so than the Greeks, emphasized political power and technology. This seemed to be the dominant trait of the culture of the Roman empire.
         As mentioned earlier, my country began to uncritically absorb the Western conception of progress and civilization during the reign of King Rama V. As a result, the traditional way of life began to be seen as inferior—as the source of the country’s backwardness. We looked down on our values and culture without really understanding their roots or virtues. For instance, the moral underpinnings of the Tebhumi or the Three Spheres are belittled.
         We tried to replace traditional visions of beauty with Western ones. This is dangerous. Perhaps this still remains the greatest threat confronting Siam. Of course, we have still retained Buddhism; we have not adopted Christianity. But willfully accepting the Western notion of civilization is even more dangerous than converting to Christianity.   
         Buddhism has become only a formality. It is no longer a living tradition. It no longer reflects the marriage of seasonal cycles and lifestyle.
         In a book of etiquette that was composed during the reign of King Rama V and was a required reading in many schools, the inhabitant of the city is portrayed as superior to the jungle-dweller. This view is contrary to the traditional vision, which sees the jungle as the root of civilization.
         The jungle like the life of a monk represents natural beauty. Upholding celibacy, a monk leads a noble life. Monks lead a simple lifestyle voluntarily. They want so little for themselves, giving to others much more than taking from them. The way they sleep, eat, live, dress, etc., is simple yet beautiful. Since they rely on mindfulness to conduct their lives beautifully, beauty merges with goodness. This beauty is also pure. And through further meditation and mindfulness, purity combines with peacefulness. At this point, if one’s inner potentials are used to serve all sentient beings, one becomes literally enlightened.
         The purity, peacefulness, and enlightenment of monks contribute to their beautiful behavior and help make temples exemplary centers of goodness in terms of religious teachings, morality, artistic development, healing, and disease prevention.
IV
         Many of the royal palaces in this country are built according to the Western conception of beauty. For instance, it was believed that a marble palace is a reflection of civilization. However formidable and awe-inspiring, these palaces look out of place. They represent the sad juxtaposition of Western architecture and Asian background. There is no real synthesis. These palaces do not reflect the living experience of the local community. There is no harmony with the natural setting. The same logic applies to the construction of the numerous high-rises and the heavy reliance on automobiles, which are polluting the environment.
         Between the reigns of King Rama V and King Rama VII, the indoctrinated ruling circles fed the populace with the illusion of Western progress and prosperity. Progress meant being like the West; there was only one way to be civilized. As a consequence, Western ideas heavily penetrated the kingdom’s social fabric, influencing the Thai culture and art, mode of thinking, developmental strategy, legal system, and telecommunications system. Most Thai students who went to study abroad became severed from their cultural roots, uncritically admiring the West. They no longer understood the essence of their nation’s art and beauty and believed that the truth can only be reached via Western logic and sciences. To sum up, they ended up in the worst of all worlds, failing to understand both the West and their own roots. At present, this problem has not abated. For instance, I can only wonder out loud how well the present Harvard-educated minister of finance of Siam understand about beauty and natural harmony.   
         The Thai people were abruptly and radically uprooted from their cultural foundation during the dictatorship of Field Marshal Phibunsonggram. The kingdom’s name was changed from Siam to Thailand in 1939. The Thai people literally underwent a crash course in Westernization. For instance, they were ordered to wear Western clothes and were prohibited from sitting on the pavements and from chewing betel nuts. Worse, since 1947 and especially after 1957, a handful of families virtually held the Thai population as hostages. In the name of redeeming ideas like development and democracy, they kowtowed to Pax Americana and capitalism, setting in motion another tremendous cultural and social shock waves. Popular movements were also crushed, and the people were robbed of their power and rights. Political and economic power was heavily centralized in Bangkok. Bangkok became the habitat of the giant octopus of American imperialism and transnational corporations. The modern mass media and infrastructures enabled the octopus to spread its tentacles to other Thai provinces. Not surprisingly, Chiang Mai was unable to escape from their stranglehold. Like elsewhere in Siam, the people in Chiang Mai were thrown off-balance. The traditional conceptions of beauty and goodness, which include, among other things, self-reliance, self-sufficiency, humility, giving and sharing, were transformed into vices or weaknesses.
         Shopping malls uncontrollably proliferated in the kingdom, and they have replaced temples as the center of community life. The upper and middle classes indulge in consumerism, leading selfish and apathetic lives, greedily depleting the natural resources, and polluting the environment. In many respects, they are no longer human beings: they have turned into human havings. So far, higher education in Siam as well as throughout the world has played a dismal role, more successful at producing competent servants of power than responsible and compassionate human beings. Things are unlikely to change soon as the center of power has shifted to the central bank, the gatekeeper of the rich men’s club—of the interests of transnational corporations, World Bank, IMF, international banks, and so on.
         If every individual lacks beauty inside, lacks goodness, lacks moral courage, and lacks an understanding of the structural causes of injustices at the local, national, and international levels how can beauty be found in buildings, literature, sculptures, and paintings? We must learn and strive to live life as if it is work of art.  
V
         Despair will lead us nowhere in times like these. In fact, there are some good reasons not to despair. All is not lost. The initiatives undertaken by the Assembly of the Poor in Siam in its quest for beauty, truth, and goodness are inspirational and heartening. We have a lot to learn from them. We must respect the poor.   
         The Assembly is a sustained, nonviolent, and popular grassroots movement that first became visible in the mid-1990s, but its origins probably rooted in the early 1980s. The Assembly is an amalgamation of seven distinct networks, representing almost every region in Siam and comprising more than half a million members. At the heart of the Assembly are urban and rural small-scale agriculturists and manual laborers. They form the absolute majority in the movement. In varying degrees, all of them have been hardly hit by the mainstream developmental strategies—by the dominant conceptions of progress, beauty, and civilization. Worse, the government has shown callous disregard for their plight, cynically hoping that the will of these awakened souls would eventually smother. It won’t be that easy.   
         Non-governmental organizations, monks, environmentalists, responsible intellectuals, students, and some individuals from the business community are strengthening the sinews of the Assembly. Simply put, the movement is able to transcend class and regional divisions. They have come to care about, promote, and benefit from one another’s wellbeing. The circle of the Assembly’s kalyanamittata is also expanding. The Assembly of the Poor is a living symbol of a participatory movement that is organized from the bottom up. It is a call for a comprehensive reevaluation of the mainstream conception of beauty and for rediscovering the virtues of our cultural roots.   
         Moreover, the Assembly has set up a university for its members. Based on local wisdom and culture and enriched with lessons on, to cite some random examples, sustainability, conflict resolution, Buddhism, resource management, and networking, it is the kind of education that seeks to preserve and foster pride in their simple and beautiful way of life. It is the kind of education that they need to lead a prosperous life—one that is according to their hope, that is rewarding and fulfilling, and that helps minimize their exploitation and oppression.     
         In conclusion, if we are able to fathom the subtlety, appropriateness, and crux of traditional conceptions of beauty and incorporate this understanding into our non-violent struggles for equality, justice, and environmental preservation, then we may begin to savor beauty and goodness and eventually open the door to the truth.