1006G【clover】备考日记 by 小灵易碎——重生

小灵易碎UID: 2733622

看来俺还是不够努力呀~拖拖沓沓的作业一直做不完~还有杯具的期末考试~人参啊~~~~~~~~！
谁也帮不了我，谁也救不了我，谁也保佑不了我~！！！！

单词是我最有希望的部分，已经不需要纠结，直接变成每天生物周期里的一部分鸟~~继续努力~
最重要的事还没落地，我心难平，即使是GRE这种大石头也不成，所以，先慢慢蹭吧~等俺心里的大石头落地了~等俺重生了~就是另一番天地啦~！

小灵易碎UID: 2733622

语法：动词、动词语态

6 助动词shall和will的用法

shall和will作为助动词可以与动词原形一起构成一般将来时，例如：
I shall study harder at English. 我将更加努力地学习英语。
He will go to Shanghai.他要去上海。
说明：
在过去的语法中，语法学家说shall用于第一人称，will 只用于第二、第三人称。现在，尤其是在口语中，will常用于第一人称，但shall只用于第一人称，如用于第二、第三人称，就失去助动词的意义，已变为情态动词，试比较:
He shall come.他必须来。（shall有命令的意味。）
He will come.他要来。（will只与动词原形构成一般将来时。）

7 助动词should, would的用法

1）should无词义，只是shall的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，只用于第一人称，例如：
I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week.
我昨天给他打电话，问他我下周干什么。
比较：
"What shall I do next week?"I asked.
"我下周干什么？"我问道。（可以说，shall变成间接引语时，变成了should。）

2） would也无词义，是 will的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，用于第二、第三人称，例如：
He said he would come. 他说他要来。
比较：
"I will go," he said. 他说："我要去那儿。"
变成间接引语，就成了：
He said he would come.
原来的will变成would，go变成了come.。

1 let 的用法

1）当let后只有一个单音节动词，变被动语态时，可用不带to 的不定式。
They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.
不是所有主动变被动都要加“to”

2） 若let 后宾补较长时，let 通常不用被动语态，而用allow或permit 代替。
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.
----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.

4 不用被动语态的情况
1) 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand
break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比较： rise, fall, happen是不及物动词；raise, seat是及物动词。
(错) The price has been risen.
(对) The price has risen.
(错) The accident was happened last week.
(对) The accident happened last week.
(错) The price has raised.
(对) The price has been raised.
(错) Please seat.
(对) Please be seated.
要想正确地使用被动语态，就须注意哪些动词是及物的，哪些是不及物的。特别是一词多义的动词往往有两种用法。解决这一问题唯有在学习过程中多留意积累。

6 被动形式表示主动意义
be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
He is graduated from a famous university.
他毕业于一所有名的大学。
注意： 表示同某人结婚，用marry sb. 或get married to sb. 都可。
He married a rich girl.
He got married to a rich girl.

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语法：动词不定式

4)there be+不定式
believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, undrstand
We didn't expect there to be so many people there.我们没料到会有那么多人在哪里。
注意 ： 有些动词需用as 短语做补语，如regard, think believe, take, consider.
We regard Tom as our best teacher.我们认为汤姆是我们最好的老师。
Mary took him as her father .玛丽把他当作自己的父亲。
there be的特殊情况，要记住。

1）不定式作目的状语
To… only to (仅仅为了),in order to,so as to,so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus.他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。
I come here only to say good-bye to you.我来仅仅是向你告别。
2）不定式作结果状语，表事先没有预料到的，要放在句子后面。
What have I said to make you angry.
He searched the room only to find nothing.
典型例题
The chair looks rather hard, but in fact it is very comfortable to ___.
A. sit B. sit on C. be seat D. be sat on
答案：B.如果不定式为不及物动词，其后应有必要的介词。当动词与介词连用时，常位于"形容词+动词不定式"结构的末尾。


3） 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。
注意：在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。
7） but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。
8） 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：
9） 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：

3)当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是：非常… 等于very。
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高兴能帮助你。
He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。


语法：分词

6 分词作插入语
其结构是固定的，意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。
generally speaking一般说来
talking of (speaking of) 说道
strictly speaking 严格的说
judging from 从…判断
all things considered 从整体来看
taking all things into consideration全面看来

Judging from his face, he must be ill.从他的脸色看，他一定是病了。
Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs. 总的来说，狗比猪跑得快。 (speaking 并不是dogs 的动作)


1）动名词作主语
Fighting broke out between the South and the North.
南方与北方开战了。

2）作宾语　
a. 动词后加动名词doing作宾语 V. + doing sth
admit 承认　appreciate 感激,赞赏　avoid 避免　complete 完成　 consider 认为　 delay 耽误　 deny 否认　 detest 讨厌　endure 忍受　enjoy 喜欢　escape 逃脱　prevent阻止   fancy 想象　finish 完成　imagine 想象　mind 介意 miss 想念　 postpone 推迟　practice 训练　 recall 回忆　 resent 讨厌　resist 抵抗　resume 继续　risk 冒险     suggest 建议　　face 面对　 include 包括　stand 忍受　understand 理解　 forgive 宽恕   keep 继续

举例：
(1)　Would you mind turning down your radio a little, please?
(2)　The squirrel was lucky that it just missed being caught.　　　

b. 词组后接doing
admit to　　 prefer…to　　　　　be used to　　　 lead to　　　devote oneself to　 object to　　　stick to　　 busy　　　　look forward to(to为介词）

no good,　no use,　It's worth…,　 as well as,
can't help,　It's no use /good　 be tired of
be fond of　 be capable of　 be afraid of　
be proud of　 think of / about　 hold off　　　　
put off　 keep on　 insist on　　count on / upon
set about　 be successful in　 good at　　take up
give up　　burst out 　　prevent … from…　

2 worth 的用法

worth，worthy，worth-while都为adj.　意为"值得"。
1. worth： be worth + n.　 当名词为金钱时，表示"…… 值得……"
be worth doing sth.　"……某事值得被做"
The question is not worth discussing again and again.

2. worthy： be worthy of +n.　当名词为抽象名词时表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
The question is not worthy to be discussed again and again.

3. worth-while： be worth-while to do sth　 "值得做某事"
worth while： It is worth while doing sth
It is worth while sb to do sth.

典型例题
It is not ____ to discuss the question again and again.
A.worth　B.worthy　C.worth-while　D.worth while
答案C. 由worth的用法可知，此句只适合词组be worth-while to do sth.。因此选C。

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语法：独立主格
1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：
当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.
( hand前不能加his)。

2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语（逻辑主语：是非谓语动词动作的执行者或承受者；它们在逻辑上存在着主谓关系或动宾关系，但不能直接作非谓语动词的主语，因此叫逻辑主语。）时，及物动词用现在分词，不及物动词用过去分词。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.
典型例题：
Weather___, we'll go out for a walk.
A permitted B permitting C permits D for permitting
答案 B. 本题中没有连词，它不是复合句，也不是并列句。句中使用了逗号，且we 小写，可知其不是两个简单句。能够这样使用的只有独立主格或with的复合结构。据此判断，本句中使用的是独立结构， 其结构为：名词+分词。由于permit在这里翻译为'天气允许'，表主动，应用现在分词，故选B。
如果不会判断独立结构作状语的形式，不妨将句子改为条件句，例如本句改为If weather permits, we'll go out for a walk. 然后将if 去掉，再将谓语动词改为非谓语动词即可。

语法：特殊词

5 cease doing/to do
cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事。
cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做。
That department has ceased to exist forever.
那个部门已不复存在。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
姑娘们在老师走过时，停了会聊天。


6 try doing/to do
try to do努力，企图做某事。
try doing 试验，试着做某事。
You must try to be more careful.
你可要多加小心。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
我试着种果木花卉，但未成功。

8 be afraid doing/to do
be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。
She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬着，而不敢在草丛中再走一步。
She was afraid to wake her husband.
她不敢去叫醒她丈夫。
She was afraid of waking her husband.
她生怕吵醒她丈夫。

9 be interested doing/to do
interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 对某种想法感兴趣，doing 通常为想法。
I shall be interested to know what happens.
我很想知道发生了什么事。 (想了解)
I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you have any idea about that?
我对在瑞士工作感兴趣。你想过这事吗? (一种想法)

12 感官动词 + doing/to do
感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do 表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性
I saw him work in the garden yesterday.
昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调"我看见了"这个事实)
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.（强调"我见他正干活"这个动作）
昨天我见他正在花园里干活。
典型例题
1）They knew her very well. They had seen her ___ up from childhood.
A. grow B. grew C. was growing D. to grow
答案：A。因题意为，他们看着她长大，因此强调的是成长的过程，而非正在长的动作，因此用see sb do sth 的句型。
2）The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing B. to be playingC. play D. to play
答案A. 本题强调其动作，正在河边玩，应此用see sb. doing sth句型。

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语法：Active and Passive Voice

In a sentence using active voice,the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.主动语态就是句子中的主语是动作的发出者

Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing.Using active voice for the majority of your sentences makes your meaning clear for readers,and keeps the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy.Even in scientific writing,too much use of passive voice can cloud the meaning of your sentences.主动语态多用在非科学写作上，的好处是清晰、少冗余

In a sentence using passive voice,the subject is acted upon;he or she receives the action expressed by the verb.The agent performing the action may appear in a"by the..."phrase or may be omitted.被动语态是句子中主语是动作承受者，句尾的by……可以省略

Choosing Passive Voice

Also,writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses.Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious,unimportant,or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all.The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.用主动，因为主动语态能把代词表示清楚，能高亮关键动作

1.Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.不要在一句中转换主被动。

Unnecessary shift in voice	Revised
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.	Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.	He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.

2.Avoiddangling modifierscaused by the use of passive voice.A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dangling modifier with passive voice	Revised
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)	To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)	Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.

3.Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software.Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions,but you may want to keep some that are flagged.Trust your judgment,or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.相信自己的判断而不是语法软件

Indicative,Imperative,and Subjunctive Mood:

Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood,which indicates a fact or opinion指示性语态:
Examples:
He was here.
I am hungry.
She will bring her books.

Some verbs are in the imperative mood,which expresses commands or requests.Though it is not stated,the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.命令性语态
Examples:
Be here at seven o'clock.(Understood:You be here at seven o'clock.)
Cook me an omelette.(Understood:You cook me an omelette.)
Bring your books with you.(Understood:You bring your books with you.)

When verbs show something contrary to fact,they are in the subjunctive mood.虚拟语气
When you express a wish or something that is not actually true,use the past tense or past perfect tense;when using the verb'to be'in the subjunctive,always use were rather than was:
Examples:
If he were here...(Implied:...but he's not.)
I wish I had something to eat.(Implied:...but I don't.)
It would be better if you had brought your books with you.(Implied:...but you haven't brought them.)

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语法：撇号和连字符的使用

The apostrophe has three uses:
1.to form possessives of nouns
2.to show the omission of letters
3.to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters

add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money

1.Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.

3.Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:
re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)

8.Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:
lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)写作格式问题

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语法：平行结构
Example 2
Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions. （所有动作都是针对一个对象才叫平行）

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form

Proofreading Strategies to Try:校对平行的方法

Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.

If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.

Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

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语法：逗号的用法
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.（用一对逗号把不重要的成分“孤立”起来~~）
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.（之前都只在日期中间点一个小点儿，这下知道了，记住小细节）
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.

Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the following cases:
·After an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)
·After a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main clause?)
·After introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.
·If there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?) to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)

Do not use a comma in the following cases:
·After a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)
·After a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives.)
·To separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)

Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:
I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.

Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.

Rule: Use commas before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements embedded in the sentence that interrupt it without changing the essential meaning.
If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.（判断能在词句前后用逗号的方法是，取出成分对句子整体意思不改变）

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语法：主语、宾语指代
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

最重要的是弄清楚动作的doer

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语法：大写字母
Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)专有名词
Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving（中间如果有of之类的词应该就不用大写）

Family relationships (when used as proper names)家庭关系（这个之前没注意过，要记住）
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?


Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
（不要大写普遍意义上的“神”）

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.
（表示“南部地区”“北部地区”用大写，而不是真正指“方向”）

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语法：音近词
Conscious, Conscience

·conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.

·conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.


Idea, Ideal

·idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization:
Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!

·ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor:
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.

·ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best:
Jennifer was an ideal student.


貌似那几个exercise打开都是一样的，不过Purdue OWL还是灰常好用滴~

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语法：写作顺序
Keep in mind, however, that moving between HOCs and LOCs might be a natural process for you. Experienced writers may begin with HOCs and dip into the LOCs as they revise.
写作的时候按照重要性逐渐增加的原则，校对的时候按照重要性逐渐减低的原则

Thesis or focus:

·Does the paper have a central thesis? 中心主题
·Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about? 一句话概况主题
·Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss. 能不能在第一段或第二段被读懂

Audience and purpose:

·Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them? 确定读者群
·Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?写作目的
·Why would someone want to read this paper?激发读者兴趣
·Does the purpose match the assignment? 目的和写作是否一致

Organization:

·Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way? 逻辑组织
·Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization. 改善整体组织结构
·Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part? 条理清晰顺畅
·Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?

Development:

·Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed? 细节需要
·Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? (For more help, see our handout on paragraphing.)
·Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.

Some LOCs

Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling

·Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those. 总结自己的常见错误并对照着找错
·Read the paper aloud watching and listening for anything that sounds incorrect.
·Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in certain places. Do you need to check any punctuation rules? (For more help see our handouts on punctuation.)
·For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.

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Go from old to new information（先捡读者熟悉的说）
Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.

Transitional words（过渡词）
There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the handout on Transitional Devices (Connecting Words). There you'll find lists of words such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses（避免用从句扰乱主句）
Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion

Use active voice

Use parallel constructions

Avoid noun strings（不要一大堆名词黏在一起）
Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."

Avoid multiple negatives（不要多重否定）
Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.

Choose action verbs over forms of be（动词多样化）
When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs.

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语法：关系代名词

限定性从句和非限定性从句的关系代名词的使用
（表格方便明了）
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses:

Function in the sentence	Reference to
	People	Things / concepts	Place	Time	Reason
Subject	who, that	which, that
Object	(that, who, whom)*	(which, that)*	where	when	why
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses:

Function in the sentence	Reference to
	People	Things / concepts	Place	Time	Reason
Subject	who	which
Object	who, whom	which	where	when	why
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

Defining vs Non-Defining Clauses: Difference in Meaning
限定性从句和非限定性从句在意思上的不同
There is a difference in meaning between defining and non-defining clauses that depends on the presence or absence of the comma. For example:

They have two sons who are doctors.
Defining clause; the meaning is that there are more sons in the family, e.g.:
They have two sons who are doctors and one who is an architect.
Compare:
They have two sons, who are doctors.
non-defining clause; the meaning is that there are no more sons in the family.

代词的选择（选择更有具象意义的那个）
5.If you choose between who or that, use who in writing;
6.If you choose between which and that, use which in writing;

标点的使用（这个我挺怵的，每次都只会用逗号句号之类的还瞎点一气，学习了~）
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

两个独立的句子，但是主语是相同的，中间用分号。

Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

在上面那种情况下两句中间加了连词，用逗号标在逻辑连词后面。

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语法：标点符号

Semicolon分号

Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis. 两句对等关系，之间用分号连接
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.

Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.

Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas. 区分并列成分，如果还有下属描述就用逗号
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.


Dash破折号

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses. 破折号后的内容通常更重要
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it. 连接中间已经有逗号的一个整体
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.


Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.对话时使用
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."

Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word. 指出作品，讽刺意味或保留某个词的意思（待讨论的单词）
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.不要间接使用引号（引号套引号）