【甚解小组】【TASK 2】AW Intro 读后感& 原文抄抄抄 FROM 板凳照

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A.Issue的整体要求：

• accept, reject, or qualify the claim; any perspective(s)任何角度，但是要求立场鲜明
• clearly relevant to the topic you select一定要切题
• articulate and develop an argument to support your position on the issue 阐述和发展观点
• provide relevant reasons and examples to explain and support your views (drawn from reading, experience, observations, or academic studies.)理由和例证支持
• consider the complexities and implications of the issue 复杂性

• develop ideas fully and organize coherently组织和表达的连贯性
• standard written English 标准的英文表达
• leave time to read and make revisions 检查


B.什么是Issue：


Understanding the Task

considerable latitude in the way you respond to the claim

free to take any approach you wish

关于Issue，ETS给出了几种破题的方法，个人认为，在一开始写作的时候可以解决无从下手的难题：

• agree absolutely with the claim, disagree completely, or agree with some parts and not others 首先选取一个角度：支持、驳斥、中立

• question the assumptions the statement seems to be making 质疑问题的假设

• qualify any of its terms, especially if the way you define or apply a term is important to developing your perspective on the issue 下定义

• point out why the claim is valid in some situations but not in others 不同情况下的考虑

• evaluate points of view that contrast with your own perspective 与自己的观点相比较

• develop your position with reasons that are supported by several relevant examples or by a single extended example 一个扩展的例子或多个例子

看似很简单的几个步骤，但其实可以灵活地用在每篇issue的写作中。

对于官方范文的使用：

sample responses: successful strategies for organizing, developing, and communicating a persuasive argument.我们可以看到组织、发展观点和论证的范例

readers' commentaries discuss specific aspects of analysis and writing, such as the use of examples, development and support, organization, language fluency, and word choice. 对于范文的评论则让我们看到具体的方面，分析和写作的技巧，如例子的选用、观点的发展、组织，以及语言的流畅度和选词的精确

For each response, the commentary points out aspects that are particularly persuasive as well as any that detract from the overall effectiveness of the essay.最重要的一点是，我们应当学着揣摩ETS所标榜的“OVERALL QUALTY”到底是如何体现的。

C.如何让准备Issue

no particular course of study and no particular type of training没有背景知识的需要

use reasons, evidence, and examples to support your position on an issue 运用推理、证据、例子支持论点

It is not your position that matters so much as the critical thinking skills you display in developing your position. 在论证过程中体现出的批判性思维

practice writing on some of the published topics.

review the task directions 了解要求是什么

carefully read the claim and understand the issue involved; if it seems unclear, discuss it with a friend or teacher 了解issue说的是什么

think about the issue in relation to your own ideas and experiences, to events you have read about or observed, and to people you have known; this is the knowledge base from which you will develop compelling reasons and examples in your argument that reinforce, negate, or qualify the claim in some way 从自己的积累联系到issue题目

decide what position on the issue you want to take and defend—remember you are free to agree or disagree completely or to agree with some parts or some applications but not others 明确自己的立场

decide what compelling evidence (reasons and examples) you can use to support your position 明确为支持这一立场所可以利用的证据（观点和例子）

Remember that this is a task in critical thinking and persuasive writing. Therefore, you might find it helpful to explore the complexity of a claim in one of the topics by asking yourself the following questions: 如何思考issue的复杂性以及确定自己的立场：

• What, precisely, is the central issue? 确切地说，issue的中心问题究竟是什么？

• Do I agree with all or with any part of the claim? Why or why not? 我是否支持？为什么？

• Does the claim make certain assumptions? If so, are they reasonable? issue是否有特定的假设？这些假设成立吗？

• Is the claim valid only under certain conditions? If so, what are they? 说法是否在特定条件下才成立？如果是的话，这些特定的条件是什么？

• Do I need to explain how I interpret certain terms or concepts used in the claim? 是否需要说明我是如何界定相关的术语或概念的？

• If I take a certain position on the issue, what reasons support my position? 有什么理由支持我所采取的观点？

• What examples—either real or hypothetical—could I use to illustrate those reasons and advance my point of view? Which examples are most compelling? 我可以用什么真实的或者是假设的例子来支持我的论点？哪个例子最有说服力？

Once you have decided on a position to defend, consider the perspective of others who might not agree with your position. Ask yourself:思考自己所选取的立场的反面：

• What reasons might someone use to refute or undermine my position? 哪些例子会削弱我的立场？

• How should I acknowledge or defend against those views in my essay? 我应当如何面对这些不足？

To plan your response, you might want to summarize your position and make brief notes about how you will support the position you're going to take. When you've done this, look over your notes and decide how you will organize your response. Then write a response developing your position on the issue. Even if you don't write a full response, you should find it helpful to practice with a few of the Issue topics and to sketch out your possible responses. 总结立场—如何组织论证—写提纲

After you have practiced with some of the topics, try writing responses to some of the topics within the 45-minute time limit so that you have a good idea of how to use your time in the actual test. 限时写作

It would probably be helpful to get some feedback on your response from an instructor who teaches critical thinking or writing or to trade papers on the same topic with other students and discuss one another's responses in relation to the scoring guide. Try to determine how each paper meets or misses the criteria for each score point in the guide. Comparing your own response to the scoring guide will help you see how and where you might need to improve. 修改—与评分标准相对应

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A.Argument的整体要求：

• critical thinking, perceptive reading, and analytical writing skills 批判、分析

• underlie the thinking and, if evidence is cited, how well it supports the conclusion 批判的看待

• critique someone else's argument by assessing its claims and evaluating the evidence it provides , consider the logical soundness of the argument rather than to agree or disagree with the position it presents

• also discuss what sort of evidence would strengthen or refute the argument, what changes in the argument would make it more logically sound, and what additional information might help you better evaluate its conclusion 分析例子是否strong，哪些因素导致论证在逻辑上不够严密，哪些因素会使论证更加strong

• OVERALL QUALITY

• identify and analyze important features of the argument 论证的基本结构是什么？

• organize, develop, and express your critique of the argument 组织和表达论证

• support you critique with relevant reasons and examples, develop your ideas fully and organize them coherently用理由和例子支持你的论证

• standard written English 标准英语写作

什么是Argument

Understanding the Task

In reading the argument, you should pay special attention to

• what is offered as evidence, support, or proof证据有哪些

• what is explicitly stated, claimed, or concluded 明确给出的结论或观点是什么

• what is assumed or supposed, perhaps without justification or proof 无理假设

• what is not stated, but necessarily follows from what is stated 他因

In addition, consider the structure of the argument—the way in which these elements are linked together to form a line of reasoning; that is, you should recognize the separate, sometimes implicit steps in the thinking process and consider whether the movement from each one to the next is logically sound. In tracing this line, look for transition words and phrases that suggest that the author is attempting to make a logical connection (e.g., however, thus, therefore, evidently, hence, in conclusion)

检查论证的结构,每一步是如何推到下一步的，注意逻辑联结词

DON’Ts:	Dos:
discuss whether the statements in the argument are true or accurate	whether conclusions and inferences are validly drawn from the statements.
agree or disagree with the position stated	comment on the thinking that underlies the position stated
express your own views on the subject being discussed(as you were in the Issue task)	evaluate the logical soundness of an argument of another writer

如何看待范文：

successful strategies for organizing and developing an insightful critique 逻辑论证上

specific aspects of analytical writing: syntactic variety, facility with language 具体： 句法和语言等

aspects that are particularly effective and insightful as well as any that detract from the overall effectiveness 有效和削弱文章整体质量的点有哪些

如何准备Argument

analytical writing and informal reasoning skills that you have developed throughout your education; not to require any specific course of study or to advantage students with a particular type of training; informal logic and critical thinking that might prove helpful, but even these might be more detailed and technical than the task requires. 基本的逻辑写作能力，不需要专业的逻辑术语：

• other possible explanations for the improved attendance 他因

• to offer some common-sense examples 常识性的例子

• suggest what would be necessary to verify the conclusion (…have to be ruled out in order for the principals conclusion to be valid)提出使逻辑更加严密的建议

directions for the Argument task and with certain key concept几个关键的概念：

• alternative explanation—a possible competing version of what might have caused the events in question; an alternative explanation undercuts or qualifies the original explanation because it too can account for the observed facts 他因

• analysis—the process of breaking something (e.g., an argument) down into its component parts in order to understand how they work together to make up the whole; also a presentation, usually in writing, of the results of this process 论证过程不严密

• argument—a claim or a set of claims with reasons and evidence offered as support; a line of reasoning meant to demonstrate the truth or falsehood of something 驳论

• assumption—a belief, often unstated or unexamined, that someone must hold in order to maintain a particular position; something that is taken for granted but that must be true in order for the conclusion to be true 无理假设

• conclusion—the end point reached by a line of reasoning, valid if the reasoning is sound; the resulting assertion 结论

• counterexample—an example, real or hypothetical, that refutes or disproves a statement in the argument 反例

写作建议：

• carefully read the argument—you might want to read it over more than once 认真读题

• identify as many of its claims, conclusions, and underlying assumptions as possible 考虑多种可能性

• think of as many alternative explanations and counterexamples as you can 逆向思维

• think of what additional evidence might weaken or lend support to the claims 有没有反例？

• ask yourself what changes in the argument would make the reasoning more sound 有没有改进方法？

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重新编辑字体格式什么的最坑爹了！！！！

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The.New.Cambridge.Modern.History,.Vol.12：The.Shifting.Balance.of.World.Forces,.2nd.edition,1898-1945(1968)

CHAPTER I    INTRODUCTORY SURVEY: ON THE LIMITS   OF MODERN HISTORY

Ultimate history we cannot have in this generation; but we can dispose of conventional

history, and show the point we have reached on the road from one to the other,

now that all information is within reach, and every problem has become capable of

solution.

dispose [dis'pəuz]

vt. 处理；处置；安排

vi. 处理；安排；（能够）决定

n. 处置；性情

Acton projected the History as a work of universal history, 'distinct from

the combined history of all countries'.

It moves in a succession to which the nations are subordinate. Their story will be

told, not for their own sake, but in reference and subordination to a higher series,

according to the time and degree in which they contribute to the common fortunes

of mankind.

subordinate [sə'bɔ:dinət, -neit, sə'bɔ:dineit]

n. 下属，下级；部属，属下

adj. 次要的；从属的

vt. 使……居下位；使……服从

'the history of that "civilization" which,

from the fifteenth century, spread from its original European homes,

assimilating extraneous elements as it expanded, until it was more or less

firmly planted in all parts of the world

assimilate [ə'simileit]

vt. 吸收；使同化；把…比作；使相似

vi. 同化；吸收

extraneous [ek'streinjəs]

adj. 外来的；没有关联的；来自体外的

As he surveys the twenty years or more since 1945, however, the

historian may feel that violence has not been the main characteristic of

this century. He notices the developments in the use of nuclear power for

peaceful purposes as well as for its destructive force. He notes the achievement

of parity in the ability to attack between the United States of

America and Russia in 1957, and equally the first nuclear explosion in

China in 1965. The danger of the proliferation of nuclear weapons has

become clearer; but the very fact of this shows the universality of scientific

and technical knowledge and discovery, and the need to recognize the

condition that we are all members one of another. The exploration of

space which has been proceeding seems to be competitive rather than cooperative,

though clearly each team learns much, even if at one remove,

from the work of the rival. Thus the launching of the first man-made

satellite by the Russians in 1957 was followed by several manned flights

of satellites of American and Russian manufacture in 1961.

parity ['pæriti]

n. 同等；相等；平价

proliferation [prəu-,lifə'reiʃən]

n. 增殖，扩散；分芽繁殖

proceed [prəu'si:d]

vi. 开始；继续进行；行进；发生

rival ['raivəl]

n. 竞争者；对手

vt. 与…竞争；比得上某人

vi. 竞争

adj. 竞争的

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适用于广大的历史类话题们：

第一段写了历史对于现代而言的功用。
关于这一点，我觉得还有几点，其一，历史的功用首先在于明白现代社会的根基，正所谓知其然还要知其所以然，明白现代社会的来源对于我们理解我们所处的社会、根据现实处境找到解决问题的方法有很重大的意义。
其二，历史的功用在于，当面临重大问题的时候，我们也许一时没有解决办法，于是我们就可以从人类历史长河中寻找相似的经验，以解决现实问题
其三，当我们在研究一些诸如政治等敏感问题时，我们也许难以就事论事，但是我们可以借古讽今
总之，了解我们的过去，对于了解我们现实存在的世界有好处balabalabala

第二段和第三段是写现代社会的发展历程，西方资本主义国家在工业革命后借科学技术的发展走向富强，广大亚非拉美地区处在被征服的地位。文明史的演进过程就是一个征服与被征服的过程。

第四段写了核武器的发展以及对于现代世界局势的影响。


103. "The study of history has value only to the extent that it is relevant to our daily lives." [34]
只有在历史研究与我们的日常生活相关的前提下，历史研究才有价值。


221
. "The chief benefit of the study of history is to break down the illusion that people in one period of time are significantly different from people who lived at any other time in history."
研究历史最首要的好处就是消除了这样的错觉，即某个时代的人们与历史上另一个时代的人们有重大的差别。




54
. "History teaches us only one thing: knowing about the past cannot help people to make important decisions today."
历史只教会了我们一件事：了解过去无助于人们今天作出重要的决定。
时间问题之历史不是今天的一面镜子

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Parallel with these developments were others transforming our view of

the twentieth-century world. One was the sudden recognition that the

world was in the midst of a 'population explosion' which was likely to

produce a population of 5,000 millions by 1986 and 50,000 millions (or one

person per square foot of the entire earth's surface) by 2no. Since 1850

the world population of 1,000 millions had doubled by 1930, increased to

2,326 millions by 1947 and to 3,000 millions in 1962, and was expected to

reach 4,000 millions in 1977, a bare fifteen years later. The problems of

food supply, and the contrast between the poverty of the majority and the

well-fed affluence of a minority of the earth's peoples, were becoming more

pressing. At the same time new fertilizers and pesticides and battery and

factory methods of rearing animals for food promised an increase in food

supplies while also threatening the balance of nature on which such

supplies might depend. Yet again, discoveries in biology and genetics and

contraceptives opened the way to limiting the increase of population, to

moulding the physical characteristics of future generations, and to

creating human beings by artificial means.

affluence ['æfluəns] n. 富裕；丰富；流入；汇聚
rear [riə] vt. 培养；树立；栽种
contraceptive [,kɔntrə'septiv] n. 避孕用具；避孕剂

moulding ['məuldiŋ] n. 模制；浇铸  v. 塑造（mould的ing形式）；用模子制作

No less revolutionary were the other changes portended by new

advances in science and technology. The development of computers and

the process of automation promised to eliminate much routine work from

industry and commerce. Not too little leisure but too much seemed likely

to be the lot of ordinary men and women. Similarly, commercial aviation

on the main routes across the oceans and between the continents only

came into its own after 1945; diplomacy, business, tourism were much

changed by the new speed of travel, measured in hours instead of days or

weeks, and the apparent shrinkage of distances.

portend [pɔ:'tend, pəu-] vt. 预示；预兆；意味着
aviation [,eivi'eiʃən] n. 航空；飞行术；飞机制造业
shrinkage ['ʃriŋkidʒ] n. 收缩；减低

========我是分割线==欧耶=.=|||===========

依旧历史类，不过也可以应用到科技类

第一段总结了自现代以来人类面临的许多新问题，如人口大增长问题、贫富差距拉大、生态平衡遭到破坏等问题。

第二段则说了电脑技术、航空发展和商业的全球化对现代社会的影响。

88. "Technologies not only influence but actually determine social customs and ethics."
技术不仅仅影响而且实际上是决定了社会传统和道德规范。

技术进步之社会影响

119. "When research priorities are being set for science, education, or any other area, the most important question to consider is: How many people's lives will be improved if the results are successful?"
当我们为科学、教育或任何其他领域确定研究优先权时，要考虑的一个最重要的问题就是：如果研究获得成功, 多少人的生活会因此而得到改善。

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节选自Wiki Pedia 关于History的解释：

History is the study of the human past. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyze the sequence of events, and it sometimes attempts to investigate objectively the patterns of cause and effect that determine events. Historians debate the nature of history and its usefulness. This includes discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present. The stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the legends surrounding King Arthur) are usually classified as cultural heritage rather than the "disinterested investigation" needed by the discipline of history. Events of the past prior to written record are considered prehistory.

Since historians are observers and participants, the works they produce are written from the perspective of their own time and sometimes with due concern for possible lessons for their own future. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a 'true discourse of past' through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race. The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record. The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the 'true past').

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and other times as part of the social sciences. It can also be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual historians strongly support one or the other classification. In modern academia, history is increasingly classified as a social science. In the 20th century, French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global history.
Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. For the beginning, historians have also used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant overlaps are often present, as in "The International Women's Movement in an Age of Transition, 1830–1975." It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity.

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对于历史的定义，童鞋们可以根据不同的问题再自己划定一个范围，如对过去事情的研究、或者对事件因果模式的考虑。历史学研究包括了对过去的研究和对现实的实际意义。在不同文化背景下，历史事件也会有不同的形态。历史学者是历史的“制造者”，根据自己的理解和方式书写历史。历史对于现世和未来都有借鉴意义。

（底下的两段是历史学的一些专业知识，包括新史学观点以及布罗代尔的“年鉴学派”等等，以及历史学的编纂方法：编年体、文化史、国别史等等…历史类话题在阅读文章中也十分常见，比如10年11G就有一篇是讲法国大革命时期保守派的，嗯嗯，可以作为背景知识补充一下…）

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人工置顶，重读ing