总结的一些例子和资料，教育类，flyxw过来看

鬼谷子UID: 159645

教育类的issue5，130，154，214有关的资料和例子，在MSN的ENCARTA里面找的，希望对大家有帮助。

flyxwUID: 106489

谢谢鬼兄了，偶去看看~

鬼谷子UID: 159645

还是把里面的东西摘出来看着方便一点

教育类

资料一：美国学校的国家和地方的矛盾
TENSION BETWEEN LOCALISM AND CENTRALIZATION

适用题目： Issue5  A nation should require all its students to study the same national curriculum until they enter college rather than allow schools in different parts of the nation to determine which academic courses to offer.
我的理解是，根本问题在于国家统一和地方安排的问题上。到底国家统一制定的课程有什么好处，而地方政府是否应该享有安排课程的权力呢？另外一个关键的问题就是，为什么要提到是上大学之前的学生呢？这些学生应该属于elementary and secondary education，他们需要的是什么呢？哪种课程安排对于这些学生的学习最有益处呢，最能满足他们的需要呢？



Individual states—rather than the federal government—have primary authority over public education in the United States. In 1794 New York became the first state to establish a board of regents to oversee public education. Eventually, every state developed a department of education and enacted laws regulating finance, the hiring of school personnel, student attendance, and often curriculum. Until the 20th century the degree of regulation varied enormously from state to state.

A  Traditions of Localism

In general, however, states have delegated control over public education matters to local districts, with the exception of licensing requirements and general rules concerning health and safety. Public schools have also relied heavily on local property taxes to meet the vast majority of school expenses. American schools have thus tended to reflect the educational values and financial capabilities of the communities in which they are located. When students move from one community to another, they often encounter entirely different curriculums even though they are in the same grade. Even within a given school district, different neighborhoods often contain very different public schools. 由于要考虑资助的社区的要求，所以在甚至美国不同社区学校的课程都不相同。

In contrast, countries like France, Germany, and Japan have school systems that are financed and regulated on the national level. This has allowed them to maintain a relatively uniform school environment throughout their respective countries, regardless of the values and economies of local communities. They have also accomplished this partly by mandating highly competitive standardized examinations. These exams usually have direct consequences for the students who take them, often by permitting or denying access to higher education or positions of employment. 这种情况和中国的一样，可以把这几个国家作为统一课程的例子。

这两段是从学校由谁资助来讨论的，美国学校由社区资助，法国德国日本由政府资助，所以造成了统一和地方的不同，我觉得是个新鲜的入手点。可以写，理论上是哪个好，但是实际上要考虑经济情况，所以应该政府资助，统一课程/地方资助，地方自行安排。

B  Centralizing Tendencies

As greater numbers of Americans enrolled in schools during the 20th century, education became a powerful social and economic force .这句改一改可以放在教育类文章的开头当作背景。 Efforts to increase the size and efficiency of public schools led to the creation of more centralized school systems. To bring order and efficiency to school systems, American educators had already developed standardized mechanisms of school organization by the end of the 19th century. For example, class placement was determined by a student’s age, each class period was a specified length, and students graduated after a specified number of years in attendance. 上面的论述可以借鉴用作赞成统一课程的原因，统一课程的好处。

Schools also became more centrally organized as education developed into a highly structured profession with a streamlined chain of administrative command. 另一个统一的原因 For example, in the late 19th century the position of the school superintendent increased in power and influence. The first public school superintendent began directing the Buffalo, New York, school system in 1837. By 1900 the superintendent had replaced the school principal as the most influential and highest paid figure in public elementary and secondary education.

Also by 1900 specialized teacher training institutions called normal schools were well established, and many had already become four-year degree-granting colleges. Institutions that provided training for teachers developed expertise that often led to standardized practices, ranging from notions about the ideal size of elementary classrooms to the ideal form of a lesson plan. As education became a bigger and more lucrative enterprise, mass-market textbook publishing companies and testing organizations made significant profits by producing materials used in schools throughout the country.

后面的部分是一些有关的事例和法令和数据之类的资料，也许有可以借用作例子的东西。
C  Increased State Involvement

As the 20th century progressed, most states assumed a more active regulatory role than in the past. States consolidated school districts into larger units with common procedures. In 1940 there were over 117,000 school districts in the United States, but by 2000 the number had decreased to fewer than 15,000. The states also became much more responsible for financing education. They helped fund the rapid expansion of state postsecondary institutions after World War II. They sometimes supported efforts to equalize local school district expenditures by using state funds and state laws to ensure more equitable per pupil expenditures regardless of the wealth or poverty of individual districts. In 1940 local property taxes financed 68 percent of elementary and secondary school expenses, while the states contributed 30 percent and the federal government contributed 2 percent. In 1999 state governments contributed 49 percent of elementary and secondary school revenues, local districts contributed 44 percent, and the federal government provided 7 percent.

Since the 1980s, virtually all states have given unprecedented attention to their role in raising education standards. Much of the initiative for greater state involvement in education stemmed from the publication of a report by a federal commission in 1983 that indicated low academic achievement in American schools. This report, entitled A Nation at Risk, presented statistics suggesting that American students were outperformed on international academic tests by students from other industrial societies. Statistics also suggested that American test scores were declining over time. Many parents, educators, and government officials believed that only a concerted, centralized reform effort could overcome these apparent shortcomings of American education. Because the perceived crisis in student performance was based largely on test-score results, most states have implemented reform strategies that emphasize more frequent testing conducted by states, more effective state testing, and more state-mandated curriculum requirements. Some educators have also proposed the introduction of “high-stakes” examinations, in which performance on the examination would have a significant impact on the individual taking the test. Results on a high stakes examination might either permit or restrict a student’s access to higher education or the job market. Despite widespread support for such examinations, few states have introduced them.

D  Increased Federal Involvement

Although educational authority resides ultimately with the states, the federal government has long encouraged and assisted specific educational activities that it considers to be in the national interest. The federal government’s activities in the field of education have further centralized American schooling. The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917, for example, helped create vocational programs in high schools, and the GI Bill of 1944 was the first important federal effort to provide financial aid for military veterans to attend college. In addition, federal civil rights laws require all schools and colleges to conform to national standards of educational equality.

The federal commitment to improve and finance public schools expanded enormously when Congress passed the National Defense Education Act of 1958 and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. In these two landmark statutes, Congress addressed for the first time such broad problems as expanding educational opportunity for poor children and improving instruction in pivotal but usually neglected subjects, such as science, mathematics, and foreign languages. In addition, these laws strengthened many large universities by providing federal funds for research. They also supported students attending private colleges by providing federal support for financial aid. Because this assistance came from federal sources rather than from state or local governments, it increased centralized control of American education.

Federal involvement in schools during the 1980s and 1990s was expressed less by legislation providing money for new programs than by government reports and proclamations that schools were performing insufficiently. A Nation at Risk and many subsequent federal reports and studies on the condition of schooling sparked a vigorous school reform effort at local and state levels. But aside from espousing ambitious national education goals, the federal government was far less active in shaping education legislation during the 1980s and 1990s than it had been in the 1960s and 1970s.

The role of the federal government in setting education policy increased significantly with the passage by Congress of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, a sweeping education reform law that revised the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. Signed by President George W. Bush in 2002, the new law seeks to identify poorly performing public schools by requiring states to test students in grades three through eight annually in reading and math. Schools that fail to make “adequate yearly progress” toward state proficiency standards must allow students to transfer to better-performing public schools. If poor performance continues, schools must offer supplemental services such as private tutoring; persistently failing schools must take corrective actions, such as replacing certain teachers or changing the curriculum, or risk being restructured or taken over by the state. The law also requires all public school teachers to be “highly qualified” in their subject areas by the end of the 2006 school year.

Although the No Child Left Behind Act passed with broad support from both Democratic and Republican members of Congress, the law has stirred considerable controversy in the education community. Some critics argue that federal funding of education is insufficient to accomplish the goals of the law and that the law erodes local control over schools. Additionally, some education officials have warned that under the law’s strict provisions, many schools will be identified as failing even if they are making progress in most areas. However, other officials have praised the law for its goal of improving the academic performance of all students, including poor students, minorities, and students with disabilities.

鬼谷子UID: 159645

资料二：天才儿童的教育问题
Education of gifted students

适用题目：214 Society should identify those children who have special talents and abilities and begin training them at an early age so that they can eventually excel in their areas of ability.  Otherwise, these talents are likely to remain undeveloped.
我对题目的理解是天才儿童和一般儿童的区别，对学科发展社会发展有何好处，和对他们特殊教育的必要性，而且，是否应该at an early age就培养他们，还应该讨论是否不特殊教育他们就会remain undeveloped。

I  INTRODUCTION


Education of Gifted Students, area in the field of special education concerned with the instruction of students who have exceptionally high abilities. The United States Department of Education describes “giftedness” as exceptionally advanced performance or the potential for outstanding performance in intellectual, creative, leadership, artistic, or specific academic fields. Children who demonstrate outstanding talents come from all social, cultural, and economic groups.
算是天才儿童的定义吧，可以借鉴。

Educators believe that gifted students require special education services because their learning needs differ significantly from those of the general population. They learn more rapidly and are able to understand more abstract and complex ideas. They are also able to transform existing knowledge into new and useful forms, and to create new knowledge recognized for its originality, complexity, and elegance. Special education services and facilities for gifted children may enhance these abilities. In addition, some gifted learners may require special counseling services to address social or emotional adjustment issues that are complicated by their exceptional abilities.
我认为这一整段都非常的好，把特殊教育的必要性说的很全面，如果我们要写赞成的观点可以借鉴其中的观点然后展开。

Many regular elementary and secondary schools in the United States offer special programs designed specifically to meet the needs of gifted students. Some schools provide specialized education programs to gifted children exclusively. These schools offer advanced education in mathematics, science, technology, the arts, or other academic disciplines. 我觉得这样学科并列举例可以用在教育类各种题目里面，记住了写的时候就不用再想了。 Many school districts rely on intelligence tests to identify gifted students (see Psychological Testing: Intelligence Tests). However, most guidelines for determining giftedness recommend the use of a combination of standardized test scores (see Standardized Testing), rating systems developed by individual schools, classroom observational records, and performance assessments. 看到这里的考试挑天才的方法我突然想到，我们是否可以从社会或学校能否挑出真正的天才，手段是否公平和有效之类的方面说呢。

Because definitions of giftedness vary widely, the precise number of gifted students in the United States is difficult to determine. Nevertheless, according to a report of the Council of State Directors of Gifted Programs, 32 states reported providing specialized education services to a total of almost 2.4 million gifted students in 1990. Other states surveyed by the council did not report the number of gifted students served. Some states identified more than 10 percent of students as gifted, while others identified fewer than 5 percent.

II  PROGRAMS

Gifted children may study a specially modified curriculum or may progress through academic subjects at an accelerated pace. Acceleration involves adapting education programs so that students may progress through particular subject material quicker than usual. 特殊教育的好处 These modifications may take place within the regular classroom setting or they may involve changing the child’s placement in school. Some gifted children gain early entrances to kindergarten, skip grades, enter college earlier than usual, or take specific courses with older children. Ideal programs for gifted students consider the individual needs of children and offer multiple options for services. These programs generally involve both advanced course materials and acceleration.

Early efforts to modify the education of gifted children focused on providing early entrance to kindergarten, grade-skipping, and early entrance to college. Beginning in the 1960s these kinds of acceleration programs fell out of favor with some educators, who believed that putting gifted students in classrooms of older children had the potential to create social and emotional difficulties for the gifted students. However, in the 1970s American educator Julian Stanley implemented a highly successful accelerated academic program for gifted mathematics students at the middle-school level. His work documented positive outcomes of this practice and serves as a rationale for the use of acceleration in many schools today. Some special programs allow high school students to begin college early, including programs at the University of Washington in Seattle; Mary Baldwin College in Staunton, Virginia, where a residential program provides a unique acceleration opportunity for gifted young women; and Simon’s Rock College of Bard in Great Barrington, Massachusetts.

In the 1970s American educator Joseph Renzulli developed highly influential models for enriching the curriculum and instruction of gifted students. Renzulli proposed a definition of giftedness based on exceptionally high academic ability, creativity, and commitment to perform specific tasks. His Enrichment Triad Model and Schoolwide Enrichment Model are two of the most widely used models for developing programs and curriculum for gifted students in the United States.

III  DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIELD

Gifted performance in adults has been recognized throughout recorded history. For example, biographies of the 18th-century Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart generally emphasize that he was a highly accomplished musician and composer as early as age six. However, there were only scattered attempts to identify and study gifted children prior to the 20th century. In the early 20th century, American psychologist Lewis Terman conducted studies of gifted individuals that coincided with his efforts to develop intelligence tests. Terman originated the term intelligence quotient(IQ) and developed the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, which measured the intelligence of children and adults. His studies of children with high IQs formed a scientific basis for understanding giftedness and have helped to establish the dominant conception that giftedness is measured by a high IQ.

During the 1950s American educators called for broader definitions of giftedness that would also include such considerations as specific academic abilities, creativity, and talents in the visual and performing arts. In 1971 U.S. Commissioner of Education Sydney P. Marland incorporated these considerations into a report to the U.S. Congress on the state of education programs for gifted and talented children.

The Marland Report provided the first federally sanctioned definition of giftedness. It also led to the establishment of the Office of Gifted and Talented, a division of the federal Department of Education that provided grants to elementary and secondary schools that serve the special needs of gifted youth. The Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act of 1988 authorized funds to support innovative programs for specific groups of gifted students, such as minorities, economically disadvantaged students, and students with limited proficiency in English. The Javits Act also established the National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented to carry out research on students with exceptional abilities. Despite these efforts, gifted education receives relatively little federal funding, and there have been no federal legislative efforts to mandate services for gifted students.

IV  CURRENT ISSUES

Many educators advocate placing gifted students in regular classrooms with students of diverse ability levels, an educational method known as inclusion. However, considerable evidence suggests that regular classroom teachers do not receive the training and support to appropriately modify the curriculum to meet the needs of gifted students. Many educators also claim that minorities and economically disadvantaged children are underrepresented in educational programs for gifted students. At the same time, limited funding for education in general restricts efforts to nurture the talents of all gifted children.一些其他的观点，也许可以用到，不过我感觉有点另类。

鬼谷子UID: 159645

资料三：家长和社会在教育中的作用

适用题目：154 Both parents and communities must be involved in the local schools. Education is too important to leave solely to a group of professional educators.
我的理解是应该讨论学校，家长，社会在学生的教育中起到的作用，然后再衡量一下是否应该让家长和社会都参与到教育中。


Parents and Teachers, National Congress of, also National Parent-Teacher Association (PTA), child and youth advocacy volunteer group, the largest of its type in the United States, founded in 1897 in Washington D.C. The organization's stated mission is to support and speak on behalf of children and youths in schools and in the community, and before governmental agencies and other organizations whose decisions affect children; to assist parents in developing the skills they need to raise and protect their children; and to encourage parental and public involvement in public schools. 我找到的这个例子可以说明在美国重视家长和社会在教育中的作用，而且已经有这样一个组织来推动家长和社会参与到教育中。The organization is made up of branches in every state, in the District of Columbia, and among schools for American dependents in other countries. In 1993 national membership totaled about 7 million in some 27,000 local units. 这里说明这个组织很有影响。Headquarters is in Chicago.

鬼谷子UID: 159645

资料四：儿童的社会化

适用题目：130 How children are socialized today determined the destiny of society. Unfortunately, we have not yet learned how to raise children who can help bring about a better society.
我觉得最首要的问题是弄明白socialize到底是什么意思，我最开始就弄错了。讨论孩子的社会化是否与社会的命运有关。第二个就是要讨论我们是否有能力培养出能建设出更好社会的孩子。算是1＋1的题目吧。

Socialization, process by which people, especially children, learn acceptable and unacceptable behaviors for a given environment. 社会化的定义。

As they move in different social worlds, older children begin to grasp the informal rules for each setting and manage themselves accordingly. Children act differently at home and in the classroom, for example, calibrating their behavior to the expectations of others in each setting. They also learn to manage their emotions in social settings, looking undisturbed in the face of a peer’s taunting and laughing appropriately at a teacher’s joke. Social understanding develops in other ways also, as older children perceive family members, friends, and others as psychologically complex beings with their own emotions, motives, and perspectives.

Peer relationships become richer and more complicated in middle childhood. Whereas preschoolers master basic social skills as they play with friends, older children begin to face issues of acceptance, fitting in, exclusion, and social comparison in their peer groups. The nature of friendship changes in middle childhood to incorporate psychological closeness as well as shared activities, and friendships thus become more intense and exclusive. Children create a smaller circle of close friends and are more upset when friendships end. Friendships also coalesce into larger peer groups or clubs with their own norms for dress, vocabulary, hair style, activities, and behavior. These norms distinguish those who are included (and excluded) from the group and create strong pressures on group members to conform. At the same time, such groups can help children build self-esteem and social skills.

Socializing in middle childhood requires considerable social understanding and self-awareness, especially when conflict occurs. Older children can negotiate, bargain, cajole, compromise, and redirect conflict—such as through humor—in ways that reflect developing psychological understanding and social maturity. Not all children are so successful, however, and some become rejected by peers because of their aggressive, confrontational behavior. Developmental researchers have found that peers rejected for aggressiveness are impulsive and deficient in social problem-solving skills, often misinterpreting casual social encounters as hostile and considering few alternatives to reacting confrontationally. They also develop negative reputations. A rejected child’s lack of acceptance can, unfortunately, foreshadow long-term social difficulties if these problems are not remedied in childhood. 通过这些资料我们可以知道老外说的社会化是指儿童与同龄人的交流interaction，对环境的适应和学习等等的行为。

Parents remain central in the expanding social world of middle childhood. Although it is common to view peers as replacing parents in importance to older children, parents continue to support their children’s self-esteem, define and reinforce values, promote academic success, enable participation in neighborhood and community activities, and offer a sensitive ear and perceptive judgment. They are reliable cheerleaders as their children face the challenges of middle childhood and adolescence家长起到的作用。

poohUID: 146994

小鬼，好东西不少阿，继续哦！

CHERRYlbyUID: 170649

觉得好棒啊．还是要感谢！
ＰＳ：要是我作文能写成你那么好就好了．：）崇拜ing.
还有５天就上场了！！

债转股UID: 170835

东西是真好
however
记不住啊
那么大段的东西,很难用自己的话讲清楚
背又不现实

苦啊

HAHAHAUID: 162566

这些例子真好，但是就要考了，我和楼上有同样的感觉，

shuilanUID: 174302

great contribution!

gjlUID: 149396

顶!
还有吗?

ninjawangUID: 174533

多谢老鬼兄
谁还有,越多越好