<<INTERCULTURE COMMUNICATION>>的一些材料，希望有用

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这是我上的INTERCULTURE COMMUINCATION 的课中所用的外语教学与研究出版社出版的教材上摘抄下来的，由我自已录入电脑中的。



CHAPTER ONE  INTERACTION IN A CHANGING WORLD
1.The recognition of cultural differences need not result in hostile encounters.
2.Three international developments have made intercultural contact more axiomatic and pervasive:1)new technology and information systems .2)changes in the worlds population 3)a shift in the world’s economic arena
3.Interaction patterns between women and men are often problematic.
4.Therefore we contend that the school must teach them to work together ,not separately .
5.Expanded contacts in the educational and business sectors have led to increases in personal intercultural relationships.As a result of these new found friendships ,marriages between members of different cultures are on the increase.
6.The increase in intercultural contact has also resulted in increases in cross –cultural adoption .
7.Co-cultures  that ,for a host of reasons ,the dominant culture.
8.Every kindom divided against itself is brought to desolation; and every city or house divided against itself ,shall not stand .What is true of kindoms and houses is also true of villages
9. Most of the obstacles fall into two categories :1)failure to recognize the uniqueness of the individual and 2)the inability to be objective
10.We now know that the deep structure of a culture is often what detemines how a person responds to events and other people.
11.We are ,instead ,thinking individuals with the rationality and potential to engage in free choice .because we can continuously learn, we can develop the philosophic necessary for intercultural communication apply  them to the process of interacting with culturally diverse peoples ,and appropriately modify our perceptions,thinking ,and communicative behavior.
12.We stress that cultural generalizations must be viewed as approximations of reality ,not as absolute representations.

Chapter 2   COMMUNICATION AND CULTURE   THE VOICE AND THE ECHO
1.        Culture is learned ,acted out ,transmitted , and preserved through comunicatiton.
2.        the issue of intentionality and unintentionality(one of the reason difficult to locate a single definition of communication)
3.        Comumunication is a dynamic ,systematic process in which meanings are created and reflected in human interaction with symbols.
4.        Put more simply,setting and environment help determine the words and actions we generate and the meanings we give the symbols produced by other people.
5.        Other elements associated with the systemic(交通) nature of communication are place ,occasion ,time and number of participants.
6.        The largest system affecting communication is our culture ,which is the context within which all our interactions take place .The rules ,values ,norms,traditions,taboos,and customs of a culture all affect the other areas of the communication system.
7.        The act of communication produces change in people.
8.        A common beginning ,anatomy ,gender ,age ,culture ,and the like may bind us ,but our isolated mindsand unique experiences keep us apart.
9.        Cultural ,as well as individual ,differences keep us apart.
10.        our resolutions for each issue have their roots deep in culture.
11.        a successful intercultural communicator appreciates similarities and accepts differences.
12.        culture is everything and everywhere
13.        culture governs and defines the conditions and circumstances under which various messages may or may not be sent ,noticed or interpreted.
14.        All those who share a common culture can be expected to behave correctly ,automatically ,and predictably .Hence ,culture shields people from the unknown by offering them a blueprint for all of life’s activities.
15.        We define culture as the deposit of knowledge ,experience,beliefs,values ,actions,attitudes ,meanings ,hierarchies(等级),religion, notions of time ,roles ,spatial relations,concepts of the universe,and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
16.        The term enculturation denotes the total activity of learning one’s culture.(enculturation is)conscious or unconscious conditioning occurring that process where by the individual ,as child and adult,achieves competence in a particular culture.
17.        Although cultures change through several mechanisms.the three most common are innovation,diffusion,and acculturation.
18.        although many aspects of culture are subject to change ,the deep struture of a culture resists major alterations.
19.        Ethnocentrism takes on a negative condition and becomes “destructive when it is used to shut others out, provide the bases for derogatory evaluations and rebuff change.
20.        intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event .
21.        Co-culture when talking about groups or social communities exhibiting communication characristics,perceptions,values,beliefs,and practies that are significantly defferent enough to distinguish them from the other groups,communities and the dominated cultures.
Chapter 3   CULTURE DIVERSITY IN PERCEPTION :ALTERNATIVE VIEWS OF REALITY
1.        Our perceptions of the world are representations we make from both the nerve impulses that reach our brains and our unique set of experiences supplied to us as members of a particular culture.
2.        Belief systems are important to students of  intercultural communication because they are learned and hence subject ot cultural interpretation and cultural diversity.
3.        cultural values guide both perception and communication ,that is , our values get translated into action.
4.        cultural patterns ,which refers to both the conditions that contribute to the way in which a people perceive and think about the world ,and the manner in which they live in that world.
5.        cultural patterns ,which refers to both the conditions that contribute to the way in which a people perceive and think about the world ,and the manner in which they live in that world.
6.        the deep structure of a culture is resistant to change
7.        (individualism)the single most important pattern in the United States is individualism.
8.        Americans believe that all people have a right to succee in life and that the state ,through laws and educational opportunities should ensure that right.
9.        (progress and change) Americans place great importance on progress and change.
10.        the individual is the single most importune unit in any social setting ,regardless of the size of that unit, and the uniqueness of each individual is of paramount value.
11.        Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups.
12.        High-uncertainty-avoidance cultures try to avoid uncertainty and ambiguity by providing stability for their members, establishing more formal rules ,not tolerating deviant ideas and behaviors ,seeking consensus ,and believing in absolute truths and the attainment of expertise.
13.        Sweden,Denmark, Ireland ,Norway ,the United States , Finland,the Netherlands ,which have a low-uncertainty –avoidance need.
14.        What Hofstede discovered was that in some cultures ,those who hold power and those who are affected by power are significantly far apart(high power-distance )in many ways ,while in other cultures ,the power holders and those affected by the power holders are significantly closer (low power-distance)
15.        Masculinity男性 is the extent to which the dominant values in a society are male oriented and is associated with such behaviors as ambition,differentiated sex roles ,achievement ,the acquisition of money ,and signs of manliness.
16.        Cultures that values feminity as a trait stress cating and nurturing behaviors .A feminine world view maintains that men need not be assertive and that they can assume nurturing roles ;it also promotes sexual equality and holds that people and the enviroment are important.

Chapter 4  THE DEEP STRUCTURE OF CULTURE :ROOTS OF REALITY
1.        Although many intercultural communication problems occur on the interpersonal level , most difficulties and misunderstandings can be traced to cultural differences .
2.        Therefor ,world view is a culture’s oreientation toward God,humanity ,nature ,questions of existence, the universe and cosmos ,life ,death.,sickness , and other philosophical issues that influence how its members perceive their world.
3.        Religion ,as Nanda observes,deals with the nature of life and death , the creation of the universe ,the origin of society and groups wihtin the society ,the relationship of individuals and groups to one another ,and the relation of humankind to nature.
4.        the Bible,consisting of 39 books of Old Testament,written in Hebrew(希伯来) the 27 books of the New Testament ,written in Greek the Christianity ,for Jews(犹太人) ,the Koran(可兰经)  the Muslims  Buddha(Buddhists)
5.        We begin with Christianity , a religion of about a billion people scattered throughout the world.Christianity is also the dominant world view found in America.It is estimated that 86 percent of the U.S. population is Christian .
6.        Judaism(犹太教) Although Jews represent less than one-half of 1 percent of the world’s population,and only 2 percent of the entire population of the United States, their interest in politics ,the arts , literature, medicine ,and the law has ,for thousands of years , made them important and influential.
7.        Islam  Numbering in the order of 900 million adherents in a global population of 5 billion ,one person out of every five or six belongs today to this religion which guides human thought and practice in unparalleled detail.
8.        Buddhism is at once a faith , a philosophy ,and a way of life attempting to help the individual come to the end of suffering by discovering the true nature of reality –its impermanence , its inherent unsatisfactoriness, and its “emptiness”(四大皆空).
9.        Where as the Western view tends to place intellect and rationality above other traits,the Eastern view often maintains ,that “intuition transcends the data of the senses and the manipulation of the mind to perceive truths that seem to lie beyond reason.
10.        A Dualistic View(二元论) “where the western view is duaalistic(viewing mind and body as separate , as well as God and humankind as separate) the Eastern view is profoundly nondualistic.
11.        Cultures that foster individulism offer less support to the child ,and he or she must quickly learn to be self-reliant.
12.        History .We are also talking about a cultures’s formal and informal government ,its sense of community ,its political system ,its key historical “heroes”,and even its geography ,provide the members of every culture with their identity ,values ,goals , and expectations.
13.        In fact , twentieth-century China is still governed to a striking degree by ideas that first emerged two or three thousand years ago.

Chapter 5 Language and culture :words and meanings
1.        Language is the achives of history .
2.        Not only the symbols (words)and sounds for those symbols different,but so are rules (phonology,syntax,and  innotation )for using those symbols and sounds.
3.        Language is a reflection of the culture and culture is a reflection of language.
4.        We simply have many more ideas ,feeling and things to represent than we have words to represent them
5.        But when communication is between people from distinct cultures, different experiences are involvesd and the process is more troublesome.
6.        Cultures with this orientation tend to be concerned more with the overall emotional quality of the interaction than with the meaning of particular words and sentences.
7.        Our goal in this section has been to convey the fact that language is inseparable from culture .Culture influences language symbols and rules for using those symbols .As we have also seen .meaning is culturally determined.
8.        Traslators build bridges not only between languages but also between the differences of two cultures .
9.        Languages are not this simple ,and direct translations in many cases are difficult if not impossible because (1)words have more than one meaning (2)many words are culture-bound and have no direct equivalents(3)cultural orientations can render a direct translation nonsensical ,and (4)a culture may not have the background and understanding to translate experience specific to other cultures
10.        He or she must be able to translate a message so that others hear it as though it were the original message .This means that the interpreter must be skilled in more than vocabulary.He or she must also know the word’s emotive aspects ,as well as the culture’s thought  processes and communication techniques.
11.        If you are selecting an interpreter ,you should look for the following qualities or qualifications ,The first is compatibility ,second is ethnic compatibility ,third is knowledge of dialect ,specilized knowledge
12.        In summary ,women are primarily concerned with personal relationships when they commuincate ,but men are concerned only with getting the job done .Whereas women wish to include everyone ,men seek to establish their own status .Women’s concrete terminology often clashes with the abstact nature of men’s verbiage.Whereas women may engage in tentative speech ,men’s speech is characteristically assertive.Women’communiction is decidedly responsive ,while men’s communication is distinctly unresponsive.Women’s and men’s speech create the potential for misunderstanding and conflict between women and men

Chapter six Nonverbal Communication :The Messages of Action,Space ,Time ,and Silence
1.        Nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the enviroment and that have potential message value fro the source or receiver.
2.        Let us examine five of those uses (1)repeating(2)complementing (3)substituting (4)regulating(5)contracdicting  
3.        Most classifications divide nonverbal messages into two comprehensive categories :those that are primarily produced by the body (appearance ,movement facial expressions ,eye contact ,touch ,smell ,and paralanguage),and those that the individual combines with the setting (space ,time and silence)
in intercultural communication ,appearance and objects are  important because the standards we apply and the judgements we make are subject to cultural interpretations.
4.        Body movement:Kinesics     Kinesic cues are those visible body shifts and movements that can send messages about (1)our attitude toward the other (2)our emotional state (3)our desire to control our enviroment
5.        facial expressions,eye contact and gaze ,touch .paralanguage
6.        Whatever the case ,certain vocal cues provided us with information with which to make judgements about the characters personalities ,emotional states ,ethnic background ,and rhetorical activity
7.        Because time is such a personal phenomenon ,all of us perceive and treat it in a manner that express our character .
8.        A culture’s use of time can also provide valuable clues to how members of that culture value and respond to time .
9.        Cultures that value the past are also more likely to respect and venerate the elderly than are cultures that value the future.
10.        Monochronic and polychronic (p-time)classification         
M-time is characteristic of people from Germany ,Austria ,Switzerland ,and America.
11.        People of the western world ,particularly Americans,tend to think of time as something fixed in nature ,something around us and from which we cannot escape ,an ever-present part of the enviroment,just like the air we breathe.
12.        People from cultures on P-time live their lives quite differently.P-time cultures ,for example ,deal with time holistically.They can interact with more than one person or do more than one thing at a time.
13.        Silence cues affect interpersonal communication by providing an interval in an ongoing interaction during which the participants have time to think ,check or suppress an emoion,encode a lengthy response,or inaugurate another line of thought.

Chapter seven   Cultural Influences on Context :the business setting

14.        1  .context and communication     Social settings usually stipulate which rules are appropriate for a particular situation.
2.  the most successful firms in the gloabal arena will be companies whose employees not only understand world economics and global competiveness but who also have the ability to communicate effectively with international counterparts.
3.  Despite a recent move to a market economy ,factories and larger business in China still reflect past collectivistic characteristics.
4.  Because of the impact of social history ,business management in China is affected by interpersonal connections,which overpower the  formal organizational structure in many cases .Business contracts are often specified in legal terms but implemented relying on trust and  relationships between the parties involved.
5.  Once a meeting has been arranged ,it is important that the greeting protocol of the host culture be observed .
6.  Business card are exchanged in business settings but not in social settings.
7.  If gifts are given at all in the United States,they usually conform to the$25 tax deductible gift allowed by   law.
8.  Negotiation  North American ,Australian ,Swiss,British ,and Singapore negotiators value rapid negotiations,whereas other cultures such as China,Japan ,much of Latin America, and Africa prefer slower negotiations.
9.  Hong Kong negotiators ,perhaps because of their Western exposure ,tend to be more direct and quick-paced than negotiators from other Pacific Rim cultures.
10.  Business transactions in Mainland China continue to be difficult for any Western person,but particularly for women.
11.  People speaking different languages can create feelings of resentment among those who do not understand what is being said.

CHAPTER EIGHT Culture Influences on Context: The Educational Setting
1.  Educational Differences   By teaching a culture’s history and language to school children ,a society is reinforcing its values ,beliefs ,and prejudices .Each culture ,whether consciously or unconsciously ,tends to glorify its historical ,scientic,and artistic accomplishments and to minimize the accomplishments of other cultures.In this way schools in all cultures ,whether they intend to or not ,teach ethnocentrism.
2.  Field-sensitive individuals have a more global perspective of their surroundings;they are more sensitive to the social field.Field-independent individuals tend to be more analytical and more comfortably focus on impersonal ,abstract aspects of stimuli in the enviroment.
3.  Low-context ,highly industrialized ,individualistic societies such as the United States are predominantly field independent,whereas high-context ,traditional ,collectivistic societies like Mexico and Japan are field sensitive.
4.  Motivation style      As such ,motivation is a primary concern for the multicultural teacher who must employ a variety of  motivational techniques that coincide with the studentss’cultural backgrounds .
5.  Learing on demand versus learning what is relevant or interesting .All cultures require children to learn many things whether they  wants to or not.
6.  Because cognitive skills are best acquired through the native language , students who are more fluent   can translate for students who are not .
7.  Translation dictionaries are another means of helping students use their native languages skills to learn
    English.
8.  Selected assignments or activities based on this grouping may be helpful.
9.  Finally ,it is important to remember that children have the capacity to make rapid adaptations across
    vastly different cultural and linguistic systems.
10.  Cross-cultural Attitudes toward gender and education    As we point out, no major religion has      
    completely affirmed the full equality and dignity of women and treated them accordingly .
11.  Asian American students ,because of deep-stated values concerning rank and status ,will show respect               by not initiating conversation with their elders ,Even when they do not understand what is being discussed ,
they may remain silent rather than embarrass the teacher and themselves by lack of comprehension.
13.        This technology has the potential to transform the educational enviroment and resolve some of the
current problems in multicultural educaion.
14.        There will be a constant need for culturally sensitive teachers to build strong relationships with their
diverse students in order to facilitate the technology.      

CHAPTER NINE   CULTURE INFLUENCES ON CONTEXT:THE HEALTH CARE SETTING
1.        People who have grown up in different societies have acquired very different sets of knowledge ,
beliefs,values ,and attitudes concerning health.
2.        Many people of Asian origin (Chinese ,Fillipions ,Koreans ,Japanese ,and Southeast Asians)may view
Illness as a result of an imbalance between yin and yang.
3.        Just as cultures differ in their beliefs of what causes illness,so too do they differ in views of what
Consititutes proper treatment of illness.
4.        Religion,spirituality,and health care are often interwined.For many cultures ,religion provides solutions
And solace when one is in ill health.

CHAPTER TEN  ACCEPTING DIFFERENCES AND APPRECIATING SIMILARITIES A POINT OF VIEW
1.        The manner in which we face and respond to these intercultural contacts influences our lives in subtle
and profound ways .These contacts may bring us new friends whose cultural experiences we find     
exhilarating,and we can begin to understand alternative world views so that we can escape the tragic   
consequences of international conflict.
2.        We believe that improving intercultural communications is not only expedient,but also possible.
3.        Stereotypes were a means of organizating our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire collection of people.
4.        In most instances,stereotypes are products of limited ,lazy and misguided perceptions.
5.        Prejudice refers to an unfair ,biased ,or intolerant attitude towards another group of people.
6.        Power is simply the ability to influence others and /or the ability to control.
7.        When we are thrust into another culture ,by either chance or design,and experience psychological and physical discomfort from this contact ,we have become victims of culture shock.
8.        First,ethoncentric beliefs about one’s own culture shape a social sense of identity which is narrow and
Defensive ,second, ethocentrism normally involves the perception of members of other cultures in terms of stereotype.Third,the dynamic of ethnocentrism is such that comparative judgements are made between one’s own culture and other cultures under the assumption that one’s own is normal and natural.As a consequence, ethnocentric judgements usually involve invidious comparisons that ennoble one’s culture while degrading those of others.
9.        We need to develop empathy ---be able to see things from the point of view of others.
10.        If you cannot learn the language of the host culture ,you can at least try to master some of the basics that you can use for exchanging greetings and shopping.
11.        Learn to be open and flexible.   Learning how to be open and flexible helps “facilitate strangers”adaptation by enabling them to endure stressful challenges and maximize learning.
12.        Simply stated ,we believe that although there are cultural differences regarding specific ethnical behaviors there are also universal codes of conduct that apply to all people and all cultures .let us now look at those common codes.
13.         Diversity is rich. without being threatening for in the end ,people of all cultures long for the same things :a place to raise their children ,ply their trades ,and express themselves aesthetically and socially.
14.        Only by understanding other cultures and reflecting an intercultural ethic can we shape a future that is fit for our generation and the ones following .

[ Last edited by davidjacky on 2005-6-23 at 23:16 ]

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[ Last edited by davidjacky on 2005-6-23 at 23:13 ]

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