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前言:有关英文写作,想必大家在经历了一定时间的AW磨砺后都会有所感觉,至少能写出成文的句子,并把自己的意思很明确地翻译出来了。但这仅仅是一个开始,英文写作与中文写作中巨大的鸿沟造成了很多考生在自认为发挥很不错的情况下还是只能拿到3分到4分,即使事例很充分、观点很鲜明、结构很完整。
其中一个重要的障碍就是中文的低文脉(low context)和英文的高文脉(high context)之间的隔阂。我们看自己写的文章, 觉得什么都说到了,而且之间似乎联系很紧密,但由于时态、指代和表达上的问题,加上思想的随意性,很容易造成文章在别人,特别是英语母语者看不懂,理解不清楚,只能靠猜,这样自然就大大降低了阅卷官对其AW的印象。
鉴于此,鄙人写此文以提出自己对写作中精确表达意思及联系逻辑的一些看法,希望对各位希望能进一步提高自己英文写作能力,特别是AW应试能力的板油有所帮助。
PART A. 名词指代
这里说的指代有两种,一种是用代词、特殊疑问词指代前文提过的事物,另一种是用名词直接指代客观事物。前者由于存在诸多语法规律而比较容易掌握,基本语法都会的同学应该不会有问题,所以这里不再累述。而后者因为需要根据语境进行把握,所以相对较难。我们主要说这个。
上过新东方戴云教主旧托语法课的同学应该对一句话特别熟悉:“单数可数名词不得单独存在。”也就是说可数名词单独出现的时候,需要用惯词、物主代词或形容词前置。其中用定惯词表示前文所提过的事物或者一类事物,用不定惯词表示单一事物。惯词在这里其实是起到一个定义的作用,以防止句中的名词来历不明,有点类似于在计算机语言开始前定义变量的语句。这也说明了英文对于文脉的严谨要求,所有的词都要经过初定义以显示其所指对象,而在文中出现的名词也必有所指。因此对待第一次提到的名词就要特别小心,切忌天马行空按意识蹦名词出来。
举个例子(从本版第一页随机抽取,感谢houyanchun版友)
It is well known that the history of human beings is like a abundant and precious mine including various achievements which our ancestors have attained and all kinds of lesson ranging from policies to art which are waiting later generations to search and research carefully.
这是文章的第一句话,提到的名词都标出来了。history没问题,题目讨论对象,直接点出。human beings没问题,泛指世界人民。mine为比喻,由于用了like也比较明确,指自然界中的矿藏。achievements,问题有了,前文用到了mine,那么这里的achievements应该是跟mine有关,但这俩没有直接的字面联系,所以achievements应该是用来解释矿藏中藏的某些东西,换言之是个双重比喻,history-mine, achievement-?。ancestor用来限定和解释achievement的现实含义,没问题。lesson,问题又来了,除了和achievements问题类似外,lesson有教训、课程两种意思,这里指的哪个?从语句中无法判断,后面限定了是policies to art,那么似乎该理解成课程,可是是谁教的课程?mine? history? 无论对应哪个在字面上还是没有直接关系。至于之后的politics(政治,policies是政策的复数)和arts则更没有参照,属于无中生有,在题目规定了以history为讨论的大前提下,如何过度到这两个领域没有依据,因此显得没有逻辑。之后的generations和ancestors并列,似乎没问题,但仔细推敲也会发现,ancestors其实跟跟we(our)对比的,所以later generations应该指we,但如果这样直接用代词不就好了。
如果对每个名词都加以推敲,原文要表达的意思应该如下:
History of human beings is like an abundant and precious mine. It maintained treasures our ancestors left us, their arhievements and lessons ranged in diverse fields, from politics to arts, from sceince to humanity. Such a great mine is worthy searching carefully.
可以看出修改的部分主要是让所有名词都能找到它的对应点,一方面对句中,一方面对现实世界中。
名词指代精确的目的是为了让读者知道你所写文章所讨论的对象是什么,属于哪个范畴,因此在下笔先想好自己要讨论的事物,在写作中看看自己的表达有没有说清楚是这种事物,用到的词是否精确,如果不精确,就用从句、同位语、分词结构等加以限定、解释,从而达到精确表达的目的。
PART B. 句子语境
中文和英文一大区别就是中文没有时态,想说是什么时候的事情直接加时间状语修饰就行了。而英语对于句子的语境有着严格的规定,所叙述的情况发生在哪里、何时发生都要有所明确。由于大部分情况下语境都可以根据上下文判断,所以我们对这种要求不会很敏感,但写出来英文就容易给英语母语者造成困惑。如果说PART A在说的事情是词不能无中生有,那么这里所说的就是句子不能无中生有,空中楼阁。
还是先举例说明(从本版第一页随机抽取,感谢hardaway版友)
The speaker asserts that the growing significance of the video camera for its speciality of accurating and convincing will take place of the written records to play a main role of writing records. In my view, in some cases ,this contention is worth trusting in. While, the enduring development of the science for recording will not completely take all the room of documenting fields as long as the people's pursuit for contents of language wasn't vanish.
这里两个句子,一个在说在特定情况下如何如何,一个要说某样事如何如何,两句话并不属于同一语境,按照正常的逻辑规律,应该是in certain cases....while under other circumstances....而后面一句的主语在之前也没提过,发生在什么时候也没说,怎么发生的也没说,仅仅是以对应题目为要求的话又显得词义替换过大,所以会让人搞不清这句话在说的是什么意思。
整理上下文并定义语境后修改如下:
....In my view, this prediction may happen in some cases, like for vivid entertainment or surficial stimulation. But as long as our language does not disappear, the science of multi-media recording will only develop parallel to written methods, without taking away all their existence.
在这里把句子中的一项名词性动作换作一般动词,表示其一直发生,从而表达判断、陈述的意思。而some cases则经常重新定义,可以指向后文又不显得空洞。
说到这里就需要提一下各种语态的用法,也算是帮大家复习下:
现代时:包括现代进行时、一般现代时,主要用于叙述正在发生的事情、真理、判断等适用于任何语境的句子。
将来时:表示预测、计划等,同样可表示判断。
过去时:用于叙述过去发生的事情。
可以发现,使用过去时的时候都是要特指发生过的某件事情,所以这时对于时间的语境要特别注意,通常不加限定的话是指人类历史中的事情,而加了限定则特指某一段时间,这段时间需要靠之前提到的内容进行指定。
举个简单的例子(从本版第一页随机抽取,感谢ccbban版友)
At the very beginning, human did create machines to help us in some specific kinds of work.
这里的时态限定就不清楚,beginning of what? Modern history? Industrialization? Human history?
结语:
写了这么半天,主要是总结一下我在这一年来英文写作的一些经验,有看板油的作文想出,有从英文系的朋友那讨教过来的,也有从外国人那学来的,多多少少希望能给大家一些帮助,特别是有些不太习惯英文的严格写作模式,高中写习惯了小资情调的意识流散文的同学。
最后附上一份我的WRITING SAMPLE的修改,修改者是耶鲁大学建筑史教授,可以说他的修改很全面的解释了什么是英文的文脉,文章主题在讲估衣街的保护与历史建筑的话题,跟ISSUE26是同一个主题:
Preservation and restoration of historical buildings and urban spaceshas never been an easy issue. [This sentence is fine grammatically. It promises that you will explain how much more complex these issues arefor Guyi St.] During the past half century, China’s academic field may trulyunderstand this point:[There is a problem with tense here: "During the past half century"locates the 'time' of the sentence in the past 50 years. but the verb"may understand" is oriented to the future. Are you making a claimabout the past or the future here? Also, what is so important about the"academic field" understanding, rather than, say, the government, or thepublic, or developers?] after the republic was established in 1949, the conflict betweenmodernization and history propelled it to erase myriad relics fromancient cities.[you presume a conflict between modernization and history but don'texplain what that is. These are enormous terms with complex meanings butyou use them casually] Although experts have not stopped devoting their efforts to protectingthese cultural treasures,[There's another problem with 'time', that is, when are these expertsdevoting their efforts? Now, 50 years ago? Before 1980?] it was only after the 1980s that the history issue awakened theauthorities and forced them to seek better solutions than destruction.[What is the "history issue"? You use it casually but, as a reader, Idon't know what you're referring to. And how is destruction a solution?And if there are better solutions, what exactly is the problem?Preservation?]
修改后:
The preservation and restoration of historic buildings and urban spaceshas never been an easy issue. But in China, these matters areparticularly difficult. The founding of the republic in 1949 led to thedestruction of countless ancient monuments, as Maoist revolutionariestried to divert popular attention from the past to the future. Only inthe 1980s did architects in this country begin to address the loss of China's cultural heritage. However, many national treasures continue to be destroyed as a result not of culturalrevolution but record breaking population growth and industrial development.
最最后,想说的是,英文写作特别是AW和以后大部分留学生需要面对的学术写作,是一项严谨而科学的工作,在文章中推敲自己的表达完善自己的逻辑显得非常必要。希望这篇能唤起大家对这方面的注意,在实践中多想一个方面,并通过练习来提高,以适应未来所要面对的写作任务。
最最最后,感谢各位看完这么长的帖子……(喵的这小子有完没完啊,拖出去!…… |
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