【CASK EFFECT】1006G阅读全方位锻炼--难度【LSAT】1-20 补充知识

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Navajo Weaving
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Rugs,Rugs, and More Rugs!Most recent revision October 26, 2003

Since the Navajo people first acquired Churro sheep from the Spanish, weaving and sheep have helped define the culture. These represent some of the better pages available about Navajo Rugs. Through them, Tom Bahti's chart of weaving areas and dye charts showing what colors result from the use of which plants can be found. There are examples of rugs for all major weaving areas. From Scotland is a biography of Cozy MacFadden who was influential in helping to develop weaving in the central Navajo Nation. Included are contacts with traders and some weavers.
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More than Four Hundred Years Ago ...

... the first Churro sheep were brought into the Southwest by Don Juan Onate.

The fact that these sheep still exist today is a testimony to their endurance and endearment.

No other sheep population in the history of the world has survived such selective pressure with such dignity and  spirit.

Even though the Navajo-Churro breed still exists, it is considered a Rare Breed.

The gene pool is presently large enough to maintain the breed type with the diversity

of available unrelated lines. Fortunately for breeders, a well established network

of registered stock is available, scattered throughout the US and Canada.

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THE WEAVING

Easier - Weaving means to make cloth and other objects. Threads or strands of material are passed under and over each other.
Harder - Weaving is the process of making cloth, rugs, blankets, and other products by crossing two sets of threads over and under each other. Weavers use threads spun from natural fibers like cotton, silk, and wool and synthetic fibers such as nylon and Orlon. But thin, narrow strips of almost any flexible material can be woven. People learned to weave thousands of years ago using natural grasses, leafstalks, palm leaves, and thin strips of wood.  
Today weaving ranks as a major industry in many countries. Weaving is often completed on high speed looms. But weaving is not limited to cloth and textile products. Weaving plays an important part in the manufacture of screens, metal fences, and rubber tire cord. Craftworkers also use varied fibers to weave baskets and hats

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Navajo rugs and blankets (Navajo: diyogí)
are textiles produced by Navajo people (Navajo: Diné) of the Four Corners area of the United States. Navajo textiles are highly regarded and have been sought after as trade items for over 150 years. Commercial production of handwoven blankets and rugs has been an important element of the Navajo economy. As one expert expresses it, "Classic Navajo serapes at their finest equal the delicacy and sophistication of any pre-mechanical loom-woven textile in the world."[1]
Navajo textiles were originally utilitarian blankets for use as cloaks, dresses, saddle blankets, and similar purposes. Toward the end of the 19th century, weavers began to make rugs for tourism and export. Typical Navajo textiles have strong geometric patterns. They are a flat tapestry-woven textile produced in a fashion similar to kilims of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, but with some notable differences. In Navajo weaving, the slit weave technique common in kilims is not used, and the warp is one continuous length of yarn, not extending beyond the weaving as fringe. Traders from the late 19th and early 20th century encouraged adoption of some kilim motifs into Navajo designs.

PURPOSE
The original function of Navajo weaving was to produce clothing: "shoulder robes, rectangular panel or wrap-around-dresses, semi-tailored shirts, breechcloths, and a variety of belts, sashes, hair ties, and garters."[2] The Navajo did not produce rugs until export markets expanded at the end of the 19th century, and their textiles served no specific religious or ceremonial function.


Pueblo influence
The Navajo may have learned to weave from their Pueblo Indian neighbors when they moved into the Four Corners region during the period from 1300 to 1500,[3] though some experts contend that the Navajo were not weavers until after the 17th century.[4] Navajo obtained cotton through local trade routes before the arrival of the Spanish, after which time they began to use wool. The Pueblo and Navajo were not generally on friendly terms due to frequent Navajo raids on Pueblo settlements, yet many Pueblo sought refuge with their Navajo neighbors in the late 17th century to evade the conquistadors in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt. This social interchange is the probable origin of the distinctive Navajo weaving tradition.[5] Navajo people began to herd sheep from that time onward.[4]
The extent of Pueblo influence on Navajo weaving is uncertain. As Wolfgang Haberland notes, "Prehistoric Puebloan textiles were much more elaborate than historic ones, as can be seen in the few remnants recovered archaeologically and in costumed figures in pre-contact kiva murals." Haberland suggests that the absence of surviving colonial-era Pueblo textile examples make it impossible to do more than conjecture about whether the creative origins of Navajo weaving arose from Navajo culture or were borrowed from the neighboring people.[6]
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Early records
Written records establish the Navajo as fine weavers for at least the last 300 years, beginning with Spanish colonial descriptions of the early 18th century. By 1812, Pedro Piño called the Navajo the best weavers in the province. Few remnants of 18th-century Navajo weaving survive; the most important surviving examples of early Navajo weaving come from Massacre Cave at Canyon de Chelly, Arizona. In 1804, a group of Navajo were shot and killed there, where they were seeking refuge from Spanish soldiers. For a hundred years the cave remained untouched due to Navajo taboos until a local trader named Sam Day entered it and retrieved the textiles. Day separated the collection and sold it to various museums. The majority of Massacre Cave blankets feature plain stripes, yet some exhibit the terraces and diamonds characteristic of later Navajo weaving.[7]
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Weaving
Traditional Navajo weaving used upright looms with no moving parts. Support poles were traditionally constructed of wood; steel pipe is more common today. The artisan sits on the floor during weaving and wraps the finished portion of fabric underneath the loom as it grows.[27] The ratio of weft to warp threads had a fine count before the Bosque Redondo internment and declined in the following decades, then rose somewhat to a midrange ratio of five to one for the period 1920-1940. 19th-century warps were colored handspun wool or cotton string, then switched to white handspun wool in the early decades of the 20th century.[28]
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Folklore
Weaving plays a role in the creation myth of Navajo cosmology, which articulates social relationships and continues to play a role in Navajo culture. According to one aspect of this tradition, a spiritual being called Spider Man instructed the women of the Navajo how to build the first loom from exotic materials including sky, earth, sunrays, rock crystal, and sheet lightning. Then another spiritual being known as Spider Woman taught the Navajo how to weave on it.[29]
Use of traditional motifs sometimes leads to the mistaken notion that these textiles serve a purpose in Navajo religion. Actually these items have no use as prayer rugs or any other ceremonial function, and controversy has existed among the Navajo about the appropriateness of including religious symbolism in items designed for commercial sale. The financial success of purported ceremonial rugs led to their continued production.[30]


[size=+4]NAVAJO [size=+4]RUGS: [size=+4]STYLES ON THE [size=+4]RESERVATION

The map, showing where different designs of rugs were produced at different communities on the Navajo reservation, was prepared by the late Tom Bahti, in a large-format bookfirst printed in 1966, and reprinted many times thereafter. Bahti was a longtime dealer and collector of Indian art, and a recognized expert. His several books, beautifuly illustrated were among the best of their time. Several things are noteworthy about this ca. 1966 map. First, through a land claims process, the reservation's boundaries now extend a considerable distance to the east in New Mexico. Second, the several "utility" blankets (formerly used personally for saddle blankets, and home use) are no longer made; they are too much work, and collector-tourists don't want them. Third, pictorials are fancier now, less cartoonish, and more Indian in pictorial design. Fourth, there are now many more "Yeibichai" or so-called ceremonial souvenir small rugs, and some that mimic sand paintings. Though none of these are authentic -- the designs are inspired by the ceremonial processes, they don't copy them -- they are very popular with tourists. Originally, there was some opposition to these designs from traditional elders; this seems now to have disappeared. Rug designs sometimes have names (like the Storm pattern) and perhaps have inner meanings for the weavers. But the designs themselves are not symbolic, they have no significance. Although elements of sandpaintings and yeibichai dancers' regalia are used on the so-called ceremonial rugs, the rugs and the designs seen there are not used in any Navajo rites or ceremonies. " Ceremonial" is strictly a commercial category for certain design types. You can see current design differences -- and get a nice-looking, inexpensive poster for classroom or home -- in a modern poster, that uses photos of small rugs woven by Navajo Lula Brown, and artwork by Benson Harwood. This shows the reservation's outline filled in with Harwood's evocative pantings, overlaid with modern roads, a great many more communities than there were in the 1960's. Rug designs now are quite different from these older ones Bahti recorded (even if their names are the same). Bahti does say that individual artists did many variations, but the fact is that designs are no longer standardized as they were in the days when traders almost entirely controlled weavers' outputs.   The handsome modern poster -- celebrating the 50th anniversary of Navajo Arts and Crafts Tribal Enterprise -- is available from Toh-Atin Gallery (that's a Navajo word meaning "No water") for $10. Its title is "The Legacy of Spider Woman.." Toh-Atin has another $7 poster by Navajo weaver Ella Myers nice for classroom use that shows the plants used for wool dyes, where they grow on the big reservation, how the dyes are made, and what colors result. The plants are "mapped" onto a rug-in-progress. Toh-Ahtin's phone is 800/525-0384. They have catalogs of a great many signed and numbered prints by many well-known Indian artists' (price range $50-$200), and some economical posters -- for things like Indian foods, as well as announcements of art exhibitions. Toh-Ahtin does its own quality printing (supervised by the artists) of original-multiples, and of prints. These rug designs -- like the process of weaving -- postdate the Spanish introduction of fine merino sheep (all of which were killed in the period of the forcced death marches to Bosque Redondo). When U.S. traders settled in various isolated outposts on the reservation, they and certain collectors financially enforced certain styles. Some of these were good -- the use of traditional plant dyes, rather than harsh commercial chemical dyes -- but there was also considerable rigidity about what the trader would accept in the way of designs -- the ones known to please large buyers. As local governance and on-reservation financial control of Native arts and crafts marketing has gradually strengthened, rug weavers now have more freedom to take inspiration from the land, plants, skies, and their colors. Too, easier travel and better communication means that patterns traditionally associated with specific locations are seen and can be learned by weavers all over the reservation. Round Rock Navajo elder Ruth Roessel teaches grandaughter Jaclyn to weave. "This is who we are," Grandmother Ruth said. "The loom connects me with the sacred mountains, and a song connects me with my mother." As long as she has her loom, Grandma Ruth says, she is home in Dine Bekayah. Photographed by Monty Roessel for his book Songs from the Loom: A Navajo Girl Learns to Weave, Lerner Publications, Minneapolis: 1995. Weaving takes a long time, and it takes about as long, again, to prepare, spin, and dye the wool. Only pure wool is used for authentic rugs; those with cotton wefts are made for tourists. In addition to the continuing art of rug-weaving, the Navajo Nation maintains a mill and a factory that produces inexpensive wearing blankets (often seen at powwows) in several patterns. Hand-woven, hand spun and dyed shawls and men's serapes so tight they are waterproof are still highly desired (and expensive) for gifts. that will last and be both beautiful and useful nearly forever -- just like the best rugs. A 3 x 5' rug takes about 350 hours of work (if wool and yarn preparation is also involved), and longer if plant and mineral dyes are prepared and used. Handspun yarn gives these rugs strength and durability -- perceptible as part of their beauty -- far beyond what is obtainable by commercial mechanized processes for any part of the weavers' arts. Here are a few examples of Navajo rugs -- some current contemporary and some dating from the 1920's and /'30's: Dealer's collection from '20's and later. -- includes traditional Teec nos Pos, Storm pattern, Raised Edge, Two Grey Hills and a couple of optical "dazzlers" experimented with in the 1940's. A good selection of fine Navajo rugs in a variety of patterns. Weavers are not identified. Tree of Life - blanket design mechanically woven by commercial blanket-maker (Pendleton) -- Tony Abeyta's "tree of life pattern, " used on many contemporary pictorial rugs. Pendleton blankets are long-famous in Indian communities of the north. They were the suppliers of trade blankets for beaver pelt trade outposts. Pendleton was for a while a contender in the beaver trade. The short black marks on the trade blankets that are plain red, green, blue, or white with black stripes represent how many pelts that size of blanket used to cost. Though these blankets are mechanically woven, of machine-spun yarn, Pendleton has always maintained high-quality, tight weaves, very superior durability. So they have always been popular with those Indian people who could afford them, because their quality is recognized. You can see the other blanket designs from the icon at the bottom of the page here. These Indian artist-designed Pendletons are a "numbered edition" of 1200 each design ($425 each). Profits from their sale go to the American Indian College Fund, which provides direct financial aid to Indian students. AICF info reachable from the blankets menupage. The Penfield Gallery in Albuquerque carries rugs from the Shiprock area. Canyon Country Originals Affordable Navajo Rugs -- Being sold for several hundred dollars. The artists are identified. These weavers use commercial chemically died yarns. Many of the patterns are traditional types from the map above; there are also some pictorials of contemporary Navajo reservation life. Notah Dineh Trading Company: Navajo Rugs -- Two Grey Hills- -- a contemporary rug woven with undyed wools in natural colors to form the pattern by a male Navajo weaver -- a new tradition (women formerly were the only Navajo weavers, and did all processing of the wool for weaving) as fine small contemporary rugs start to cost -- like this one -- thousands of dollars.

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Navajo Rug Repair Co.

Navajo Rugs, Appraisal, Repair and Cleaning, Oriental Rugs

	History of the Navajo Rug Scholars and non-scholars have divided the chronology of Navajo rug and blanket weaving into many conflicting time periods.  A quick look at a few books that deal with period chronology will show a vast disagreement concerning these time periods.  The listing below is this author’s view of each important period of Navajo weaving in an attempt to place the development of the Navajo rug or blanket into the context of Navajo history and that of the United States.  It should be noted that these dates are not absolute but are a rough chronology with many instances of overlap and exceptions.  In fact, change was gradual and older styles continued to be woven even when new types of weavings had evolved.  This author contends that after 1868 the changing of styles was a continuum rather than a collection of separate periods.  For those who insist on separate rug weaving periods, below is one way of looking at them: Classic Period (prior to 1868) During the Classic Period, the Navajo wove utilitarian items of clothing (blankets and other items) for their own use and for trade to the Spanish and Plains Indians.  These items were woven using the wool from the Spanish Churro sheep introduced by Coronado in 1540 and again in 1598 by Don Juan Ornate.  The Churro remained the primary wool source for Navajo weaving from at least as early as the Reconquest of New Mexico in 1692 which ended the Pueblo Rebellion of 1680 until the "Long Walk" of 1863.  Included in items woven during this time period would have been the so-called "Chief’s" blanket. Through the course of the 1800's the Chief’s blanket evolved into 3 distinct styles or phases 1,2,3.  The design of the First Phase Chief’s Blanket consists of simple horizontal stripes of blue, brown and ivory.  The Second Phase blankets, appearing around the mid 19th century, included rectangular motifs within the horizontal bands.  Third Phase blankets have a diamond shaped motif in the center and terraced or serrated triangles at the sides and corners.  It is an interesting irony that the Navajos have never had tribal chiefs. Many could legitimately argue that the Classic Period ended much later than 1863.  In truth, there were quite a number of "Classic" weavings (blankets) made after 1868, but the beginning of the end of the Classic Period was in 1863 with the "Long Walk" and the internment of 8000 Navajo people at Fort Sumner, New Mexico.
	Classic wearing blanket	First Phase Chief's Blanket
	Second Phase Chief's Blanket	Third Phase Chief's Blanket
	Transitional Period (1868 to 1900-10) This period is when the Navajo were adapting from weaving wearing blankets to weaving rugs that were to be sold to Anglos.  The market changed from trading directly to the Spanish and Plains Indians to trading at the trading post. The Navajo people returned from Bosque Redondo in 1868.  While interred, the Navajo had become accustomed to manufactured clothing and new materials for weaving.  With most of the Churro sheep herds having been destroyed, they began to use commercially spun wool yarn and machine spun plied cotton string used for warp along with wool from the newly introduced sheep which were Merino cross breeds (14,000 sheep in 1869).  The commercial materials, including synthetic dyes, were provided by the newly licensed local trading posts.  In 1883 a more purebred Merino breed was introduced. The Transitional rugs/blankets produced during this period were coarsely woven and most were very brightly colored.  They are easily recognizable by the fuzzy thick wefts having been woven from the wool of the available sheep. Also produced during this time were "Germantown" Navajo rugs woven from 3 ply or 4 ply machine spun wool yarn, usually on machine spun plied cotton warp.  The name “Germantown” comes from the area near Philadelphia, Pa where much of the yarn is thought to have been produced.  These Germantown rugs were intricately styled and very colorful.  Some were so wildly colored that they are called “Eyedazzlers.” Germantown Eyedazzler Blanket / Rug
	Rug Period (1900 to 1930) The traders played an important role in the development of the Navajo rug. Weavers gradually transformed from the weaving of blankets to textiles suitable for use on the floors of Anglo homes.  Because the weavings were now being sold to Anglos as rugs, they had to look like what an Anglo thought a rug should look like.  An analogy might be a pizza in Germany; a German restaurateur’s idea of what Americans think Italian food should be.  Navajo weavings during this time were a trader's idea of the Anglos' perception of how Indian rugs should look.  The rugs had to have a border to be accepted by Anglos and, in fact many Navajo rug designs were very close copies of Oriental rug designs. Also because Anglos seem to equate weight with quality, there was the impetus to weave rugs of a heavier nature.  These heavier weavings were more like what was familiar to Anglos as rugs and could withstand the foot traffic in an Anglo home.  As can be verified by contemporaneous documents, traders actually sold most rugs by the pound.  Many of these "Pound Rugs" exhibit the expected lack of technical quality but many do have a unique charm. In the early part of this century traders like Don Lorenzo Hubbell and J.B. Moore were instrumental in promoting Navajo weaving and developing distinctive styles.  This period of time resulted in the further development of distint styles and the eventual rebirth of traditional designs and higher technical quality.  We now call these rugs, "Regional Rugs."
	Crystal	Ganado Rug
	Revival Period (1930's to 1950) The decline of sales of Navajo rugs has been blamed on a decline of quality and the introduction of French Rambouillet sheep.  While this may have something to do with it, one should not overlook the effects of the Great Depression.  The only market for Navajo rugs had dried up. This, coupled with the changing of ownership at many of the trading posts, resulted in a sharp decline of sales of Navajo rugs. The Revival Period brought life back to the Navajo rug business.  Mary Cabot Wheelwright along with Cozy McSparron of Chinle (beginning in 1920) and later, the Lipponcotts and Cousins of Wide Ruins (1939 to 1949) promoted the development of new vegetable dyes.  The rugs were generally woven in stylized Classic designs without borders.  Because the colors and designs fit into the fashion of many American interiors, and because the country was recovering economically, these rugs were a great success.  The Crystal Revival, Chinle and Wide Ruins regional styles came about during this time.
	Wide Ruins	Crystal
	Crystal
	Modern Period (post WWII) During this period of time we see the further development of "Regional" rugs such as the Ganado, Two Grey Hills, Teec Nos Pos etc., and an overall increase in the technical quality of the Navajo rug, at least in later years.  With the changing of American society after WWII, the market for Navajo rugs changed as well.  Dependable automobiles, Route 66 and new homes via the GI Bill all changed the demand for the type of Navajo handmade weavings.  The need then was for high quality but moderately priced Indian arts and cheap curios bought by tourists on travels to the west.  The rugs had be symmetric and very evenly woven with a bit more boldness in design.  Quirks in the weave and coloration, and design mistakes were no longer thought of as part of the charm.  The rugs had to be of a higher technical quality and therefore more exact and "perfect."  Along with these new parameters, there was also a demand for large size rugs, 6 x 9 and larger, to fit the newly acquired suburban homes.  Seven by ten rugs woven during this period are not uncommon.  There were many rugs woven during the late 50's, 60's and early 70's. The later modern period brought about the growth of new regional styles in the last couple of decades.  An example might be the Burntwater style using a quincunx design layout much like a Two Grey Hills but with numerous pastel colors.  Another example would be the even more radical new style that is called Newlands.  Bruce Burnham of Sanders, AZ, was the first to promote the weaving and sale of this style of rug.  He has also introduced new machine spun wool yarns and has worked to extend another new style that might be called a Germantown revival style. During the post WWII period, we can also clearly see the concept of Non-regional styles; rugs that cannot be pinpointed to a particular regional area.  While the idea of regionalism was always somewhat shaky, the economic development of the Navajo and all American people after WWII contributed to the exchanging and evolution of design ideas.  New roadways, dependable vehicles, telephone and, of course, TV all play a role in this evolution. Now there are rugs woven in non-traditional designs for display on a wall, not for use on the floor.  We can also see traditional styles woven in non-traditional places.  Today a Storm pattern rug might be woven in Ganado, Shiprock, or even Tucson.
	Ganado	Two Grey Hills
	Burntwater

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The Art and History of WeavingBySusan C. WyllyProfessor of ArtGeorgia College & State University It is my pleasure to introduce you to a glimpse of our weaving heritage. This presentation will include some of the vital historical developments in the area of weaving and will also acquaint you with a variety of loom types, starting with the prehistoric and moving into the more complex modern-day machine. A Brief History of WeavingWeaving is the systematic interlacing of two or more sets of elements usually, but not necessarily, at right angles, to form a coherent structure. No one knows when or where the weaving process actually began, but as far back as there are relics of civilized life, it is thought that weaving was a part of developing civilizations. Because of the perishable nature of textile goods, information found about the beginning stages of weaving is sketchy, and tracing the development of textiles is a difficult task and a tremendous challenge. Due to nature's hazards of erosion, climatic conditions, insects, and fire, few examples of early woven fabrics survived. Therefore, much of what is written about primitive weaving is based on speculation. There are, however, certain circumstances under which remnants of fabrics have survived: arid regions, bog lands, sealed tombs, and extremely cold areas. Because of these artifacts, we are fortunate to have some examples of early textiles and weaving tools. The everyday needs of our prehistoric ancestors probably led them to create objects using fiber as a medium. It is thought that ancient humans instinctively used weaving as an aid in their quest for basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing. It is not unlikely that people might have realized the possibilities of the woven structure after observing spider webs, birds' nests, or the construction of a beaver's dam. These findings probably led to the interlacing of twigs or vines, and resulted in netting which surely assisted humans in catching fish and trapping game. In addition, by using twining or braiding techniques, it is likely that primitive people learned to make mats to cover floors of huts, which helped insulate against dampness or cold. Eventually, people used weaving skills to make exterior coverings for shelters, so they would be somewhat protected from harsh weather and/or from predators. Archeologists believe that basket making and weaving were probably the first "crafts" developed by humans. Once primitive people learned ways of creating a woven structure, the possibilities were endless: netting, coverings for huts, containers for goods, carriers for the young, rugs, blankets, hammocks, pouches, body coverings. Along with our ancestors' ongoing quest for survival, there is evidence of an unconstrained desire by humans to embellish the objects created. The use of natural dyes on reeds or the combination of varying sizes and colors of weaving elements to create patterns, was likely an an attempt to express individualism and an aesthetic sensibility. Human beings naturally have a strong compulsion to be creative, and our records show that this trait was prevalent in our ancestors' lives thousands of years ago. Research indicates that cultures on every continent devised crude looms and methods of making webs, and further study tells that us there was great similarity in the looms constructed and in the weavings produced. The Prehistoric Origins of Weaving With modern sophisticated methods of radiocarbon testing and DNA testing, today's scientists are much better able to assign accurate dates to archeological findings than they were even a decade ago. The exact date of the first handwoven works, however, continues to remain a mystery. Nevertheless, there is evidence of cloth being made in Mesopotamia and in Turkey as far back as 7000 to 8000 BC. Since fabric remnants have been difficult to find, to say the least, some historians use other sources as guides in piecing together our textile heritage. One valued artifact is the funerary model of a weaver's workshop, which was found in an Egyptian tomb. This model contains a horizontal loom, warping devices and other tools, and weavers in action. We can also take note of the garments worn by the people. Ex. 1. Funerary model of a weaver's workshop. Egypt, 19th century B.C.E. Another artifact, which is highly valued, is the piece of pottery below with the imprint of a textile structure etched in its exterior. It is believed that an early craftsperson formed this pot by lining the interior of a woven basket with wet clay. Heat was provided to shrink and harden the clay, at which time, the basket fell away leaving its mark on the outside of the pot. Ex. 2, Neolithic pottery with weave imprint, found in the Thames near Mortlake; from the British Museum. Weaving in EgyptSealed tombs in Egypt's Nile Valley have brought forth fabrics dating back as far as 5000 BC. The predominant fiber found in Egypt was linen, a product of the native flax plant. A simple plain-weave pattern, an over-under stitch, was used for the construction of cloth. This plain weave structure was the dominant stitch until about 2500 BC. Wool was accessible in Egypt, as well, but was considered a fiber of the lower classes, namely, herdsmen and farmers. Wool garments are rarely found in Egyptian tombs. In fact, Egyptian law placed certain restrictions on the use of wool. One such law forbade members of the priesthood to wear wool next to their skin or to wear wool into a place of worship. Cloth make from wool was thought to be crude and irreverent. Fabric made with cotton was much more acceptable and has been found in Egyptian tombs, but cloth made with linen was always considered the highest quality material and was used in mummy wrappings of the aristocracy. Weaving in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia, located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, became the center for commerce and was known to have textiles of quality. Because of its location, Mesopotamia was a major pathway for trade and for other developing civilizations. Archeologists found Sumerian clay tablets dating back to 2200 BC, which provided evidence of a flourishing weaving industry. The Babylonians followed with weavers who specialized in certain areas of the craft. For example, embroidery became such an important textile art form to this culture that the technique came to be known as "Babylonian". Weaving among the ancient HebrewsAncient fabrics from the Hebrew world date back as early as 3000 BC. Many of the yarns produced by the Hebrews were multi-plied, up to 72 ply, and the Bible indicates that some garments contained threads made of gold and silver. Wool was used more than any other fiber in this area, white wool being the finest. Course wool, black wool, and horsehair were considered secondary. Hebrew priests were required to wear pure linen. In the Old Testament (Deuteronomy 22:11), we are given detailed information about the practices of early Hebrew weaving. One law stated that it was prohibitive to wear fabrics made from a mixture of linen and wool fibers. Another Hebrew law forbade married women to spin yarn in public places or to spin yarn at night by moonlight. Because of the active nature of the spinning process, such an act might reveal a woman's arms, and if this were to occur, it would give a husband the right to divorce his wife. Weaving in ChinaOne of the most fascinating stories in the development of weaving comes from China. Several legends have been told about the discovery of silk, but there is one that has become the most noted of all. In the 27th century B.C.E., during the reign of Emperor Huang-Ti, a disease began to destroy the trees in the royal mulberry grove, so the emperor asked his empress to study the problem. Empress Hsi-Ling-shi spent time in the groves and noticed that small white worms were devouring the mulberry leaves. The worms then would crawl to the naked stems below where they would spin silvery, white cocoons. According to legend, Empress His-Ling-shi took some of the small cocoons to her apartment for closer observation, and there one of the cocoons accidentally fell into a bath of warm water. As water was absorbed into the cocoon, the tiny pocket began to unravel revealing a delicate network of fibers. The empress pulled a small filament from the network and realized the fiber was a continuous thread, hundreds of feet long. In fact, one cocoon can contain a single filament measuring over 1,000 yards. With the discovery of the silk fiber, His-Ling-shi found the secret of acquiring a very rare and exquisite thread, one that could be used without first going through the spinning process. As weavers in China began using silk in many of their elegant garments and tapestries, and later, as fabrics began to be exported, people outside of China became envious and somewhat resentful of the discovery. Despite the interest and curiosity of others, the process of cultivating silk remained a mystery and a well-kept secret to the outside world for over 3000 years. Weaving in SwitzerlandAnother area where artifacts of prehistoric weaving were found was the region of the Swiss Lake Dwellers, a culture dating back to about 5000 B.C.E. Here archeologists discovered woven linen scraps and spinning whorls, an indication that this culture had advanced knowledge of the subject. Weaving in PeruWe are fortunate to have examples of early Peruvian textiles and weaving tools. Most of the relics, which date back to 5800 B.C.E., were found in burial sites. Tools were simple, but weavings show a great variety of techniques, including tapestry, embroidery, and pile weaves. Cotton was grown along the coast and was the predominant fiber used in the lower elevations. In the mountainous areas, the Peruvians raised sheep and llama for wool and alpaca. The Development of the LoomWebster defines a loom as "a frame or machine for interweaving yarn or threads into a fabric, the operation being performed by laying lengthwise a series called the warp and weaving in across this other threads called the weft, woof, or filling." Another definition, which is quite to the point: "A loom is the framework across which threads are stretched for the weaving of cloth." Since the warp functions as the backbone of the weaving structure, choosing a warp requires knowledge of the nature of fibers, in that warp yarns workbest if they have certain characteristics. The warps should be fairly smooth and should not have too many slubs or bumps. The warps should be plied yarns with adequate tensile strength, strong enough to withstand a certain amount of weight. Types of warp yarns used in historic times varied depending upon what plants or animals were native to a particular region. Cotton, wool, linen, and silk were favorite warp yarns of our ancestors and are still some of the most popular choices of contemporary weavers. Today's fiber artists use the same general principles as people during primitive times, for the fundamental aspects of handweaving have remained unchanged. Since many loom types have evolved over the centuries, we will discuss a selection of looms, starting with the simple and progressing to the more complex. Warp-weighted LoomIt is thought that the first looms, called warp-weighted looms, were vertical structures. The weaver would suspend fibers from a tree branch, which was parallel to the ground, or he might fashion a vertical loom using tree limbs and branches. Below is an image of a warp-weighted loom depicted on a terra cotta Greek vase. The picture gives us clear information about early loom construction, tools used, and weaving processes. Ex. 3. Terra cotta vase; Greek, 560 B.C.E. Warp ends were tied over the top branch and were then placed under tension with stones or weights made of baked clay. Initially, weaving was accomplished by walking back and forth in front of the loom, lifting one warp thread at a time, and passing the weft under and over the warps from side-to-side. Working against gravity, wefts were pushed up into place with the weaver's hands or with a crude comb. Since every warp thread had to be lifted by hand, the process was slow and tedious. In time, a large tapered stick was introduced and was used to carry the weft across the warp and to push, or beat, the threads up into place. Early on, this stick resembled an over-sized needle, but ultimately, it became the shuttle, a tapered device on which weft yarn is wound and which passes between warp threads. One of the most useful discoveries during the evolution of weaving was the realization of the shed, an opening in the warp through which the weft thread travels, resulting in a web. Initially, weavers had to raise every warp thread by hand and then pass the weft thread through bit by bit, but in time, weavers found ways to create sheds. One such way involved the insertion of a rod under every other warp thread. The rod, called the shed stick, could then be lifted or turned on its side, revealing a clear passage for the weft. The creation of the shed hastened weaving time, but the weaver still had to continually use one hand to hold up the rod in order to pass the shuttle through the shed. Horizontal Ground LoomThe horizontal ground loom, probably a spin-off of the warp-weighted loom, was another primitive weaving tool. Equally spaced sticks or pegs were driven fairly deep into the ground in two parallel lines. The lines were spaced several feet apart, depending upon the desired length of the fabric to be made. The distance between the pegs varied according to the type of weaving desired, and the width of the two rows also played a part in the size of the fabric. Winding the warp began by tying the warp yarn onto the outside peg in one row and then crossing over to and wrapping around the corresponding peg in the opposite row, and then back to row one, peg two, and so on. Constant tension in winding the warp was imperative for a successful weaving. Using a shed stick and one or more shuttles, the weaver would bend over the tensioned warp and weave from the one end to the other. Pit LoomSince the horizontal ground loom required the weaver to lean over to accomplish his task, this made for a very uncomfortable exercise. Eventually, the ground loom evolved into the pit loom, so named because the loom was placed over a pit which was dug into the ground. The weaver could now sit comfortably on the edge of the pit with legs dangling in the hole and be on the same plane as the loom. Click here to view a drawing of a pit loom. Frame LoomWith the development of the frame loom, the weaver was had a portable tool, one that was easily constructed and could be used almost anywhere. The loom was built using four sticks, attached at right angles, making it necessary for opposite sides to be equal lengths. The warp was wound by tying a warp thread to the top stick and moving down to the bottom stick, wrapping around it, and moving back to the top, and repeating this process until the desired width was achieved. The weaving could be done by holding the loom in one's lap or by placing the loom on a table. A shed stick could be installed to lift warps as needed. Click here to view a twentieth-century example of a frame loom. Backstrap Loom Eventually the backstrap loom was developed, and not only was it easy to transport, it was simple to construct. One end of the loom was attached to a fixed point, like a tree trunk, and the other was attached to a rod, which was held in place with a cord that passed around the waist of the weaver. By leaning back against the waist cord, the weaver could put tension on the warp threads and adjust tautness at will. Click here to view a diagram of a backstrap loom. Not only could the loom have shed sticks, it could also be fashioned with the slot-and-eye heddle system, a significant step in loom evolution. This tool not only gives two clear sheds, it also acts as the beater, pushing weft threads into place. Clearly, the heddle system was used on looms types other than the backstrap, but once again, we have no way of knowing exactly when this tool was used for the first time. The backstrap loom is still used today by Native Americans in the southwestern part of the United States and by people in Central America and Mexico. The loom is limited in complexity only by the skill of the weaver, and the entire loom with the weaving in progress can be rolled up at any time and carried from place to place. Foot-treadle Loom or Floor Loom The foot-treadle loom came about after many years of development and exploration. This loom employed a pulley and lever system and the slot-and-eye heddle system giving a clear shed and freeing up the weaver's hands. Generally, weavers today prefer floor looms containing foot treadles, which can rise and lower warp threads at will. With the creation of the floor loom, the shuttle carrying the weft threads could now be passed back and forth across the warp without interruption. Computer-driven LoomContemporary looms include several different types of floor looms, but the most progressive to date is the computerized loom for the individual weaver. A great deal of the weaving process involves numbers: thread count, length and width dimensions, harnesses used, numbers of treadles used, sequence repetition to create patterns, and so on. A loom is naturally a mathematical instrument, so it can easily be coupled with our world of computer-driven technology. Looms fashioned with computer systems can offer today's weavers limitless possibilities of techniques. Summary The journey through the history of weaving from the discovery of the warp-weighted loom to the present computer-driven loom is an interesting one. The world's civilizations have progressively developed the tools used in weaving from the tree-branch loom to machine driven multi-harnessed devices, and yet, the essence of the weaving process remains exactly the same, a very humbling and comforting thought. Weaving has also served as a powerful metaphor for life in the art, literature, and mythology of many cultures, and we shall continue our discussion of weaving by looking at some of these traditions. Please continue on to this discussion by clicking on the link to the next chapter on "Threads of Life."

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The History of Weaving

The origin and development of woven cloth is closely tied to the history of mankind. Thousands of years ago we developed the skills necessary to turn the raw materials around us into cloth for clothing and shelter. Weaving, the lacing together of threads and yarns to form cloth has developed over thousands of years of discovery and experimentation. Coarse fabric, made from grasses and leaves, was the first step toward the development of the textiles we use today. [[size=-1]SB] {[size=-1]WW}

The Development of String

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20,000 to 30,000 years ago early man developed the first string by twisting together handfuls of plant fibers. Preparing thin bundles of plant material and stretching them out while twisting them together produced a fine string or thread. The ability to produce string and thread was the starting place for the development of weaving, spinning, and sewing. [[size=-1]SB] {[size=-1]WW}