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标题: 1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by 中原527--战胜自己 [打印本页]
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-10 11:37:06     标题: 1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by 中原527--战胜自己

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-11 00:25 编辑

          明白自己的怯懦，所以我凭着一股热血先交了钱报G，不给自己留任何后路，一往直前。然后泡太傻寄托，突然觉得我很渺小，但更多的是感受到世界的宽阔，我想跳出来，跳出狭小的圈子里走向广阔世界。
     
      朋友问，有必要吗，在国内也可以发展得很好啊，我当时的回答不记得了，只是觉得那天的回答太浮躁，现在想来，我究竟要做什么呢，为什么选择出国，最初的契机是大二寒假猛地发现我身边的朋友一个一个地走了，觉得很不服气，但也只是个想法，真正开始考虑G却是9月初，我知道她这位绝顶美女的确很难泡到，但到真正接触，发现她比我想象更难搞定....我一个4级做足了10套真题才勉强过线菜鸟，突然要问鼎英语考试之王GRE，气势顿时弱了不少...但看了很多前辈的帖子，看着他们从非牛人到牛人的过程，确实非常之艰辛，但他们回顾那段时光，那种感觉，把我感动了，回想当初背红宝书，按杨鹏十七天大法修炼21天，每天基本只有5个小时左右的睡眠，剩下的除了吃饭如厕全部泡在单词堆里看得眼睛发胀脑袋晕乎乎的，好不容易看到最后一个单词ZOON，终于释脱了。难道我追求的不就是这种感觉，高三那昏天暗地的日子里熬到高考分数的出来的狂喜。而绝不是我现在回顾大一大二只想撞头的感觉。以前的我，是想安安静静地考研然后进入博物馆或艺术馆安安静静地工作，但现在不一样了，我看到了外面的世界，为什么不走出去看一看呢？于是，开始认真听课，然后，发现其实我们的专业课是多么地可爱啊。更加清楚地意识到自己与名校期望的学生差距很大，那又怎么样呢，一味说自己不可能然后在消磨时间中颓废下去混个毕业证混个硕士混个单位整个人生都是混的，那百分之零点一的可能性就变成百分之百的不可能了。能够笑到最后的，都是坚持到最后的人。
      
      考G，其实比的就是坚持，我最薄弱的一环，也是我最渴望突破自己的契机。只为，改变自己，使自己达到脱胎换骨的境界。只要我尽力，结果如何我也不后悔。我可以跟学弟学妹们谈起当年的我最痛苦也是最充实的时光，一如今天的我跟后辈谈起高三。


      目前水平：大三刚过4级（第一次失败第二次过线，好吧我是平民不是牛人，乌龟也有乌龟的执着，草木的要求是凡是不按照规则来的人，全部淘汰，清零为止，在这里我感觉是，这潜台词不是比我们有多牛的水平，而是，要比谁能按照规则坚持到最后的水平[不知草木是不是这样理解的]）
                       万事开头词汇必备：9月底十月初按杨鹏大法修炼完红宝书第一遍，后来因为去外地考察中断了一段时间回来后发现大部分看着眼熟就想不起那些可爱的单词是啥意思，简直要抓狂了，决定用新东方背单词第五版，唉，杨鹏大法后遗症造就那些单词还是眼熟些，过起来就比较快了，最喜欢玩单词速降，那高正确率看着确实很鼓励自己，第二遍正在过中。
                       新概念：大二下断断续续背了30多篇（不用说，现在我都忘光了）最近才背了两篇新概念4，决定在这里一改过去的囫囵吞枣态度，好好分析好句子的用法。不求最多求最精。
                       新东方：刚上完新东方GRE基础班，恍恍惚惚不知道听了啥...（建议各位4级水平左右的不用报了，我个人感觉那银子花得不值....可能是地方的缘故吧）
                        
       关于草木的学习贴决定今晚回来研究再发表心得

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-10 23:26:52

怎么空此层给版主啊....
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-10 23:33:09

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-10 23:37 编辑

由于今天晚上一些家里事乱七八糟的，拖到9点多才开始
做了主谓一致习题，把自己不太熟悉的概念挑出来了，俺不怕丢脸展示自己的水平，只有正确认识自己的不足，不能疏忽任何小问题，把以前的大而化之的毛病改掉。
1.当主语由and连结时，如果它表示一个单一的概念，即指同一人或同一物时，谓语动词用单数，and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。
2.there be ，with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 就近原则
3.集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry等在任何情况下都用复数形式。
4.有些名词，如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数，有时看作复数。
   A number of +名词复数+复数动词。
   The number of +名词复数+单数动词。
   A number of books have lent out.
    The majority of the students likes English.
5.用half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等词引起主语时，动词通常与of后面的名词，代词保持一致。
在一些短语，如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时，谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时，动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。
6.all of，most of，half of，the rest of，以及a lot of，some，any+名词作主语时，要根据后面的名词确定谓语动词的单复数。
7.this kind of，a piece of，a bag of，a box of等，这类短语作主语时谓语动词的单复数由这些短语中的名词决定,而与它们所修饰的名词无关。
自己对时间介词问题总是模模糊糊的，感谢草木在此给出了速记歌~~~
二、时间名词前所用介词的速记歌
年月周前要用in，日子前面却不行。
遇到几号要用on，上午下午又是in。
要说某日上下午，用on换in才能行。
午夜黄昏须用at，黎明用它也不错。
at也用在明分前，说“差”可要用上to，
说“过”只可使用past，多说多练牢牢记，
莫让岁月空蹉跎。
草木还强烈推荐米饭袜子日志，跑去观摩，发现SILENTWINGS教你写GRE句子帖子https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=328073似乎还挺不错，看看，自己在这方面还确实很有的一补
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-10 23:58:57

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-11 00:20 编辑

基础写作第一部分
20拷问题，主要是围绕X是什么
其实思路有点类似于高中政治老师老是跟我们强调分析问题从三方面入手：是什么（除了4，5，7，8，10，14，20题以外都是此类型），为什么（4，5，7，14），怎么样
1. What does X mean? (Definition)
指出问题
2. What are the various features of X? (Description)
该事物的多样特征（有助于在ISSUE展开思维）
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)
该事物由哪几部分构成（明确自己的思路）
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)
主要分析此事物是怎样产生的
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)
此问不太理解和上一句有什么区别...
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)
此事物最主要的功能
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis) BE EACW
产生此事物的主要原因（充实自己的文章构思）
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)
产生事物的后果（这个似乎是驳论的时候常用的思路吧）
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)
确立此事物的类型~相当于把他划为好人派还是坏人派然后支持好人抨击坏人呵呵呵~
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)
比较X与Y（）
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)
该事物目前状况如何
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)
该事物的重要性（先说明此点，然后分论点说明吧）
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)
举例说明~
14. How did X happen? (Narration)
和第7问没什么区别吧
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)
定性某人的类型~
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)
16和17都是个人对该事物的主观看法（要学会自主思考）
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)
和第12问类似吧
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)
还是和第12，18问类似
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)
支持或反对该事物的例子~（要多多收集好例子~寄托常推荐PHOON百宝箱，我下了还没仔细研究）
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-11 23:49:07

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-12 01:09 编辑

首先祝自己光棍节快乐....
0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二期——情态动词https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=960678&highlight=
还是总结自己不熟悉的地方，打印，随时复习
1）只用be able to
a. 位于助动词后。
b. 情态动词后。
c. 表示过去某时刻动作时。（一看到这句，顿时想could难道不是表示过去某时刻吗，继续后看才明白。。。）
d. 用于句首表示条件。
e. 表示成功地做了某事时，只能用was/were able to， 不能用could。
He was able to flee Europe before the war broke out.
= He managed to flee Europe before the war broke out.

2）注意：could不表示时态（以前一直以为这个表示过去式呢。。。）
1）提出委婉的请求，（注意在回答中不可用could）。
--- Could I have the television on?
--- Yes, you can. / No, you can't.
2）在否定，疑问句中表示推测或怀疑。
He couldn't be a bad man.
他不大可能是坏人。
3)成语： may/might as well，后面接不带to 的不定式，意为"不妨"。
4)may 放在句首，表示祝愿。
5)在否定结构中： don't have to 表示"不必"
6)mustn't表示"禁止"，否定推测用 can't。
7)must表对现在的状态或现在正发生的事情的推测时， must 后面通常接系动词be 的原形或行为动词的进行式。
8) ——表示推测的用法 (看完后发现没有情态动词+过去时，而是直接用情态动词+动词完成时说明对过去情况的推测)

can, could, may, might, must 皆可表示推测，其用法如下：
1）情态动词+动词原形。
表示对现在或将来的情况的推测，此时动词通常为系动词。
I don't know where she is, she may be in Wuhan.
2）情态动词+动词现在进行时。
表示对现在或将来正在进行的情况进行推测。
At this moment, our teacher must be correcting our exam papers.
这时，我们老师想必在批改试卷。
3）情态动词+动词完成时。
表示对过去情况的推测。
We would have finished this work by the end of next December.
明年十二月底前我们很可能已完成这项工作了。
The road is wet. It must have rained last night.
地是湿的，昨天晚上一定下雨了。
4）情态动词+动词的现在完成进行时。
表示对过去正在发生事情的推测。
Your mother must have been looking for you.
你妈妈一定一直在找你。
5）推测的否定形式，疑问形式用can't, couldn't表示。
Mike can't have found his car, for he came to work by bus this morning.
迈克一定还没有找回他的车，因为早上他是坐公共汽车来上班的。
注意：could, might表示推测时不表示时态，其推测的程度不如 can, may。
9）除表示推测外的用法
1) ought to have done sth, should have done sth
本应该做某事，而事实上并没有做。否定句表示"不该做某事而做了"。
You ought to (should) have been more careful in this experiment.
He ought not to have thrown the old clothes away.（事实上已扔了。）
ought to 在语气上比should 要强。
2) needn't have done sth 本没必要做某事
I dressed very warmly for the trip, but Ineedn't have done so. The weather was hot.
3) would like to have done sth 本打算做某事
I would like to have read the article, but I was very busy then.
10）had better have done sth表示与事实相反的结果，意为"本来最好"。
You had better have come earlier.
would sooner, had rather, had sooner都表示"宁愿"、"宁可"的意思。
If I have a choice, I had sooner not continue my studies at this school.
I would rather stay here than go home. = I would stay here rather than go home.
11）情态动词回答方式
3）---Don't forget to come to my birthday party tomorrow.
---______.
A. I don't B.I won't C. I can't D. I haven't
答案B. will既可当作情态动词，表请求、建议、也可作为实义动词表"意愿、意志、决心"，本题表示决心，选B。（俺一开始选A了。。。）
13）—— 带to 的情态动词 （注意时态问题！）

Tom ought not to ___ me your secret, but he meant no harm.
A.have told    B.tell    C.be telling     D. having told
答案A。由于后句为过去时，告诉秘密的动作又发生在其前因，此地应用过去完成时，但它在情态动词 ought to 后，所以用 have。
14） ——比较need和dare
这两词既可做实义动词用，又可做情态动词用。作为情态动词，两者都只能用于疑问句，否定句和条件句。 need 作实义动词时后面的不定式必须带to，而dare作实义动词用时, 后面的to 时常可以被省略。
1) 实义动词： need（需要, 要求）
need + n. / to do sth
2) 情态动词： need，只用原形need后加do，否定形式为need not。
Need you go yet?
Yes, I must. / No, I needn't.
3) need 的被动含义：need, want, require, worth（形容词）后面接doing也可以表示被动：
need doing = need to be done（我的知识盲点）

情态动词在托福写作中的运用
首先是情态动词，尤其是Will的漏掉。中国考生受汉语影响，一提到“将来”才会有意识地用will, (确实哦...我就是这样的人)实际上will可以表达“能、将、会、要、就”等多种意义。只是涉及到这样的地方很多学员就把这几个词当作虚词忽略掉了，以至于经常出现“观点”与“事实”不分的句子, 如：
Riding bicycles reduces air pollution.
如果没有情态动词，这个句子就是一个表示目前存在的状态或者事实，而不表示个人对骑自行车的评价。
其它的常见的漏用还体现在与if引导的状语从句一起连用的主句中， so that或者 in order that引导的从句，或者是与without, in case of等介词短语连用的主句，不论条件还是目的都是写作中经常出现的句式。

其次是情态动词的误用，主要问题是中国学生在亮观点时对“can”情有独钟，而英式的学风历来讲究严谨，像can 这样语气过于绝对的表达最好换成may/ will, 或者是语气更委婉的might/would probably等，同时还要搭配一定程度的副词，如：
indulgence in computer games can lead to social violence especially of teenagers.上句中can不如might用起来更加客观，因为几乎每个小孩都玩游戏，但绝不是每个人都会犯罪。
另外一个容易误用的词是should，多表示根据社会风俗习惯个人的责任，而在比较正式的议论文写作中，多数句子是以客观事物做主语的， 所以用should就有些不太恰当，如：
To tackle the problem of youth crimes related with computer games, advertisement enterprises should restrict the large-scale promotion.
一般我们会用另外一个更客观性的短语be to do来代替， 或者是shall，但是这里的shall不是用于第一人称后的将来时符号，而表示的是一种情态。
至于must, 因为语气实在强硬，所以一般在社会性的问题的论述上我们要慎用，建议多换成need/ shall/ be to do 或者是be expected to do形式。如：
To help students get better employment, universities must increase the skillful courses.

只知道情态动词的中文意思和固定用法还不够，还必须在实践当中学会融会贯通它们更加细微的用法
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-12 23:58:16

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-13 00:21 编辑

Coping with Writing Anxiety
主要是讲如何在考场上缓解自己过于紧张的心态
适度的紧张是能促进大脑处理事物效率的提高，在考场上要正面认识紧张的存在
这里也提供了一些舒缓压力的办法，呵呵，其实，怎么说呢，自己觉得怎么弄舒服就怎么弄就OK，伸个懒腰懒腿之类~

Many situations or activities, such as writing, taking tests, competing in sports, or speaking before a large audience, may make us anxious or apprehensive. It's important to remember that a moderate（中等的，适度的） level of anxiety is helpful and productive. That flow of adrenaline （肾上腺素）is a natural response that helps get us ready for action. Without it, we might not perform as well.

If we let our anxiety overwhelm us, it can cause problems. If we control that anxiety, however, we can make it work for us. One way to do that is to use some of the coping strategies listed below.

1

Coping Strategies:

•        Focus your energy by rehearsing the task in your head.
•        Consciously stop the non-productive comments（没用的思路） running through your head by replacing them with productive ones.
•        If you have some "rituals（仪式）" for writing success, use them. (恍然想起当年高考啊，图个吉祥，兜里放着几把火柴，胸前挂着马图案的挂饰。。。据说是妈妈听某个道行高深的道士还是和尚的推算有助于运势，后来事实证明，这也许这道士还是和尚颇有两把刷子。)
Examples:

•        -Follow a protocol you may have for organizing your time. Use a favorite pen if you have one. （回忆模板，摸摸自己的幸运物）
•        -Spend a few minutes doing some relaxation exercises. （做运动）
•        -Take a break: physically walk away from the situation for a few minutes if you can. （溜达溜达）

Relaxation Strategies

•        Stretch伸展! If you can't stand up, stretch as many muscle groups as possible while staying seated. （不要吓到邻座...）
•        Try tensing and releasing various muscle groups. Starting from your toes, tense up（紧张） for perhaps five to ten seconds and then let go. Relax and then go on to another muscle group.
•        Breathe deeply. Close your eyes; then, fill your chest cavity slowly by taking four of five short deep breaths. Hold each breath until it hurts, and then let it out slowly.
•        Use a calming word or mental image to focus on while relaxing. If you choose a word, be careful not to use an imperative. Don't command yourself to "Calm down!" or "Relax!"（呵呵，越是要自己不紧张反而会觉得更紧张~）
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-13 23:36:27

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-14 00:53 编辑

Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block  对于神经性写作便秘的症状介绍及治疗建议


（一看这题目太好玩了哈哈哈）



Because writers have various ways of writing, a variety of things can cause a writer to experience anxiety, and sometimes this anxiety leads to writer's block. Often a solution can be found by speaking with your instructor (if you are in school), or a writing tutor. There are some common causes of writer's block, however, and when you are blocked, consider these causes and try the strategies that sound most promising:



Symptom



You have attempted to begin a paper without doing any preliminary work such as brainstorming or outlining...



Possible Cures



Use invention strategies suggested by a tutor or teacher
Write down all the primary ideas you'd like to express and then fill in each with the smaller ideas that make up each primary idea. This can easily be converted into an outline
Symptom



You have chosen or been assigned a topic which bores you....



Possible Cures



Choose a particular aspect of the topic you are interested in (if the writing situation will allow it...i.e. if the goal of your writing can be adjusted and is not given to you specifically, or if the teacher or project coordinator will allow it)
Talk to a tutor about how you can personalize a topic to make it more interesting
Symptom



You don't want to spend time writing or don't understand the assignment...



Possible Cures



Resign yourself to the fact that you have to write
Find out what is expected of you (consult（请教，商量） a teacher, textbook, student, tutor, or project coordinator)
Look at some of the strategies for writing anxiety listed below
Symptom



You are anxious about writing the paper...



Possible Cures



Focus your energy by rehearsing the task in your head.
Consciously stop the non-productive comments running through your head by replacing them with productive ones.
If you have some "rituals" for writing success (chewing gum, listening to jazz etc.), use them.
Symptom



You are so stressed out you can't seem to put a word on the page...



Possible Cures



Stretch! If you can't stand up, stretch as many muscle groups as possible while staying seated.
Try tensing and releasing various muscle groups. Starting from your toes, tense up for perhaps five to ten seconds and then let go. Relax and then go on to another muscle group.
Breathe deeply. Close your eyes; then, fill your chest cavity slowly by taking four of five short deep breaths. Hold each breath until it hurts, and then let it out slowly.
Use a calming word or mental image to focus on while relaxing. If you choose a word, be careful not to use an imperative（命令的，强制性的，紧急的，必要的）. Don't command yourself to "Calm down!" or "Relax!"
Symptom



You're self-conscious about your writing, you may have trouble getting started. So, if you're preoccupied with the idea that you have to write about a subject and feel you probably won't express yourself well...



Possible Cures



Talk over the subject with a friend or tutor.
assure yourself that the first draft doesn't have to be a work of genius, it is something to work with.
Force yourself to write down something, however poorly worded, that approximates your thought (you can revise this later) and go on with the next idea.
Break the task up into steps. Meet the general purpose first, and then flesh out the more specific aspects later.
Try one of the strategies on the next page of this resource.
Other Strategies for Getting Over Writer's BlockIf you have tried the other strategies and are still having problems, try some of these general techniques for getting over writer's block. These strategies will prove more helpful when you're drafting your writing.
Begin in the MiddleStart writing at whatever point you like. If you want to begin in the middle, fine. Leave the introduction or first section until later. The reader will never know that you wrote the paper "backwards." Besides, some writers routinely save the introduction until later when they have a clearer idea of what the main idea and purpose of the piece will be.
Talk Out the PaperTalking feels less artificial than writing to some people. Talk about what you want to write someone—your teacher, a friend, a roommate, or a tutor. Just pick someone who's willing to give you fifteen to thirty minutes to talk about the topic and whose main aim is to help you start writing. Have the person take notes while you talk or tape your conversation. Talking will be helpful because you'll probably be more natural and spontaneous in speech than in writing. Your listener can ask questions and guide you as you speak, and you'll be more likely to relax and say something unpredictable than if that you were sitting and forcing yourself to write.
Tape the PaperTalk into a tape recorder, imagining your audience sitting in front of you. Then, transcribe the tape-recorded material. You'll at least have some ideas written down to work with and move around（下划线此处是啥意思？）.
Change the AudiencePretend that you're writing to a child, to a close friend, to a parent, to a person who sharply disagrees with you, or to someone who's new to the subject and needs to have you explain your paper's topic slowly and clearly. Changing the audience can clarify your purpose and can also make you feel more comfortable and help you write more easily.（多交流，同一话题不同人有不同人的意见~）
Play a RolePretend you are someone else writing the paper. For instance, if you have been asked to write about sexist advertising, assume you are the president of the National Organization of Women. Or, pretend you are the president of a major oil company asked to defend the high price of oil. Consider being someone in another time period, or someone with a wildly different perspective from your own. Pulling yourself out of your usual perspective can help you see things that are otherwise invisible or difficult to articulate, and your writing will be stronger for it.（置身其境，站在别人的立场上想问题，有助于理清思路）

(Many of these ideas are from Peter Elbow's Writing with Power, [Ch. 8; 59-77] and Mack Skjei's Overcoming Writing Blocks.)
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-14 13:53:24

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-14 14:23 编辑

定冠词的用法
注意.   “the+姓氏复数”作主语（表示某某一家人，某某夫妇），谓语动词用复数。 例如：     
The Greens are watching TV at the moment. 格林一家人现在正在看电视。     
The Whites do their cooking at home only at the weekend. 怀特夫妇仅在周末才在家做饭。      
⑨用在乐器前面。例如：     
the piano 钢琴   the violin 小提琴  
(12)用在表示方向的名词前。例如：     
in the east 在东方 in the west 在西部     
(13)用在单数可数名词前表示一类人或物。例如：     
The tree is a kind of plant. 树是一种植物。     
The camel is a useful animal. 骆驼是一种有用的动物。
⑤用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前。例如：     
the Summer Palace 颐和园 the Communist Party of China 中国共产党  the People’s   Republic of China 中华人民共和国   the Great Wall 长城 the Olympic Games 奥林匹克运动会     
(14)the常用于一些固定搭配中。例如：     
in the morning 在早上（上午） in the early morning 一大清早     
in the evening 在晚上 in the beginning 在开头（端）     
in the afternoon 在下午 by the way 顺便问     
in the end 最后，终于 the next day 第二天     
at the end of 在……快结尾的时候 the day after tomorrow 后天     

零冠词
1.在专有名词和不可数名词前。例如，Class Two，Tian’an Men Square，water（注意与上文专有名词的区别）
3.复数名词表示一类人或事物时。例如，They are teachers.
4.在星期，月份，季节，节日前。例如：on Sunday，in March，in spring，on Women’s Day
(特例：如果月份，季节等被一个限定性定语修饰时，则要加定冠词：He joined the Army in the spring of 1982.)
6.在学科名称，三餐饭和球类运动名称前。例如：I have lunch at school every day.
特例：当football，basketball指具体的某个球时，其前可以用冠词：I can see a football.我可以看到一只足球。Where’s the football？那只足球在哪儿？(指足球，并非“球类运动”)
7.在表特定的公园，街道，车站，桥，学校等之前。例如：No.25 Middle School
8.某些固定词组中不用冠词。
(1)与by连用的交通工具名称前：by bus\by car\ by bike\ by train\by air\by plane\ by sea\by ship，但take a bus，in a boat，on the bike前需用冠词
(2)名词词组：day and night日日夜夜；brother and sister兄弟姐妹;hour after hour时时刻刻；here and there到处
六.用与不用冠词的差异

in hospital住院/in the hospital在医院里
go to sea出海/go to the sea去海边
on earth究竟/on the earth在地球上，在世上
in front of在……(外部的)前面/in the front of在……(内部的)前面
take place发生/take the place(of)代替
at table进餐/at the table在桌子旁
by sea乘船/by the sea在海边
in future从今以后，将来/in the future未来
go to school(church…)上学(做礼拜…)/go to the school(church…)到学校(教堂…)去
on horseback骑着马/on the horseback在马背上
two of us我们当中的两人/the two of us我们两人(共计两人)
out of question毫无疑问/out of the question不可能的，办不到的
next year明年/the next year 第二年
a teacher and writer一位教师兼作家(一个人)/a teacher and a writer一位教师和一位作家(两个人)
（这句想起第一期的主谓一致，顺便复习回顾~）
数词的用法
2)序数词在句中同样可做主语、表语、定语、状语等。如：
June the first is Children’s Day.
When did you first meet each other?
She was the last to arrive.
4)介词 in one’s+整数数词的复数形式，表示年龄。如：
She is in her early forties.(她四十出头。)
5)序数词前加冠词“a”表示“再一次”。如：Can I try a second time?
6)在hundred，thousand，million，billion前有数词时为实数意义，它们的词尾不能加复数。前无数词时为虚数意义，hundred，thousand，million，billion可加复数，并可和of连用，构成短语。如：five hundred students；millions of people
四.分数的构成

分子用基数词，分母用序数词，分子大于1时，分母加s，如：
1/5：one fifth
2/3：two thirds
2-：two and three quarters(???????)

五.小数的表示法

0.09：point zero nine(那0.009呢？怎么表达？)
2.7：two point seven

六.百分数的表达法

90%：ninety percent
0.5%：point five percent

七.倍数表达法

表示两倍时用twice，表示三倍以上的倍数时用times。如：
The earth is 49 times the size of the moon.
This desk is twice as large as that one.

八.算式表达法：

5+6：five plus six(or five and six)
7-6：seven minus six
2×3：two multiplied by three(or two times three)
8/4：eight divided by four
主谓一致原则（重要啊，补充了第一期的主谓一致~~~其中第3点和第4点我总是搞不清楚....再次巩固复习...俺高中最讨厌做的就是语法选择题，基本是大红灯笼高高挂........)
2)如果名词词组中心词是“分数或百分数+of-词组”，谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于of-词组中名词或代词的单、复数形式：如果of-词组中名词或代词是单数或不可数名词，谓语动词用单数形式；如果of-词组中名词或代词是复数，谓语动词也用复数形式。如：
Two thirds of the earth is covered with water.
Two thirds of the people present are against the plan.
3)如果主语是many a，more than one+单数名词构成，尽管从意义上看是复数，但谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：
Many a student in this class has hoped a long break.

4)a+单数名词+or two做主语，谓语动词用单数形式。one or two+复数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。如：
A word or two is missed in the sentence.
One or two words are missed in the sentence.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-16 23:52:50

好郁闷啊，最近功课好多，ISSUE写完了但相当部分是靠DICT解决...
句子坑坑巴巴，实在是拿不出手...
阿狗还没开始写，要疯掉了！！！！
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-17 09:58:19

过红宝
继续修改ISSUE，太恶心了
然后开始AWINTRO，我知道第一次和第二次作业还没做完，但第三次又压上来了...最近论文多费脑子，老师照着书上跟我们讲课还深情款款地对我们说论文不要复制粘贴...我应付应付过去算了...
首先看了目录了解了个大概（基本上还是what why how,重点在与what and how)
ISSUE和ARGUMENT根下目录大致差不多，有一点区别
ISSUE是deciding which topic to choose
决定你要选择的题目（立场）。
ARGUMENT是how to interpret numbers,percentages,and statistics in argument topics
如何解释议论文中的数据，百分比及策略。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-19 22:46:31

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-19 23:25 编辑

【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（4）start to write

呵呵，这个不多说了，虽然貌似有些空旷

但是我保证，只要你静下心来 好好读三遍

会有很清晰的感觉的

然后文思如泉涌，想要动笔去试试

呵呵

试试啦~

Planning (Invention): when you start to write

You can try the textbook formula:


I. State your thesis.
II. Write an outline.
III. Write the first draft.
IV. Revise and polish.


. . . but that often doesn't work!

读后总结如下

1）确定你写作的目的（what）

2）确定你如何达成你的写作目的（how）

3）多种手段激发新的想法，尽可能从各种角度来看待问题

4）扼要说明中心思想

5）动笔先打草稿


Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:


Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.


There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For example, your topic might be "dorm food." At this point, you and your potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should you write about this, and why should anyone read it?


Do you want the reader to pity you because of the intolerable food you have to eat there?


Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?


Do you want to compare Purdue's dorm food to that served at Indiana University?


Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.


How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some movie as the best you've ever seen? Would you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it?


Start the ideas flowing


Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps some friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep adding to the list at odd moments as ideas continue to come to mind.（和狐朋狗友讨论激发灵感）


Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone -- or by several people, if possible (to give yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might also try to teach the subject to a group or class.（要预想到读者可能会有的问题并要给与解答）


See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy by using the word like. For example, if you are writing about violence on television, is that violence like clowns fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is really getting hurt)?


Take a rest and let it all percolate.


Nutshell your whole idea


Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.


Diagram your major points somehow.（这个夸张了点吧，一般用不着的）


Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for more material in some places.


Write a first draft.


Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else. Watch especially for the need to clarify or add more information.


You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies.


You may find that one works better than another. You may find yourself trying several strategies at once. If so, then you are probably doing something right!

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-19 23:26:33

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-20 21:53 编辑

riting With Computers


Using word processing software on a computer is an efficient way to write. You can delete, revise, and cut and paste with great ease and speed, without having to retype, and you will find your drafts easier to read as you revise. Even if you cannot type well (and many successful computer users can't), a computer can be both a convenience and an aid throughout the writing process. But remember to save your files often and make a backup copy of the file, even when you've carefully saved it. Disks can fail and not open, and files can be deleted or lost.
（从来没有拷贝的习惯觉得无所谓了，结果有天晚上奋战论文好不容易堆出来结果突然断电于是杯具了....）
Word processing software can aid your efforts in all aspects of the writing process:

Planning

freewriting

If freewriting or brainstorming is a useful invention strategy for you, do either invention strategy on a computer using word processing software. You can then cut and paste parts of those planning notes into a draft as needed. Some writers find that they can freewrite more easily by turning down the computer screen, so they cannot see what they type. You may also want to create separate files for different topics discovered while freewriting.

writing an e-mail message（前提是有好人。。。）

As you think about your assignment or topic, try writing an e-mail message to a friend, to someone in your class, or to a Writing Lab tutor . Use that e-mail message to test ideas as you would in a conversation with peer group members or a tutor. Encourage the person who receives the e-mail to ask you questions that help you clarify your ideas.

making an outline

Set up headings for an outline in large bold letters. Later, as you go back and fill in the subheadings and sub points, you will be able to see the larger structure of the paper. Some word processing programs either outline for you or permit you to indicate the outline headings in a way that allows you to go back and forth between a screen showing only the headings and screens showing the detailed material within sections.

planning visually
只制定不执行也没用
Use a drawing or painting program to do some visual planning. To do some clustering, put a topic word or phrase in a circle in the middle of the page and then surround that circle with clusters of related ideas (also in circles). Use lines to connect these ideas to the main idea or to other sub-ideas. To try branching, another visual planning strategy, put the main idea at the top of the page and then list sub-ideas underneath the main idea with related points for each sub-idea branching off.

keeping a journal（定期刊物）

If keeping a journal helps you, start a journal file for each assignment and include thoughts and questions that occur to you as you proceed through the writing. Include a plan for how you will proceed through the assignment, and if there are stages or steps to complete, write a "to do" list. Include phrases and ideas that occur to you and that may fit into the paper later with some cutting and pasting from one file to another. You may want to insert page breaks for different sections or thoughts.


Drafting

creating a scrap file
As you start an assignment, make two separate files, one for the assignment itself and the other for scraps of writing that you will be collecting. As you write (or plan) use the scrap file to cut and paste anything that doesn't seem to fit in as you write. This scrap file can be a very useful storage space for material that should be deleted from the paper you are writing now but that may be useful for other writing assignments. You may also want a separate file for keywords, words that come to mind and that can be used when needed or phrases that may come in handy as section headings in your paper.

splitting screens

If you are using a Macintosh or Windows, you can have multiple files visible on your screen at the same time. Consider this strategy if it helps you to look at one bit of information while trying to create another. One box on the screen can display your outline or visual planning while another can display your draft. Or, you can keep your scrap file visible while writing a draft. Remember that you can cut, copy, and paste between files.

adding notes（勤做笔记）

As you gather material from your reading (or want to save comments to yourself about something you've written), develop a method to store this kind of material that you may or may not use. For example, put parentheses around material that might not stay in a later draft, or use bold lettering, or make use of a word processing feature that permits you to store material as notes. Be sure to delete this material when you are sure you no longer want it.


Organizing

mixing up the order of paragraphs or sentences

Make a new copy of your file. Then, in the new file, use the cut-and-paste feature to move paragraphs. You may see a better organizing principle than the principle you had been using. Do the same with sentences within paragraphs.

checking your outline

Look again at the bold-lettered headings of the outline you made during planning (or create one now), and reassess whether that outline is adequate or well organized.

staying on topic in every paragraph

Put your topic sentence at the top of each paragraph to keep the sentence in mind and not lose track of your topic.


Revising

starting at the beginning of the file

Each time you open a file, you are at the beginning of the draft. Start there when you are drafting and revising and read until you come to a section where you will be working. That rereading has several advantages for you. It helps you get back into the flow of thought, and it permits you to review what you've written so that you can revise as you read forward. But be careful not to get caught up in endless revising of the beginning of the paper, especially if like some writers, you find that you need to write the whole paper before you can write the introduction.

renaming a file

Each time you open your file, save it as a different file so that you always know which is the most recent version you've worked on. If your first draft is Draft I, the next time you open that file, save it as Draft II.

saving copies of material to cut and paste

When you are moving large blocks of text, highlight what you are going to move and make a copy for your clipboard before moving. if you lose the portion you are moving, you still have a copy available.

printing out hard copies to read

It may help you to look at a printed copy of your paper as you revise, so you can see the paper's development and organization.

resisting the neat appearance of a printout

If you print out a draft of your paper, resist the temptation to hand in that draft because it looks neat and seems to have a finished appearance.


using page or print view to check paragraphs
Switch to the page or print view so that you can see the whole view of each page on screen. Do the paragraphs look to be about the same length? Does one look noticeably shorter than the others? Does it need more development? Is there a paragraph that seems to be disproportionately long?

highlighting sentence length

Make a copy of your main file and, using that copy, hit the return key after each sentence so that each looks like a separate paragraph. Are all of your sentences the same length? Do they all start the same way and need some variety?

  

Editing and Proofreading

using online tools

A number of online tools exist, such as spell checkers, grammar checkers and style analyzers, but grammar and style checkers are not effective. Distinguishing between appropraite advice and inappropriate advice is difficult and a styke checker relies on rules you may not be familiar with. Some word processing programs include a thesaurus which is useful for looking up synonyms for words you've been using too much or for finding more specific words than the ones you have used.

changing the appearance of key features of your writing

Change active verbs to bold letters, put passive constructions in italics, use larger fonts for descriptive words, underline your thesis statement, and so on. By changing the appearance of these features, you may see that you have too many passives or that you don't have many descriptive words.

editing on hard copy

It may be easier for you to print out a draft and mark it for editing changes. If you do, put marks in the margins to indicate lines where changes are to be made, so you can easily find them again.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-21 09:49:01

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-21 09:51 编辑

分析写作部分的总概要
AW内容
如何准备AW
AW评分标准
怎样得分
在ISSUE部分阐述你的观点
   了解ISSUE
   写作背景：目的和读者
   准备ISSUE
   决定选择哪一个主题
   你陈述的形式
   ISSUE 样文
   ISSUE主题写作的策略
   陈述和评价（Essay responses and reader commentary 一看我还真不知道怎么翻译…）
分析阿狗
   了解阿狗
   写作背景
   准备阿狗
   如何理解阿狗中的数字，百分比和数据
   你的陈述形式
   阿狗样文
   阿狗主题写作的策略
   陈述和评价
模拟考试
评分指导
评分标准


AW概要
AW部分是一个GRE考试从2002年10月份引进的新的组成部分，它主要考察你的辨析思维和分析写作技巧。它还评价你对于组织和支持复杂观点，分析一个论点，和保持集中连贯的讨论（sustain a focused and coherent discussion这句翻译不清楚…）的能力。它没有考察特定内容知识。


AW部分包括两篇时间长度不同的分析写作任务
在ISSUE中表达你的观点45分钟
分析阿狗30分钟

你将会从两篇ISSUE主题中选一个。每个都阐述了对一个范围较广的ISSUE观点（each states an opinion on an issue of broad interest）并同时要求你从任何角度来讨论这个ISSUE，只要你提供相关的理由或例子来解释支撑你的观点。
在阿狗方面你没有选择。阿狗和ISSUE不一样的挑战是：它要求你通过你所找的充分理由来批判题目中已提供的观点。你需要思考论点上的合理性而不是同意或反对它所给的立场。
这两个任务是互补的，一个要求你在ISSUE中通过确定立场和提供证据支撑你的观点来构建你自己的论点。而另外一个是要求你通过评判它的提供的主张和定义它提供的证据来批判他人的论点。
准备AW
每个人，即使是经验丰富自信的作家都需要在去考场之前花时间去准备AW写作。复习这些写作技巧，怎样得分，得分指导，评分标准，模拟话题，不同分数的样文以及评价非常重要。
AW话题范围很广，从艺术人类学到社会科学，但没有一个话题需要特定具体知识。事实上，每个话题都被各个领域测试过（field-tested）来确保它持有个别重要特性，包括如下：
•GRE考生，不需要各自的专业知识及特别兴趣爱好，也能懂得话题含义并易于展开讨论。
•这些能够引发不同思考和角度的话题是大学教授认为对成功进入研究生院的重要考虑。这个主题探得大学学院认为对于在研究所取得成功很重要的所需的综合的思考能力和逻辑性强的习作能力（这句是同学翻译的）（The topic elicited the kinds of complex thinking and persuasive writing that university faculty consider important for success in graduate school.这句不知怎么准确翻译）
•话题的回答因考生的内容和展开想法的方式而不同。
为了帮助你准备AW，GRE项目组已出版全部你可能会抽中的话题。你会发现复习这些题目会有很有帮助。

AW写作的应试技巧
分配好你的时间是非常重要的。在ISSUE45分钟有限的时间里，你会允许有足够的时间从2个话题中选一个，并思考你所选的话题，列个提纲回复，组织你的文章。在阿狗30分钟有限时间你需要允许有足够时间分析阿狗，列个批判提纲，组织你的语言。尽管GRE考官知道你写作时间的急迫性，会考虑你的回复为第一次草稿，你还是要尽可能地写出你能够写的，在考试环境当中。
节约时间在最后的阶段检查有无明显错误，尽管偶然的拼写或语法错误不会影响你的分数，但过于严重和明显的错误会降低你写作的整体效果和减少你的分数。
AW之后，你会有10分钟的休息时间，在两次作文期间还会有一分钟的休息时间。你可以在每次计划的休息时间内补充草稿纸。
AW如何评分
每个回答会根据GRE刊登的评分标准来评定6分每个级别，整体性打分意味着每部分回复被作为一个整体来评判：考官会把作文作为一个整体进行评判：读者（考官）不会【把回答（你的作文）分成若干部分来评判，然后根据一个特别的标准给出分数，比如观点，结构，句式，语言】，恰恰相反的是考官主要是建立在回复的整体质量上来评分的，比如，优秀或拙劣的结构，会成为考官对这篇作文整体印象的一部分，从而有益于你的分数。但结构评判标准，在不同场合下，并没有重要作用。
通常来说，GRE考官都是认为写作和逻辑思考技巧很重要，在此领域里有着丰富教学经验的大学或学院的教员，所有的GRE考官都经过严格培训，通过GRE严格的质量体系认证，显示了他们评分的精确度的能力。
确保在评分上的公正性和客观性：
•习作随机分给考官
•所有考生个人信息都对考官保密
•所有习作有两个考官评分
•考官不知道习作的另外一个分数
•评分程序如下：每个习作会得到两个考官的同样或相近的分数，其他的分数则交给第三方GRE考官来综合判定。
最终分数是两篇文章的平均分数。评分标准在第29页，提供了怎样解释AW总分的信息。在AW得分最重要的是辨析思考和分析写作技巧。
你在AW中的文章在评分阶段会被ETS侦查雷同文章软件和有丰富经验的考官所审核。鉴于美国研究生院和大学对独立思考能力有很高要求，一旦有详细证据证明你的文章包括以下任一情况，还不仅限于以下情况，ETS有权取消你的考试成绩。
•文章与其他GRE范文高度类似
•没有详细附注，就引用或意译已出版或未出版的信息的语言或思想。
•误用其他小组已发表的内容而没有标注引用
•应试者所提交的文章里面有的语句和观念，事实上，是从别处借鉴过来或是他人准备好的。
当你的文章有上述一种或几种情况，ETS职业判定你的文章无法体现思考的独立性和写作技巧。因此，ETS一定会取消你的作文成绩作为无效，无法提供其他GRE考试成绩，因为作文是GRE考试无法分割的一部分。
分数取消的考生的考试费用将会被没收，参加下一次GRE考试将会付全款。这次分数的取消及取消的原因不会记录在案，也不会出现在他们下一次送往大学或学院的分数报告中。
PS：感谢番茄，里面有的我感觉翻译得不清楚的借鉴了她的翻译~~~
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-21 10:01:24

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-21 11:11 编辑


一、什么是主题句？
注意全文所说的主题就是开头段中的全文主题句，不是各个分论点段的段TS.
要区分Thesis statement和Topic sentence！前面简称T,后面简称TS.
What is a thesis?
A thesis statement declares what you believe and what you intend to prove. （主题句说明你的观点和要论证的论点）A good thesis statement makes the difference between a thoughtful research project and a simple retelling of facts.（事实和论据不是主题句！）
A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a writer are setting out to tell them. The kind of thesis that your paper will have will depend on the purpose of your writing.
A good tentative thesis will help you focus your search for information. But don't rush! You must do a lot of background reading before you know enough about a subject to identify key or essential questions. You may not know how you stand on an issue until you have examined the evidence. You will likely begin your research with a working, preliminary or tentative thesis which you will continue to refine until you are certain of where the evidence leads.
The thesis statement is typically located at the end of your opening paragraph. (The opening paragraph serves to set the context for the thesis.) 注意，这里明确的指出了，主题句（thesis statement）必须出现在开头段（opening paragraph）的最后！
主题句一般出现在开头的最后一两句．这个规定我搜索了不下２０个网站，都是这样要求的，可见，这个规定大家最后遵守，我想，阅卷人一定会在你的Introduction里边的最后一两句找你的Thesis，你就是要确保他在这里找到！
Remember, your reader will be looking for your thesis. Make it clear, strong, and easy to find.使主题句清晰！
对于AW，主题句属于：
Argumentative Thesis Statements
In an argumentative paper, you are making a claim about a topic and justifying this claim with reasons and evidence. This claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. However, this claim must be a statement that people could possibly disagree with, because the goal of your paper is to convince your audience that your claim is true based on your presentation of your reasons and evidence. An argumentative thesis statement will tell your audience:
·your claim or assertion
·the reasons/evidence that support this claim
·the order in which you will be presenting your reasons and evidence
Example: Barn owls' nests should not be eliminated from barns because barn owls help farmers by eliminating insect and rodent pests.
A reader who encountered this thesis would expect to be presented with an argument and evidence that farmers should not get rid of barn owls when they find them nesting in their barns.
Questions to ask yourself when writing an argumentative thesis statement:
·What is my claim or assertion? (主张)
·What are the reasons I have to support my claim or assertion? （支撑我的观点的理由）
·In what order should I present my reasons?
（如何安排我的理由的顺序，也就是所谓的辨析，一环套一环，在此，借鉴此贴~我认为很有道理https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=921368&highlight）

二、什么是好的主题句的属性？
Attributes of a good thesis:

·
It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree. A strong thesis is provocative（a.煽动的）; it takes a stand and justifies the discussion you will present.
·
It tackles（V.解决，处理） a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
·
It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything about …” Instead of music, think "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about it. （注意，主题不要假，大，空，要具体针对问题！）
·
It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. （我记得是谁又曾经说过assert是个贬义？？所以说，有了根据，再发表意见！）Note: Be flexible. The evidence may lead you to a conclusion you didn't think you'd reach. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
·
It provides the reader with a map to guide him/her through your work.
·
It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments
·
It avoids vague language (like "it seems").
·
It avoids the first person. ("I believe," "In my opinion") （强烈注意，不要使用第一人称！！！！）（额，我回头看看我的ISSUE。。。）
·
It should pass the So what? or Who cares? test (Would your most honest friend ask why he should care or respond with "but everyone knows that"?) For instance, "people should avoid driving under the influence of alcohol," would be unlikely to evoke any opposition. （不要说那些大家都知道的废话，要有可质疑性，可辩论性．）
·
附：什么是the So what? or Who cares? test：
The "So What?" Test
Whenever you plan on writing a research paper, there is an extremely important point that you must constantly keep in the forefront of your mind--even English teachers frequently mention it as something students fail to do time and time again. What is it? To be sure to choose a topic worth arguing about or exploring. This means to construct a thesis statement or research question about a problem that is still debated, controversial, up in the air.
So arguing that drinking and driving is dangerous-- while you could find a ton of evidence to support your view --would be pretty worthless nowadays. Who would want to read something they already knew? You wouldn't be persuading them of anything and all your work would be pretty meaningless.
What this means is that during the topic-formulating stage and again now, always keep asking "SO WHAT?", "WHO CARES?" or to paraphrase the famous Canadian journalist Barbara Frum: "Tell me something new about something I care about." That will automatically make your paper significant and interesting both for you to write and the reader to study.
总结一下：
主题句的dos and don’ts
Dos:
表明立场，具体，并且中心明确，表明自己的观点和结论，出现在开头段的末尾，同时提示读者作者的行文思路．
Don’ts:
不要说废话，说空话，说大话，不要出现第一人称，不要含糊不清．

公式：


Specific topic + Attitude/Angle/Argument = Thesis


What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis



三、如何检验自己写好的主题句是否合格？

Try these five tests:

·
Does the thesis  inspire a reasonable reader to ask, "How?" or Why?" 吸引读者思考
·
Would a reasonable reader NOT respond with "Duh!" or "So what?" or "Gee, no kidding!" or "Who cares?" 避免出现so what问题(也避免出现过于口语化的语言)
·
Does the thesis  avoid general phrasing and/or sweeping words such as "all" or "none" or "every"? 避免绝对的论调
·
Does the thesis lead the reader toward the topic sentences (the subtopics needed to prove the thesis)? 主题句是否引导了下文的分论点或者段主题？
·
Can the thesis be adequately developed in the required length of the paper or project? 主题句是否可以适合被展开论述？
If you cannot answer "YES" to these questions, what changes must you make in order for your thesis to pass these tests?

四、如何写出好的主题句？（思维的步骤）
１．Rank with justification　考虑重要性
·
Most important to least important
·
Least important to most important
2.Contrasts (of perspectives of sources) 对比，考虑流行和反对观点
·
Although newspapers at the time claimed ……, the most significant cause/explanation/reason, etc. is ……
·
While Sb. and Sb. maintains that  ................, more accurately/importantly, etc, # 2's position is the stronger one. (Substitute "most historians" for  So and So and the appropriate person or view or source for #2.)
3.Perception versus reality; 感觉与现实
l
Although Turner himself may have believed X, the real causes were Y and Z.
4.Good versus bad reasons:
l
Historians generally list six reasons as the cause for X, but among these are four that are valid and two that are not.
５． Cause and Effect: 因果关系
·
Certainly, X was the cause and Y was its effect, but between the two are two other factors of equal importance.
·
Separately the causes would have not necessarily led to a rampage; however, together their effect was inevitably murderous.  
·
Although the effects of the rampage were . . ., the causes were understandable/justifiable/inevitable.
·
The more important effects of Nat Turner's rebellion went beyond those of  the local rampage.
６．Challenge:质疑，否定
Nat Turner's rebellion not a righteous response to the injustice of slavery; it was motivated purely by disturbing psychological issues.   

７．提出系列问题：

五、对于主题的头脑风暴：
Thesis Brainstorming
注意下面的三点：
As you read look for:
Example of brainstorming a thesis:
Select a topic: television violence and children
Ask an interesting question: What are the effects of television violence on children?
Revise the question into a thesis: Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in preschool children.
Remember this argument is your “preliminary” or “working” thesis. As you read you may discover evidence that may affect your stance. It is okay to revise your thesis!（可以修改自己原来设定的主题，就是说通过对题目的理解和论据的权衡，修改主题以利于论证）

论据：As you write and revise your paper, it's okay to change your thesis statement -- sometimes you don't discover what you really want to say about a topic until you've started (or finished) writing! Just make sure that your "final" thesis statement accurately shows what will happen in your paper.



Create a list of sample questions to guide your research:


六、主题示例：注意下面的例子中前一个不是Thesis而后一个是！


How to Tell a Strong Thesis Sentence from a Weak One.
1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.明确表明立场！Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase “negative and positive aspects” is vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.留给大家质疑和讨论的余地．Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce（加固） kinship（血亲关系） ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.表达一个主要观点（事实上是要学会衔接）Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse  your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and “however.”
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.具体而不抽象A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you write a paper on hunger, you might say:
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, “world hunger” can’t be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, "many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.
这不仅仅是考试技巧了，很考验我们的思维综合能力。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-22 00:50:51

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-22 00:56 编辑

在ISSUE中表达你的观点
了解ISSUE
“在ISSUE中表达你的观点”考试考察你在写作中能够辨析地思考一个有趣的话题及明确表达你的观点的能力。每个话题，以引用的方式出现，提出一个主题的看法，考察考生能从不同角度来讨论和提供更多不同情况和条件。你的文章要表现出引人注目的例子，能够体现你的个人立场。注意仔细阅读这些主张和从不同视觉来出发思考，综合考虑与这些观点紧密相连的想法。然后，写下你所想发展的观点的要点，并列出能够支持你的立场主要原因和例子。
ISSUE允许你自由范围里选择你回复文章的方式。尽管它对于你解决中心思想来说非常重要，你可以自由选择你所希望的表达途径。举例，你可以：
•完全同意，彻底反对，或某方面同意和不同意ISSUE本身主张。
•质疑题目所想提出的假设。
•使其中任何一个专有名词合理化。特别是当你定义或应用对于发展你的观点有很大帮助的一个专有名词时。（借鉴番茄）
•指出这种说法为什么在一些条件下有效而不是在其他条件下。
•评价与你观点相背的观点。
•运用多个相关联的或单个扩展的例子来合理发展你的观点。
GRE考官评价你的文章不仅仅是用“好”来回复，事实上，这里没正确的答案可以采用。恰恰相反的是，考官会评价你在组织和发展你的观点来说明你在ISSUE的立场中所运用的技巧。
理解写作相关背景：目的和读者
I是一次辨析思维和说服性写作的练习。它的目的是决定你怎样更好地发展一个吸引人的论点来支撑你在I中的观点和有效地把文中观点与读者沟通起来。你的读者是那些被训练成为GRE考官以及运用评分标准（参考P27页）来评分的大学或研究生院的教师。
为了更加明确GRE考官在实际文章中是如何运用这些评分标准，你应该回顾已得分的ISSUE样文及考官评语。这些样文通常是5到6分的水平，会向你展示丰富的结构，发展和沟通观点的成功技巧。这些考官评语主要讨论分析写作的特别之处，比如例子的运用，观点的发展，结构，语言流畅性和得当的用词。对每篇文章，这些评语主要指出观点的特别之处或降低全文的有效性。
准备ISSUE
因为I意味着考察你通过教育所培养起来的说服性写作技巧，它被设置为既不需要有特别的课程的学习，也不需要受过特别专业培训的学生。
许多大学的写作教科书提供在观点写作上你会发现很有用的建议，但是这些建议可能比ISSUE对你的要求更加技巧性和专业化。你不会被希望知道特别的辨析思考和写作策略，但你应该能够运用合理理由、证据以及例子来支持你在I中的立场。建议，举例，一个I话题要求你思考提供资金支持艺术馆对政府来说重不重要。如果你的立场是政府应该经济支持艺术馆，你可能通过讨论艺术的重要性和解释公共艺术对每个人都有利来支持你的观点。另外一方面，如果你的立场是政府不应该支持博物馆，你可能会指出，由于政府财政的有限，艺术博馆不值得像其他更重要的社会设施一样得到政府财政资助。或者，如果你同意政府资金只有在一定的条件下对艺术博物馆进行资助，你可能会关注你所认为能决定怎样，或是否，艺术博物馆应该得到政府的资助的艺术批评，文化焦点，或者政治条件。你的观点不重要，重要的是展示来阐述你的观点的分析性思考的技巧。
一个准备I的最好途径是选几个已发布的话题来练习写作。这里没有最好的方法：一部分更愿意先从忽略45分钟限时开始练习，另外一部分人更愿意一开始就限时写作练习。不管你练习I的时候采用哪种办法，你应该回顾下考试指导，如下：
•仔细阅读话题中的主张，确保你懂得话题包含的内容，如果不太理解，和你的朋友老师讨论此话题。
•思考与此话题相关联的你的想法和经历，以及你读过或观察过的事情，还有你所知道的人物。它们都是你在文章中用来加固，反对，或使主张合理化的有说服力的理由和例子的来源。
•决定你在话题中想支持或反对的立场，记住，你能够完全地自由同意或反对，或者只同意其中的一部分或一些应用但不同意其他部分的观点。
•决定你可以支持你的立场的有力证据（理由或例子）。
记住这是考察辨析思考和逻辑写作的考试，因此，你可能发现，通过问自己如下问题对探索一个话题中的论点的复杂性是有帮助的。
•这个话题的确切中心是什么
•我同意这话题的所有或部分吗，为什么？
•这个论点是确定的假设吗？如果是，它们是合理的吗？
•这个论点只有在特定的条件下有效的吗？如果是，它们是什么？
•我需要去解释我怎样定义这些在论点中已确定的词条或概念吗？
•如果我确定了话题中的立场，怎么样的理由能支持我的立场？
•怎样的例子，真实或假设的例子，能够为我所用来举例说明这些我所提出来的观点？怎样的例子是最吸引人的？
确定你写文章的计划，你可能需要总结下你的立场和做个人笔记关于怎样支持你所决定的立场。当你做完这些，回头看看你做的笔记和决定你怎样组织你的文章。然后写文来支持你在话题中确定的立场。即使你无法写得很充分，你应该发现它对用少数话题练习和尽可能对文章列提纲是有帮助的。在你练习完一些题目后，尝试45分钟限时写作，你会有更好的感受去安排怎样在考场中充分利用你的时间。
从教授辨析思考写作的老师得到对你这篇文章的反馈是非常有帮助的，或者在写同一话题的同学和讨论其他与分数评判标准相关联的文章也是有帮助的。尝试浏览在指南里每篇不同分数下的文章怎样符合或不符合评判标准。根据评分标准比较你自己的文章对你知道怎样和哪里需要提升有帮助。
决定选择哪一个话题
记住这次考试包括两个I话题，是从已发布的题库里选出来的，你必须选择其一。因为当你看到这两个题目是45分钟限时写作的开始，你不应该浪费太多的时间去做选择。相反，尽快尝试选择你认为好展开讨论的话题。
在做选择之前，仔细读每个话题，然后决定你可以阐述更有效更有充分理由的论据的那一个话题。在做选择时，你可能问下你自己：
•哪一个话题是你认为更感兴趣的？
•哪一个话题更贴近你自己的学习研究和经历？
•哪一个话题你更能清楚地解释或辩论自己的观点？
•哪一个话题你能更加迅速地思考有利的理由和例子来支持你的立场？
如果你能回答上述问题将有助于你的选择。
你文章的形式
你能通过你认为更有效地沟通你关于I的思想的途径来自由组织和阐述你的文章。你的文章可能总结了你在英语写作和大学加强写作课程里所学到的写作技巧，但实际上并不需要的。GRE考官不会看你一个特定的发展战略（a particular developmental strategy这词儿怎么翻译感觉不对味…）及写作模板。事实上，当GRE考官都受过训练，他们看过上百篇I文章，尽管从内容到形式上有很大的区别，但在辨析性思考和逻辑性写作上仍表示出类似水平。举例，考官会看到一些6分水平的I文章，在I中简要概括作者立场和明确宣称受争论的主要思想观点。他们也会看到一些文章，通过假设倾向于作者观点，问一系列问题，描述某一特定情节，或者定义被引用的辨析性词条。考官知道一个考生通过举出丰富多样的例子或给出单个但深入的例子而获得一个高分。看看这些I样文，尤其是5到6分的，学习这些作者是怎样成功地阐释和组织他们的文章。
你应该写出与你观点相符的段落。举例，当你要讨论一系列新的观点时，你可能需要另外起一个段落。不管例子有多少，段落有多少，或者你文章采用的形式如何，都比不上你对此话题的思考以及清晰富有技巧地把你的这些思考传达给考官的重要性。
样题：
如今，各类的专家被高估了，我们需要的是通才，因为他们能为我们提供更广阔的视野。
话题策略：
这个话题提出了几个相关联的问题：如何定义通才和专家。他们对社会的价值是什么？社会确实需要更多通才吗？专家被高估了吗？
这里有几个基本立场你可以选择：是的，社会需要更多的通才，专家确实被高估了。不是，这个立场是错误的。或者，社会确实需要不同的人才，或者，每个群体对今天的文化来说都非常重要，或者，专家没有被高估。你的分析可能需要以下为例子，特定国家或社会，一个或多个社会区域，或者从不同情况出发。它可能关注通才和专家在交流，运输，政治，信息和科技上所扮演的角色。任一种途径都是有根据的，只要你御用相关的理由和例子去支持你的立场。
在你确定你的立场之前，花几分钟去重复话题，考虑如下问题去分析它：
•专家和通才之间最大的区别是什么？每个最有力的观点是什么？
•在不同专业领域和情况下这种区别仍然存在吗？专家是不是在工作中也必须要有广泛的知识和通常技能？
•通才和专家在他们的领域里怎样发挥作用？
•社会对专家和通才的评价是什么？专家在一些情况下是不是被高估了？
•社会是不是比以前需要更多的通才？如果是，是什么需要他们的服务？
现在你可以组织你的想法分成两类
•支持话题的推理与例子
•支持相反观点的推理与例子
如果你清楚地发现一种观点比另外一种观点更有说服力，考虑从那个观点来展开论点。当你构造你文章的时候，保持这些你可能会辩驳的想法。
如果两者都有吸引人的观点，考虑阐述一种立场，而不是题目，但更具体或复杂的观点，然后你可以用两方面的推理和例子来平衡你的立场。
样文和评语
6分样文
In this era of rapid social and technological change leading to increasing life complexity and psychological displacement, both positive and negative effects among persons in Western society call for a balance in which there are both specialists and generalists.

Specialists are necessary in order to allow society as a whole to properly and usefully assimilate the masses of new information and knowledge that have come out of research and have been widely disseminated through mass global media. As the head of Pharmacology at my university once said (and I paraphrase):"I can only research what I do because there are so many who have come before me to whom I can turn for basic knowledge. It is only because of each of the narrowly focussed individuals at each step that a full and true understanding of the complexities of life can be had. Each person can only hold enough knowledge to add one small rung to the ladder, but together we can climb to the moon." This illustrates the point that our societies level of knowledge and technology is at a stage in which there simply must be specialists in order for our society to take advantage of the information available to us.

Simply put, without specialists, our society would find itself bogged down in the Sargasso sea of information overload. While it was fine for early physicists to learn and understand the few laws and ideas that existed during their times, now, no one individual can possibly digest and assimilate all of the knowledge in any given area.

On the other hand, Over specialization means narrow focii in which people can lose the larger picture.No one can hope to understand the human body by only inspecting one's own toe-nails. What we learn from a narrow focus may be internally logically coherent but may be irrelevant or fallacious within the framework of a broader perspective. Further, if we inspect only our toe-nails, we may conclude that the whole body is hard and white. Useful conclusions and thus perhaps useful inventions must come by sharing among specialists. Simply throwing out various discovieries means we have a pile of useless discoveries, it is only when one can make with them a mosaic that we can see that they may form a picture.

Not only may over-specialization be dangerous in terms of the truth, purity and cohesion of knowledge, but it can also serve to drown moral or universall issues. Generalists and only generalists can see a broad enough picture to realize and introduce to the world the problems of the environment. With specialization, each person focusses on their research and their goals. Thus, industrialization, expansion, and new technologies are driven ahead. Meanwhile no individual can see the wholisitc view of our global existence in which true advancement may mean stifling individual specialists for the greater good of all.

Finally, over-specialization in a people's daily lives and jobs has meant personal and psychological compartmentalization. People are forced into pigeon holes early in life (at least by university) and must conciously attempt to consume external forms of stimuli and information in order not to be lost in their small and isolated universe. Not only does this make for narrowly focussed and generally pooprly-educated individuals, but it guarantees a sense of loss of community, often followed by a feeling of psychological displacement and personal dissatisfaction.

Without generalists, society becomes inward-looking and eventually inefficient. Without a society that recongnizes the impotance of braod-mindedness and fora for sharing generalities, individuals become isolated. Thus, while our form of society necessitates specialists, generalists are equally important. Specialists drive us forward in a series of thrusts while generalists make sure we are still on the jousting field and know what the stakes are.
在这个生活节奏和科技快速发展，导致不断提高的生活复杂程度和心理的不适，在西方社会里，这些影响人们的积极或消极因素需要专家和通才之间的一种平衡。
    为了让社会成为一个整体去有效地和适当地吸收大量新的来自于研究并通过全球媒介散播的信息和知识，专家是必需的。当我校药理学系的院长曾经说过（我复述如下）：“我只能探索我所能做的，因为在我之前有很多研究，我可以把它们作为基础知识来研究。因为任何一个专项领域里，在任何阶段里，个人都能拥有对真实生活全部和真实的复杂性理解。每个人只能拥有足够的知识来为楼梯加个台阶，但是所有人加起来，我们可以登上月亮”他说的话清晰的表明了这样的观点：在社会的某个阶段，专家对于我们社会是需要的，因为他们能运用那些可得的信息。（这段话好难翻译啊…还是借鉴了番茄…6分范文…不同凡响，以我浅薄基础来看觉得语法好复杂）
    简单来说，没有那些专家，我们社会会发现自己陷入泛滥信息的Sargasso海洋。早期的物理学家去学习和懂得他们那个年代的少数定理是比较轻松的，如今，没有一个个体有可能消化吸收已知领域里所有的信息
   额滴神啊，大脑纠结死了，大概看得差不多算了我就不翻译了，看番茄的文….（好吧我懒惰…）
6分评语：
这是一篇杰出的分析ISUUE,有洞察力，理由充分，和高效的语言运用（确实，非常地高档的句子，看得我脑袋扭成麻花辫了….）在介绍段落交代了作者在此文中的立场，并提供了作者即将阐述观点的背景。
这个话题有两个部分，第一部分交代一个医药领域里面专家的例子，第二部分交代反对过于专业化的例子，是基于三个主要原因的：
•逻辑因素（过于狭隘的专家总是忽视整体）
•道德因素（通才总是知道什么是最适合最需要的）
•个人因素（专业和分类过早导致心理问题）
此话题所仔细列出的合理推论通过充分运用专家陈述（引自一个知名的医药研究者）和丰富生动的比喻（只注意脚趾甲而忽视整体的身体）得到深化。
文章不仅推理优秀，语言也非常精确而比喻丰富（深陷于泛滥的信息S海，一堆无用的发明和专才让我们快走而全才让我们留在马场上）。考官经常被此文中的有助于组织观点和推动观点深入的过渡性短语和观点顺着走。这是一个非常优秀的话题范文。
翻译了一天，然后看了主题句....
怎么各位大大翻译得好快啊.....
呜，前两天回老家考驾照没带电脑掉了好多啊，明天死定了...
不管怎么说，还是努力加油吧，给自己鼓劲！
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-22 18:19:52

中耳炎疼了3天，今天下午刚打完针...
亲耐的爹妈和弟弟跑出去亲密聚餐把我落下了...
好吧，怪我自己没带手机俺妈在医院里找我找了半天最后放弃...
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-23 18:42:27

下午上东坡他老人家充满传奇而坎坷的一生
课间抽空看了已打印出来的草木第七讲段落TS和逻辑顺序标志词
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-23 18:43:14

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-24 01:00 编辑

Topic Sentences and Signposting



本文绿色是本人理解
红色是不理解之处~~~


Topic sentences and signposts make an essay's claims clear to a reader. Good essays contain both. Topic sentences
reveal the main point of a paragraph. They show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay's thesis, telegraph the point of a paragraph, and tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows. Topic sentences also establish their relevance（n.中肯，适当） right away, making clear why the points they're making are important to the essay's main ideas. They argue rather than report（辨析比陈述重要）. Signposts, as their name suggests, prepare the reader for a change in the argument's direction.（重要转折点） They show how far the essay's argument has progressed vis-ˆ-vis（这是啥，乱码？） the claims of the thesis.



Topic sentences and signposts occupy a middle ground in the writing process. They are neither the first thing a writer needs to address (thesis and the broad strokes of an essay's structure are); nor are they the last (that's when you attend to sentence-level editing and polishing). Topic sentences and signposts deliver（v.陈述） an essay's structure and meaning to a reader, so they are useful diagnostic tools to the writer—they let you know if your thesis is arguable—and essential guides to the reader.

Forms of Topic Sentences

Sometimes topic sentences are actually two or even three sentences long. If the first makes a claim, the second might reflect on that claim（这两句有什么区别吗？）, explaining it further. （第一句表明一个主张，第二句可能反映主张，在就是进一步的解释了）Think of these sentences as asking and answering two critical questions: How does the phenomenon you're discussing operate? Why does it operate as it does? 这两句看得不是很懂….

There's no set formula for writing a topic sentence. Rather, you should work to vary the form your topic sentences take. Repeated too often, any method grows wearisome. Here are a few approaches.

１．Complex sentences.
Topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph frequently combine with a transition from the previous paragraph. This might be done by writing a sentence that contains both subordinate（a.次要的n.下属v.服从） and independent clauses, as in the example below.（利用复合句，联系上下文的作用）


Although Young Woman with a Water Pitcher depicts an unknown, middle-class woman at an ordinary task, the image is more than "realistic"; the painter [Vermeer] has imposed his own order upon it to strengthen it.


This sentence employs a useful principle of transitions: always move from old to new information.
The subordinate clause (from "although" to "task") recaps information from previous paragraphs; the independent clauses (starting with "the image" and "the painter") introduce the new information—a claim about how the image works ("more than Ôrealistic'") and why it works as it does (Vermeer "strengthens" the image by "imposing order").


２．Questions.
（提问）Questions, sometimes in pairs, also make good topic sentences (and signposts).
Consider the following: "Does the promise of stability justify this unchanging hierarchy?" We may fairly assume that the paragraph or section that follows will answer the question. Questions are by definition a form of inquiry, and thus demand an answer. Good essays strive for this forward momentum.

３．Bridge sentences.
Like questions, "bridge sentences" (the term is John Trimble's) make an excellent substitute for more formal topic sentences. Bridge sentences indicate both what came before and what comes next (they "bridge" paragraphs) without the formal trappings of multiple clauses: "But there is a clue to this puzzle."


４．Pivots（n.中枢，核心）.
Topic sentences don't always appear at the beginning of a paragraph. When they come in the middle, they indicate that the paragraph will change direction, or "pivot." This strategy is particularly useful for dealing with counter-evidence: a paragraph starts out conceding a point or stating a fact ("Psychologist Sharon Hymer uses the term Ônarcissistic friendship' to describe the early stage of a friendship like the one between Celie and Shug"); after following up on this initial statement with evidence, it then reverses direction and establishes a claim ("Yet ... this narcissistic stage of Celie and Shug's relationship is merely a transitory one. Hymer herself concedes . . . "). The pivot always needs a signal, a word like "but," "yet," or "however," or a longer phrase or sentence that indicates an about-face. It often needs more than one sentence to make its point.

Signposts

Signposts operate as topic sentences for whole sections in an essay. (In longer essays, sections often contain more than a single paragraph.) They inform a reader that the essay is taking a turn in its argument: delving into a related topic such as a counter-argument, stepping up its claims with a complication, or pausing to give essential historical or scholarly background. Because they reveal the architecture of the essay itself, signposts remind readers of what the essay's stakes are: what it's about, and why it's being written.


Signposting can be accomplished in a sentence
or two at the beginning of a paragraph or in whole paragraphs that serve as transitions between one part of the argument and the next. The following example comes from an essay examining how a painting by Monet, The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train, challenges Zola's declarations about Impressionist art. The student writer wonders whether Monet's Impressionism is really as devoted to avoiding "ideas" in favor of direct sense impressions as Zola's claims would seem to suggest. This is the start of the essay's third section:


It is evident in this painting that Monet found his Gare Saint-Lazare motif fascinating at the most fundamental level of the play of light as well as the loftiest level of social relevance. Arrival of a Train explores both extremes of expression. At the fundamental extreme, Monet satisfies the Impressionist objective of capturing the full-spectrum effects of light on a scene.

The writer signposts this section in the first sentence, reminding readers of the stakes of the essay itself with the simultaneous references to sense impression ("play of light") and intellectual content ("social relevance"). The second sentence follows up on this idea, while the third serves as a topic sentence for the paragraph. The paragraph after that starts off with a topic sentence about the "cultural message" of the painting, something that the signposting sentence predicts by not only reminding readers of the essay's stakes but also, and quite clearly, indicating what the section itself will contain.

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-25 01:46:11

5分样文
Specialists are not overrated today. More generalists may be needed, but not to overshadow the specialists. Generalists can provide a great deal of information on many topics of interest with a broad range of ideas. People who look at the overall view of things can help with some of the large problems our society faces today. But specialists are necessary to gain a better understanding of more in depth methods to solve problems or fixing things.

One good example of why specialists are not overrated is in the medical field. Doctors are necessary for people to live healthy lives. When a person is sick, he may go to a general practitioner to find out the cause of his problems. Usually, this kind of "generalized" doctor can help most ailments with simple and effective treatments. Sometimes, though, a sickness may go beyond a family doctor's knowledge or the prescribed treatments don't work the way they should. When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed as a disease that requires more care than a family doctor can provide, he may be referred to a specialist. For instance, a person with constant breathing problems that require hospitalization may be suggested to visit an asthma specialist. Since a family doctor has a great deal of knowledge of medicine, he can decide when his methods are not effective and the patient needs to see someone who knows more about the specific problem; someone who knows how it begins, progresses, and specified treatments. This is an excellent example of how a generalied person may not be equipped enough to handle something as well as a specialized one can.

Another example of a specialist who is needed instead of a generalist involves teaching. In grammar school, children learn all the basic principles of reading, writing, and arithematic. But as children get older and progress in school, they gain a better understanding of the language and mathematical processes. As the years in school increase, they need to learn more and more specifics and details about various subjects. They start out by learning basic math concepts such as addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. A few years later, they are ready to begin algebraic concepts, geometry, and calculus. They are also ready to learn more advanced vocabulary, the principles of how all life is composed and how it functions. One teacher or professor can not provide as much in depth discussion on all of these topics as well as one who has learned the specifics and studied mainly to know everything that is currently known about one of these subjects. Generalized teachers are required to begin molding students at a very early age so they can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic subjects and finding out new facts on the old ones.

These are only two examples of why specialists are not highly overrated and more generalists are not necessary to the point of overshadowing them. Generalists are needed to give the public a broad understanding of some things. But , specialists are important to help maintain the status, health, and safety of our society. Specialists are very necessary.
5分评语：
这位作者通过讨论全才和专才的需要表现出对复杂话题的优秀分析能力。
这个观点主要建立在两个深度例子上，第一个例子从对医药全才和专才的必要性来开展讨论，然后过渡到另外一个例子（呼吸问题以及哮喘专家的必要性）。这个从抽象到具体的延展，为下一段做了铺垫。那一段，讨论主要集中于从小学到高中的教育，从基础数学到微积分。
这些流畅的表达是得益于适当的过渡词比如“but”,“usually”,and“ for instance”，最后以重复作者主题以结束全文。
虽然作者也很好地运用了语言和语法，但有几个小失误，让这篇理论清晰的文章掉出6分的档次。这个问题从于代名词的缺少（当病被加重和确诊时。。。。他可能需要向专家咨询）到在并列结构上的错误（它什么时候开始，进展和具体治疗手段），到松散的解构和不精确的语言（全面性的老师需要从小塑造一个学生，因为他们能够为将来吸收更多的关于基础课程的知识而做准备。）
4分以下样文大概看了一下
低分的理由无非就是两点
1.例子不恰当，或者没有合理的推理和说服力
2．句子结构简单或错误比较多
ARGUMENT分析写作
了解阿狗
阿狗主要考察你对阿狗的理解，分析和评估还有条理性地在写作中陈列你的分析的能力，这个任务主要包括一个简要的文章，作者通过列出有力的推理和证据来详述这些活动的理由和项目的说明。你的任务是通过批判性地检查文章所列出的理由和证据来讨论作者合理的观点。这个任务需要你仔细阅读阿狗。你可能会至少读一遍以上，然后可能列出大概的关于你在文章中所想充分阐述的观点的草稿。在阅读阿狗时，你需要特别关注：
•本文提供了什么作为证据和支持
•什么是文中明确阐述或总结出来的
•什么是可能没有经过合理推论出来的假设
•什么是文中没有说明的，但可以从它的文中推断出来的（这句话瞧着别扭…）
还有，你应该考虑阿狗的结构，即通过一系列合理推断把各个元素连接起来的途径。你需要认识到个别的，在思考过程中的一些怀疑的步骤（不知道怎么说…），考虑每个步骤是否合理。在追踪线索时，寻找那些能表明作者尝试着做一个逻辑连接的连接词或词组。（如但是，因此，显然，总的来说）
在阿狗里最重要的一部分是记住你没有被需要去做什么，你也不需讨论阿狗里面的陈述是否真实或精确。相反的是，你需要从陈述里总结出来的结论和推论是否合理。你不需要同意或不同意已明确的立场。你也不需要在有关被讨论的话题中表达你自己的观点（这是当你在ISSUE的时候）相反的是，你需要评价作者所提出的合理观点，以及论证批判性的思考，有合理的解释以及分析写作技巧，它们是大学教师所认为对研究生院非常重要的成功因素。阿狗，最主要的是辨析思考性写作，因此，在你批评写作中体现你的分析技巧决定你的分数。
了解写作背景：目的和读者
此写作的目的是观察你是怎样作出深刻分析他人所提出的观点来有效地向学院观众来传达你在文章中的辨析思维。你的读者是经受过作为能够运用阿狗评判标准（第28页）的GRE考官大学或学院教师。
为了更加了解GRE考官是如何运用这些阿狗评分标准去评价文章，你应该重读这些阿狗样文及考官评语。尤其是5到6分的样文，会向你展示对组织结构和阐述深刻的辨析的丰富而成功的策略。你会看到许多充分利用语言的例子。考官评语主要讨论分析写作的特别之处，比如深刻的思想，陈述及支持，文章结构，丰富句式以及纯熟的语言。这些评语会指出在分析写作中一些方面，尤其是有效性和深刻性，更重要的是一些影响整体文章有效性的缺点。
准备阿狗
因为阿狗任务是主要考察你经过教育后所培养出来的分析写作和合理推断能力，所以它不会被设置为需要一些特别课程的研究或者受过特别训练的有着有利条件的学生。许多关于写作的的大学教科书都有关于可能被证明为有实用的自由逻辑辨析思考教程，但即使这些可能比考试所要求的更加细节和专业化（detailed and technical）。你也不被需要知道分析方法或者专门术语。举例，一个话题，是关于小学校长可能认为增加新的运动设施可能会提高学生的出席率，因为学生的缺席率因这措施被执行以来有所降低。你不需要注意校长新添了哪些措施（the principal has committed the post hoc, ergo proper hoc fallacy），你需要简单地注意下对于出席率的提高有其他可能的假设，通过提供一些常识的例子，可能要提出修改此结论的必要。举例，缺席率的降低可能是因为适宜的天气。这些可能是为了证实校长的言论而被排除了。（This would have to be ruled in order for the principal’s conclusion to be valid.）
尽管你不需要知道具体的分析技巧和术语，你应该熟悉阿狗任务的指导和一些关键的概念，包括如下：
•可取代的解释：一个可能更有力的版本导致了这些项目出现问题，一个可取代的介绍分割或限定最初的解释是因为它更能说明一些具体的事实。
•分析：把某些东西打破的过程是为了去了解他们是怎样一起工作组成整体，还有一个通常在写作中关于结果的陈述的过程
•辩论： 通过合理推断和证据来支撑的一个主张或一系列主张。一系列合理推断意味着说明某些事情的真实或虚假。
•假设：一种不直接说明或验证的简述，某些人为了维持特别的立场而必须抑制的。某些被承认但必须是真的为了使结论真实可信的东西。一个通常也是不直接说明和验证的简述，通常它的持有能让你保持一个特定的观点。它可能是默认的，但是它的正确性往往是为了验证你的结论是正确的。（番茄翻译得真好啊….）
•结论：通过一系列推论而总结出来的最终观点，如果推论是合理的就是有根据的；最终的结果主张。
•反例：一个例子，真实的或假设的，是用来驳倒或驳斥阿狗里面的一个观点。
一个准备阿狗最好的途径是选些题库里面的题来练习写作。对每个人来说没有什么方法是最适合他们的。一些人更喜欢一开始不严格限定30分钟练习，如果你运用这种方法，你需要更多的是就去分析阿狗。不管你选择哪种方法，你需要：
•仔细阅读题目，你可能需要阅读一遍以上。
•尽可能地明确它许多的观点和结论以及潜在假设。
•尽可能地思考更多的可取代性的解释和范例。
•思考更多的证据来削弱或增强支撑观点。
•自我询问在文章中什么样的变革能够使推论更加合理。
写下每条想法的简单笔记。当你离你的分析很远的时候，回头看看这些笔记，并把它们放在讨论中最重要的位置（可能要列出它们）。然后通过按照顺序充分阐述你的每一条观点来写下辨析。即使你选择不写充实的文章，你也应该发现它对练习分析几篇文章和对你的文章列提纲非常重要。当你能够更快且更自信的时候，你应该在30分钟限时内写几篇文章，因为你可以有更好的怎样调整你在考试中的节奏感的感觉。比如，你可能不需要尽可能地讨论一个观点或者提供更多的相似例子以至于时间不够去做主要观点的阐述。
你可能需要从一个写作指导者，一个哲学老师，或在他或她的课程里强调辨析思考的某些人他们得到关于你这篇文章的反馈。交换与同学写的同一话题的文章和根据评分标准来讨论他人的文章也是非常有效的。不用过分关注最高分，要看到这篇文章是怎样符合或误解每一个评分标准（不要过多的关注根据文章在评分档上符合或错过了什么要求而该打多少分，依旧是番茄的翻译….），和为了改进因此你需要去做什么。
怎样解释在阿狗话题里面出现的数据，百分比，以及统计。
一些文章包括被用来作为支撑作者结论的证据的数据，百分比或统计。举例，一篇文章可能主张一个确定的公社活动在此年没有上一年流行了，因为此年只有100个人出席和上一年150人出席相比，出席率下降了百分之三十三。记住最重要的是你不需要去考证数据，百分比及统计的精确性。相反的是，你需要评价的是，它们作为证据能否支持结论。在以上例子中，结论是公社活动不再流行了，你需要问你自己，100个人和150个人之间的不同能支持此结论吗？在此案例中，写下其他可能性的解释。举例，在此年天气可能更糟糕，在此年活动可能在不方便的时候举行的，在此年活动的花费更高了，或者，在同一时间出现了其他更流行的活动。每一个都可能解释出席率的不同，因此它削弱了关于活动不流行的了结论。同样的，百分比有可能支持或削弱依靠百分比所表现出的确实的数据的一个结论。考虑这个观点，是学校的戏剧小组值得投入因为它的成员人数已经提高了百分之百，如果是由过去的5个人到现在的十个人，这个百分之百的提高可能是有意义的。记住，在阿狗话题中的任何数据，百分比，或统计都只能作为证据来支撑结论，你需要经常考虑它们是否能确实支持结论。
你文章的形式
你可以通过任何你认为能够有效的表达你对论点的分析途径来自由组织文章结构和阐述你的批判。你的文章，可能有，但实际上不需要的，从大学里面所设置的英文写作课程里所学到的综合详细的写作策略。GRE考官不会审查一个详细的发展的策略或写作模式。事实上，当教师被迅雷成为GRE考官，他们看过上百篇阿狗文章，尽管内容和形式上有很大的不同，但表现出类似的辨析思维和分析写作能力的水平。举例，考官会看到一些6分水平的文章都是以简洁的综合论点和明确的立场以及阐述主要批判观点为开头，或确定问出出现的主要破绽和广泛地陈述批判。你可能想借鉴一些阿狗样文，尤其是5到6分水平的，去学习这些作者是怎样成功地陈述和组织他们的辨析。
你需要做出选择，是关于你所想支持的形式和结构以及提高你整体辨析思维的有效性。这意味利用或多或少的一些你认为对你批判是适当的的段落。举例，当你的讨论转移至一个新的分析观点是，另起一个新的段落。你可能想要围绕着文章本身结构来组织你的辨析，一条一条地讨论论点。或者你可能想先指出最关键的可疑假设然后在合理推论中去讨论相关的破绽。类似于，你可能想要利用例子，如果它们能帮助解释说明你的一个重要的批判观点或推进你的讨论（记住，然而，根据你的能力去有效地完成阿狗任务，这是你的辨析思维和分析写作，不是你提出例子的能力，这些都是被考核的。）重要的不是你文章的形式如何，而是在此综合写作中怎样使你的文章分析更深刻和确实你能表达你的分析能力给考官。
阿狗样题
医院关于因滑旱冰而进急诊室的人的统计指出保护性的设备的重要性。在这群人中，有百分之75都发生在街道或公园里，同时没有佩戴任何保护装备（头盔，护膝等），或者任何反光材料（比如可夹住的灯，专用于黑夜行驶的护腕垫等）。这些统计清楚地指出买一些高质量的保护装备和反光设备，滑冰者会很好地规避事故风险。
关于此话题的策略
这个话题引用了医院详细的统计来支持关于买进高质量的保护装备和反光设备会减少滑冰者的受伤事故的一般性结论。
在阐述你的分析是，你应该问你自己这医院的统计是否确实支撑这个结论，你可能要问你自己如下问题：
•因滑冰事故而进急诊室的滑冰者的百分比是多少？
•这些因滑冰事故而进急诊室的人能代表一般的滑冰者吗？
•有没有在滑冰事故里受伤而没有进急诊室的人？
•是不是进急诊室的滑冰者都严重受伤？
•那些百分之25佩戴了保护装备的滑冰者和百分之75没佩戴保护设备的人受伤个一样严重吗？
•街道和公园对滑冰者来说是不是本来就比其他地方更加危险？
•中等质量的保护装备是不是和高质量的保护装备一样能够避免在滑冰中受伤的危险。
•有没有除了装备和设备以外其他的理由。比如天气条件，能见度，以及滑冰者的技巧，这些都可能与滑冰受伤的危险有紧密的联系。
样文及评语
6分样文
The notion that protective gear reduces the injuries suffered in accidentsseems at first glance to be an
obvious conclusion. After all, it is the intent of these products toeither provent accidents from occuring in the first place or to reduce theinjuries suffered by the wearer should an accident occur. However, the
conclusion that investing in high quality protective gear greatly reducesthe risk of being severely injured in an accident may mask other (andpotentially more significant) causes of injuries and may inspire people to overinvest financially and psychologically in protective gear.
First of all, as mentioned in the argument, there are two distinct kindsof gear - preventative gear (such as light reflecting material) and protectivegear (such as helmets). Preventative gear is intended to warn
others, presumably for the most part motorists, of the presence of theroller skater. It works only if the
"other" is aresponsible and caring individual who will afford the skater the necessaryspace and attention.
Protective gear is intended to reduce the effect of any accident, whetherit is caused by an other, the skater or some force of nature. Protective geardoes little, if anything, to prevent accidents but is presumed to reduce theinjuries that occur in an accident. The statistics on injuries suffered byskaters would be more interesting if the skaters were grouped into thosewearing no gear at all, those wearing protective gear only,those wearingpreventative gear only and those wearing both. These statistics could provideskaters with a clearer understanding of which kinds of gear are morebeneficial.
The argument above is weakened by the fact that it does not take into accountthe inherent differences between skaters who wear gear and those who do not. Ifis at least likely that those who wear gear may be generally more responsibleand/or safety conscious individuals. The skaters who wear gear may be less likelyto cause accidents through careless or dangerous behavior. It may, in fact, betheir natural caution and repsonsibility that keeps them out of the emergencyroom rather than the gear itself. Also, the statistic above is based entirelyon those who are skating in streets and parking lots which are relativelydangerous places to skate in the first place. People who are generally moresafety conscious (and therefore more likely to wear gear) may choose to skatein safer areas such as parks or back yards.
The statistic also goes not differentiate between severity of injuries.The conclusion that safety gear
prevents severe injuries suggests that it is presumed that people come tothe emergency room only with
severe injuries. This is certainly not the case. Also, given that skatingis a recreational activity that may be primarily engaged in during evenings andweekends (when doctors' offices are closed), skater with less severe injuriesmay be especially likely to come to the emergency room for treatment.
Finally, there is absolutely no evidence provided that high quality (andpresumably more expensive) gear is any more beneficial than other kinds ofgear. For example, a simple white t-shirt may provide the same preventativebenefit as a higher quality, more expensive, shirt designed only for skating.Before skaters are encouraged to invest heavily in gear, a more completeunderstanding of the benefit provided by individual pieces of gear would behelpful.
The argument for safety gear based on emergency room statistics could provideimportant information and potentially saves lives. Before conclusions about theamount and kinds of investments that should be made in gear are reached,however, a more complete understanding of the benefits are needed. After all, afalse confidence in ineffective gear could be just as dangerous as no gear atall.
考官评语
这篇杰出的文章展示了作者深刻的分析技巧。在开篇所提及的，简单指出话题的荒谬推理鼓励人们去额外付出更多的金钱和精力在保护装备是紧随着全面检验题目的错误。开头段提及的“运用题目易错的推理容易导致人们过多的将钱和精力关注到保护设备”是紧随着全面检验题目的错误（还是亲爱的番茄…）。尤其是，作者指出推翻此话题的几个观点：
•避免和保护装备是两种概念。
•佩戴了装备而很少受伤的那些人是因为他们更有谨慎感。
•数据不是由伤势的严重性来区分的。
•设备不需要高质量才有效。
这个讨论很流畅而富有逻辑组织性，每个观点都经过深思熟虑地阐释。在加上，整篇文章很简洁且基本没语法错误，句式复杂多样，表述精确而有效。
总的来说，这个例子表明了评分标准所描述的最高6分。如果作者再降低点辩论性或提供更少的例子来反对此观点，这篇文章仍然能得到6分。
5分样文
The argument presented is limited but useful. It indicates a possiblerelationship between a high percentage of accidents and a lack of protectiveequipment. The statistics cited compel a further investigation of the usefulnessof protective gear in preventing or mitigating roller-skating related injuries.However, the conclusion that protective gear and reflective equipment would"greatly reduce.risk of being severely injured" is premature. Data islacking with reference to the total population of skaters and the relative levelsof experience, skill and physical coordination of that population. It is entirelypossible that further research would indicate that most serious injury isaverted by the skater's ability to react quickly and skillfully in emergencysituations.
Another area of investigation necessary before conclusions can be reachedis identification of the types of injuries that occur and the various causes of those injuries. The article fails to identify the most prevalent types of roller-skating related injuries. It also fails to correlate the absence of protective gear and reflective equipment to those injuries. For example, if the majority of injuries are skin abrasions and closed-head injuries, then a case can be made for the usefulness of protective clothing mentioned. Likewise, if injuries are caused by collision with vehicles (e.g. bicycles, cars) or pedestrians, then light-reflective equipment might mitigate the occurences. However, if the primary types of injuries are soft-tissue injuries such as torn ligaments and muscles, back injuries and the like, then a greater case could be made for training and experience as preventative measures.
考官评语：
这篇有力的文章认为观点的批判过程是正确的，注意到指出可能性的观点，但结论是不成熟的。它提出了三个关键问题，如果能够回答，将会攻破观点的合理性：
•滑轮者总人口的特征是什么？
•保护和反光设备在避免和减轻滑旱冰者的受伤起到了什么作用？
•伤势有哪几种以及它们的原因是什么？
这位作者通过考虑可能会强化或削弱观点的答案来阐述每一个问题。这篇文章并没有像6分文章所要求的有充分的深刻阐述或辨析来分析观点。但其明晰的结构，强大语言的运用以及有一定根据的陈述是它高于4分。
4分样文
Although the argument stated above discusses the importance of safety equipment as significant part of
avoiding injury, the statistics quoted are vague and inconclusive. Simply because 75 percent of the people involved in roller-skating accidents are not wearing the stated equipment does not automatically implicate the lack of equipment as the cause of injury. The term "accidents" may imply a great variety of injuries.
The types of injuries one could incur by not wearing the types of equipment stated above are minor head injuries; skin abrasions or possibly bone fracture of a select few areas such as knees, elbows, hands, etc. (which are in fact most vulnerable to this sport); and/or injuries due to practising the sport during low light times of the day. During any physically demanding activity or sport people are subjected to a wide variety of injuries which cannot be avoided with protective clothing or light-reflective materials. These injuries include inner trauma (e.g., heart-attack); exhaustion; strained muscles, ligaments, or tendons; etc. Perhaps the numbers and percentages of people injured during roller-skating, even without protective equipment, would decrease greatly if people participating in the sport had proper training, good physical health, warm up properly before beginning (stretching), as well as take other measures to prevent possible injury, such as common-sense, by refraining from performing the activity after proper lighting has ceased and knowing your personal limitations as an individual and athlete. The statistics used in the above reasoning are lacking in proper direction considering their assertions and therefore must be further examined and modified so that proper conclusions can be reached.
考官评语：
这篇充分的文章瞄准了话题中模糊和不确定的统计。此文明确和批判从其统计的误解所推导出的合理推理。
•没用设备可能被自动的假定为受伤的原因。
•所谓的事故可能是小小的受伤。
•可能由其他原因所引发的事故—在黑夜中滑冰，没有受过适当的训练和热身，没有认识到个人身体限制。
作者合适地抓住该话题的弱点之处。其思想是明确连贯的，但此文缺乏过渡的短语。阐述也是刚刚好。
语言的运用十分充分，这位作者掌握了控制和明确以及英语文法的习惯。尽管从整体上来说，这篇4分样文缺少5分样文那样更彻底的阐述。
Essay Response – Score 3
The argument is well presented and supported, but not completely well reasoned. It is clear and concisely written. The content is logically and smoothly presented. Statistics cited are used to develop support for there commendation, that roller skaters who invest in protective gear and reflective equipment can reduce their risk of severe, accidental injuries. Examples of the types of protective equipment are described for the reader. Unfortunately, the author of the argument fails to note that merely by purchasing gear and reflective equipment that the skater will be protected. This is, of course, fallacious if the skater fails to use the equipment, or uses it incorrectly or inappropriately. It is also an unnecessary assumption that a skater need purchase high-quality gear for the same degree of effectiveness to be achieved. The argument could be improved by taking these issues into consideration, and making recommendations for education and
safety awareness to skaters.
考官评语：
这篇写的不错但有所限制的文章第一部分仅仅描述了此话题，第二部分明确了该话题的两种假设：
•购买了保护装备的人会使用该装备。
•高质量装备比其他装备更有效。
这些观点充分组成一些分析，因此确保得三分，然而，没有充分阐述两种观点得不到4分。
二分及一分样文不予翻译的哈
样题
ISSUE
在ISSUE中表达你的观点 45分钟
你会有45分钟计划和写作一篇文章来表达你对所选择的话题的观点。任何对其他问题的回答都只能得零分，你会从两个话题中选一个，每个题目会以一个简单的引用而出现，即主张或暗示一个公众话题。你可以自由接受，拒绝，或限定话题所提出的观点。只要你所表达的观点清楚且与你所选择的话题相关联。通过从你所任何读过的领域，经验，观察或学院学习来推论和举例来支持你的观点。
在你做出选择之前，仔细阅读每一个话题。然后决定你可以更有效和充分推理的文章的话题。GRE考官是大学和学院教师，他们会阅读你的文章来对整体质量做出评价，这决定于你准备的充分性。
•考虑该题的复杂性和暗示之处。
•组织，阐述和表达你关于此题的观点。
•运用相关的推理和例子来支持你的观点。
•运用英文写作不同的元素。
你可能需要一些时间来思考你所选择的话题，在你开始写作之前列个提纲。确保充分阐述你的观点以及连贯地组织语言，但留下一点时间来阅读你写完的文章，在你认为必要时做一些订正。
ISSUE话题选择
在以下题目中选一个来表达你的观点，运用相关的推理或例子来支撑你的观点。
题目一
科学技术产品及使用的发展给人们带来现代文明同时孤独感也增加了。
题目二
我们日益衰退的环境将会带来。。。。。我们日益衰退的环境将同时为人类带来无政治家，无哲学家和战争。环境问题是全球性问题且部分国界。因此，人类面对的做以整体为目标的选择携手并进或者作为个体并迎来同样的悲剧。
ARGUMENT
30分钟
你有三十分钟的时间来计划和写一篇能够以简短段落的形式来表达对题目的批判。任何对其他题目的批判将会得零分。
分析文章所列出的推理，确保考虑什么是某些质疑的假设成为其思想的基础，如果证据被应用，它是怎样支持论点的。
你也可以讨论某些证据可以强化或反对论点，对题目来说什么样的变化可以使它变得更具有逻辑性，怎么样的附加说明可以帮助你更好地评价结论。简要写下你可能会被需要在文中来表达你的观点的东西。
GRE考官都是大学和学院教师，他们会阅读你的批判和评价整体质量，这是基于你怎样充分表现：
•明确和分析题目最重要的特点。
•组织，阐述和表达你对文章的批判。
•运用相关的推理和例子来支持你的批判。
•充分运用标准英语写作元素。
在开始写作之前，你可能需要几分钟来分析题目和做一些提纲。确保充分阐述你的观点和连贯地组织它们，但留下一点时间来阅读你已写完的文章，在你认为必要的时候做些修改。
ARGUMENT TOPIC
讨论怎样合理地推论你所发现的争论。
题目：
6个月前FORESTVILLE地区把高速公路的汽车限速提高了10公里每小时。自从改变生效后，车祸率提到了15%。但是作为FORESTVILLE邻居ELMSFOR的限速，仍然保持不变，但是车祸率却从相同的6个月里稍稍下降了。因此，FORESTVILLE的居民如果希望高速公路的车祸率能降低，那么他们该把提高之前的速度再降低点。
ISSUE评分标准
6分
一篇6分文章应该表现一个信服的，对ISSUE复杂性的连贯分析，通过技巧把意思表达出来。
一篇在此类的典型文章
•在文中表达深刻的观点。
•运用令人信服的推理或有说服力的例子来阐述你的立场。
•包含一个关注度高的，组织良好的分析，能够把观点连贯起来。
•流畅地和精确地表达关单，运用有效的词汇和丰富多样的句子。
•熟练运用标准英语写作习惯（语法，结构等）但允许一些小的错误。
5分标准
一篇5分文章表现一般思想，对话题复杂性的良好分析，清楚表达意思。
在此类的典型文章：
•在文章中表达已考虑好的立场。
•运用符合逻辑的推理和恰当的例子来阐述观点。
•观点集中，组织良好，恰当地把观点联系起来。
•清楚且良好地表达观点，运用合适的词汇和丰富的句式。
•展现标准英语写作习惯的熟练性，但可允许一些小的错误。
4分标准
一篇4分文章展示对话题有合适的分析和充分表达思想。
在此类的典型文章：
•在文中表达清晰的立场。
•运用相关的推理或例子来阐述你的观点。
•有充分的关注和组织
•有合理清晰的表达观点
•展示一般的标准语言习惯控制能力，但可允许小错误。
3分标准：
一篇3分的文章展示了一些对话题合理的分析以及能够表达观点但有明显的破绽。
此类典型文章可能有一个及一个以上的以下特征：
•在文章中表达观点是模糊且有限的。
•没有充分运用相关的推理或例子。
•没有足够的关注或组织。
•在语言及句子结构方面有一些问题，导致表述不清。
•包括在语法或结构方面有偶然大量的错误或经常的小错误，影响其表达。
一分标准：
此类典型文章有一个或一个以上以下特征：
•仅提供少量或根本没有证据来了解和分析题目。
•仅提供少量或根本没有证据来发展一篇具有组织性的文章。
•在语言和句子结构上有些错误，影响表达。
•包括在文法，语法以及结构方面的随处可见的错误，导致不连贯。
0分标准
远离话题，用外语书写，仅仅抄了题目，包括一些键盘敲击，或模糊，或空白，或无法说出的文字。
ARGUMENT评分标准
6分文章应表现一个有力的，组织连贯的分析，并有技巧地表达其思想。
此类典型文章
•清楚地明确题目的重要特征，能够深刻地分析它们。
•深刻地阐释观点，富有逻辑性地组织它们。
•有效地支持批判的主要观点。
•展示了语言的运用能力，包括合适的词语及丰富句式。
•展示了标准英语写作习惯的熟练性，但允许有小错误。
5分标准
5分文章表达了一般的有深度的，良好的陈述批判以及明晰地表达思想。
•明确题目的重要特点，在一个普遍的角度上来分析它们。
•清楚地阐释观点，有逻辑性地组织观点，以及通过合适的连接词来连接它们。
•明显地支持批判的主要观点。
•展示了语言运用技巧，包括合适的语言选择及丰富句式
•展示了标准英语写作习惯的熟练性但允许小错误。
4分标准
一篇4分的文章表达了对题目合理的批判以及充分表达其思想。
•明确和分析其题目的重要特征。
•合理地阐释和组织思想但可能没有连接词来联系它们。
•支持批判的主要观点。
•展示了有效的语言运用去清晰合理地表达观点。
•展示一般的标准英语写作习惯的控制能力但允许有一些错误。
3分标准
一篇3分的文章展示一些对观点合理的批判及能够表达其思想但有明显的破绽。
此类典型文章可能包括以下一点或一点以上的特征:
•不能明确或分析题目的大部分重要特征，尽管题目的一些分析还是有所表示的。
•主要分析勉强切题或根本不相干，或推理薄弱。
•在逻辑表述和思想组织方面有局限性。
•提供很少中肯及有价值的批判观点。
•缺乏明确地表达思想。
•包括在文法，语法及结构方面出现明显大量的错误或经常出现的小错误，影响意思的表达。
2分标准
一篇2分的文章展示在分析写作方面比较严重的弱点。
包括以下一个或一个以上的问题：
•不能在逻辑分析的基础上陈述一个批判，但可能代替陈述作者自己在文章的观点。
•不能阐述观点，或者没有组织性及逻辑性。
•只能提供少量的中肯或合理的支持。
•在语法运用及句子结构方面有严重的错误，影响其意思的表达。
•包括在文法，语法及结构上出现的严重错误。
一分标准
一分文章展示了在分析和写作方面基础的缺乏。
此类文章有以下一个或一个以上的特点：
•仅提供少量或根本没有证据来了解或分析题目。
•仅提供少量货根本没有证据来阐述或组织文章。
•在语言运用和句子结构方面有些错误，影响其意思的表达。
•包括随处可见的在语法及结构方面的错误，导致文章不连贯。
0分标准
离题，用外国语写作，仅仅复述题目，包括仅是键盘敲打，或模糊，或空白，或文字阐述不清的。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-25 01:50:09

AWINTRO还差最后一点尾巴了，困死了，明早补上去
在此万分感谢番茄~~~~
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-25 10:19:32

啦啦啦~~~~~
最后的尾巴终于出来了
各位大大翻译真是快....
虽然很慢，我还是终于磕磕巴巴地翻译完了，给自己撒花，一点一点的努力累积
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-25 10:19:50

评分标准
尽管GRE分析写作手段包括两篇独立的分析写作任务。但只有一种综合的分数，是因为它比任一篇任务的单个分数来说更合理。报告的分数，是两篇任务的分数的平均数，等级为从0到6，中间包含半分。
以下陈述说明，任何一种分数水平，都是通过I和A写作任务来评价整体分析写作质量水平。因为这次考试评价的是写作水平，辨析思维技巧（即推理，累积证据来阐述一个观点，以及表达综合思想的能力），这比作者对好的观点所体现出对文章语法及结构良好控制更加重要。
6分到5.5分的标准
包括对复杂思想进行深度分析，运用富有逻辑及说服力的推理和高度令人信服的例子来阐述和支持主要观点。有高度集中的观点和良好的组织。有技巧地运用了句子的多样性及精确的词汇来有效地传达思想。展示了对句子结构和语法方面超人的娴熟但可允许有些不妨碍意思表达的小错误。
5分到4.5分标准
提供了对复杂思想一般性的分析，充分运用合逻辑的推理及合适的例子来阐述和支持主要观点。有一般性的关注和良好的组织。运用丰富多样的句子和词汇来清楚地表达意思。展示了对句式及语言良好的运用但可允许出现不妨碍表达的小错误。
4分到3.5分的标准
提供对复杂思想的合理分析，运用相关的推理和例子来阐述和支持主要观点；有充分的组织；展示对句式和语言的合理运用但可能有些影响明确的表达的错误。
3分到2.5分的标准
在分析写作方面展示一些合理性，尽管此篇文章至少会出现一个如下的破绽：对分析和阐述的局限；薄弱的组织；对句式和语言方面薄弱的运用，以及总是出现导致表述不清的错误。
2分到1.5分的标准
  在分析写作出现严重的问题。此写作严重出现至少如下一种破绽：严重缺乏分析和阐述；缺少组织；在句式和语言方面出现经常性且严重的错误；有影响意思表达的错误。
1分到0.5分的标准
表现出在分析写作方面的薄弱基础。此写作至少出现如下一种基本的破绽：在文中出现极端混乱及不相干的内容；很少甚至没有阐述；出现导致文章不连贯的严重和随处可见的错误。
0分标准
这位考生的写作技巧不能被评估，因为该文章并没有解决此任务出现的任何问题，或者仅仅是尝试复述该题目；或者用外文写作；或者仅仅展示了难以理解的文字。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-27 00:22:14

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-28 20:18 编辑

第八讲 段落逻辑顺序：


关于权重排序的资料：
l
支持论据１：

Climactic Order (Order of Importance) （按重要性来排列）
In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include （逻辑思维顺序，普遍到个性，个性到普遍等规律）
general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly（多为递进关系）
l
支持论据２：
（时间年代排列）
In a historically-oriented paper (e.g. "The Early Conquests of Alexander the Great"), you might simply want to move the paper along chronologically.
(关于对论点的分析的排列)
最重要，最有趣的，放首要位置，以吸引读者读完
you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…" Ascending or climactic order adds power to a paper by leading the reader into increasing tension, much like an action movie builds to a climax.
if you use up the good stuff early, you’ll have little left to keep the reader interested in the rest of what you have to say.
（两种或两种以上观点的比较，尽可能从各方面来一条一条地阐释）
If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.

Conclusion(总结强调，让读者再次明白你的立场)
Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.
尽可能避免过长的标题，可以使用副标题来明确你的观点，使你的文章结构更加紧凑
You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.
Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.
This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.

支持论据3


After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe（这个没看懂...）, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order, that is, ascending from least to most important.
l
支持论据４：
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.

反例2图片里面的逻辑在我看来似乎是合理的啊，不是反例吧...
普遍到特殊，时空顺序，问题到方法，数据到总结，这都是我们惯常的逻辑思维吧，咋在反例里面了，不明白.............

通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１．
并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２．
实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -
Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions:
The Parts of an Essay
"What?"
The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.
提出问题
"How?"
A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.
解决办法
"Why?"
Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular.
为什么会产生此问题已经为什么采取这样的措施

一、
文章地图法：
Mapping an Essay
Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in understanding your idea.

*
State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.

*
Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)

*
Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.


Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what, how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.

注意不要写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").


作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-27 23:36:40

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-28 21:38 编辑

第9讲


段落内部的关系



一、段落的基本概念：
１．段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
l
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
l
一个合理的逻辑顺序
l
没有无关细节

注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.

２．段落的长短问题：
首先原因一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
n
但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
n
过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。

一、段落的组成结构：
１．The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２．Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３．The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。

段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before.
Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors.
Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,划双线的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.

二、段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：

·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
１．
为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them, not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.

２．怎么做？
Whenever you introduce a new idea, your readers will appreciate definitions, examples and comparisons with things they already know. They will feel more comfortable with your new information if they have a familiar reference to hang on to. Three ways to do this are with orienting words and phrases, by letting the old amplify the new, and by adding explanatory words and phrases, where necessary.
（１）
USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
·
of course
·
as you know
·
until now
·
obviously
·
normally
·
previously
·
everyone is familiar with
·
remember that


（２）
LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：(扩展观点)

As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
Isn't this version much more informative than one that would begin by listing the undesirable characteristics of the old machines, then told you what the latest ones are like? How often do you begin your news with a long historical background? Such background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.


（３）
ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES（尽可能地详细阐述新的观点）：

Often, when you are introducing new ideas, you will have to expand and clarify them with definitions and explanatory material. Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
To decide how much explanatory material you need, you have to form a clear picture of your audience and how familiar they are with what you're saying. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.



三、段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
l
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
l
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
l
Connection－适当的连接句子

（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Even though the connections between your sentences may be clear to you, you can't count on your readers to supply those links. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit. If it doesn't create a single idea in your readers' minds, it's not doing its job.

English supplies us with useful linking words called connectives, （逻辑连接词）which form the logical bridges between ideas. If you keep these verbal guideposts in mind and use them as you write, you will almost automatically provide the interrelations among ideas that every reader looks for.
Here is a list of some connectives. Like the subordinating conjunctions, these are the good guys; use them liberally (but correctly and appropriately), and I guarantee that your writing will become more effective. They are hard to overuse.


Connective words that describe relationships:

ALSO
[/td][td]HOWEVER
[/td][td]ALTHOUGH
[/td][/tr]
INCIDENTALLY
[/td][td]THEREFORE
[/td][td]BESIDES
[/td][/tr]
LIKEWISE
[/td][td]THUS
[/td][td]MEANWHILE
[/td][/tr]
MOREOVER
[/td][td]USUALLY
[/td][td]FURTHERMORE
[/td][/tr]
NEXT
[/td][td]WHATEVER
[/td][td]GENERALLY
[/td][/tr]
YET
[/td][td]ACCORDINGLY
[/td][td]NEVERTHELESS
[/td][/tr]
INSTEAD
[/td][td]IN CONTRAST
[/td][td]FOR EXAMPLE
[/td][/tr]





Connectives that give a sense of time:

FIRST
[/td][td]SECONDLY
[/td][/tr]
FINALLY
[/td][td]NOW
[/td][/tr]
ONCE
[/td][td]WHEN
[/td][/tr]
ULTIMATELY
[/td][td]EVENTUALLY
[/td][/tr]
LASTLY
[/td][td]LATER
[/td][/tr]
MEANWHILE
[/td][td]PREVIOUSLY
[/td][/tr]
THEN
[/td][td]SOON
[/td][/tr]
FORMERLY
[/td][td]SOMETIMES
[/td][/tr]

Other Connective phrases:

TO BEGIN WITH
[/td][td]ON THE OTHER HAND
[/td][/tr]
IN BRIEF
[/td][td]IN GENERAL
[/td][/tr]
IN SUMMARY
[/td][td]MORE SPECIFICALLY
[/td][/tr]
INSTEAD OF
[/td][td]IN ADDITION TO
[/td][/tr]
IN OTHER WORDS
[/td][td]ANOTHER WAY TO
[/td][/tr]
FOR THE SAME REASON
[/td][td]NO MATTER WHAT
[/td][/tr]
SUCH A
[/td][td]THAT'S WHAT (WHY)
[/td][/tr]
IN FACT
[/td][td]WHAT'S MORE
[/td][/tr]
IN THE SAME WAY
[/td][td]ON THE CONTRARY
[/td][/tr]
CONVERSELY
[/td][td]AS A RESULT
[/td][/tr]
SUMMING UP
[/td][td]IF SO / NOT
[/td][/tr]

All of these words and phrases link ideas and assure continuity in your writing. (具体的这些连接词我在写作语言里边有更详细的总结)


（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:

TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.

这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:

THIS
THAT
THESE
WHICH
THEIR
HIS
ITS
HER

利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）

For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
If you try to use these connective devices in your own writing, but have difficulty, be suspicious that the ideas that you're trying to link together in a single paragraph are merely a sequence (that is, a catalog) of logically unrelated ideas. Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
Another way to tie ideas together is with intensives. Intensives help you emphasize what's important and to set the important apart from the incidental -- a major goal of all scientific and technical writing. Compare the following two sentences, the first without intensives and the second with intensives added:
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives:

ESPECIALLY
[/td][td]AS MUCH AS
[/td][td]EVEN IF/THOUGH
[/td][/tr]
INCREASINGLY
[/td][td]BY FAR
[/td][td]SO...THAT
[/td][/tr]
MORE IMPORTANTLY
[/td][td]HIGHLY
[/td][td]ONLY
[/td][/tr]
PARTICULARLY
[/td][td]IN FACT
[/td][td]VERY
[/td][/tr]
SIGNIFICANTLY
[/td][td]QUITE
[/td][td]SUCH
[/td][/tr]
MOST
[/td][td]UNIQUE
[/td][td]AT ALL
[/td][/tr]
ABOVE ALL
[/td][td]INDEED
[/td][td]IN ANY CASE
[/td][/tr]


CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly. Eliminate intensives that are thrown in gratuitously or that don't make a definite contribution by emphasizing an important fact or idea. Littering your writing with intensives where they are not needed makes your writing sound trite and strains your credibility.
Here is an exercise to give you practice linking your ideas together. Add connectives, intensives (from the lists above, or make up your own) and repeated words to the following sentences to make a coherent paragraph:
·
Global Airlines carried three-million passengers last year.
·
They expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada.
·
The new DC-12 aircraft proved more fuel-efficient than the older 737's.
·
Older, unprofitable routes were dropped.
·
Passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing.
·
Only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago.
·
Their record has been accident-free since 1950.
·
Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year.
·
Profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.




https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=894597&highlight= 草木出品~~~~推荐撒花~~~~~是草木收集网上最全的连接词，再次复习下~~~

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-28 21:50:17

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-29 17:24 编辑



一、介绍：虚拟语气是英文中一特殊的语言现象，主要用于表达与事实相反或者对尚未发生的事情进行假设的陈述，常表达强烈愿望、遗憾、感慨、后悔、责备、规劝等语义。
可大致分为三类：
1、对现在事实的虚拟


基本形式：If + were /did等过去式…, …would /could /should /might + do


2、对过去事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done


3、对将来事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; 意思类似汉语中的“万一”

If + were+ 不定式…, …would+ do;


Should+ 动词原形

4、虚拟条件句的倒装
虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should, 或had, 可将if省略，再把were, should或had 移到从句句首，实行倒装。
例句：Were they here now, they could help us.=If they were here now, they could help us.

5、wish的用法
1）用于wish后面的从句，表示与事实相反的情况，或表示将来不太可能实现的愿望。其宾语从句的动词形式为：
　　

真实状况
wish后
从句动作先于主句动词动作（be的过去式为were)
现在时
过去时
从句动作与主句动作同时发生（had+过去分词）
过去时
过去完成时
将来不大可能实现的愿望
将来时
would/could+动词原形

　　　
2）Wish to do表达法。
例句：
Wish sb / sth to do
　　　 I wish to see the manager. = I want to see the manager.
　　　 I wish the manager to be informed at once. (= I want the manager to be informed at once.)
6、比较if only与only if：
only if表示"只有"；if only则表示"如果……就好了"。If only也可用于陈述语气。
例句：I wake up only if the alarm clock rings. 只有闹钟响了，我才会醒。
　　　If only the alarm clock had rung.　　　当时闹钟响了，就好了。
　　　If only he comes early.　　　　　　　但愿他早点回来。
7、It is (high) time that
It is (high) time that 后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形，但should不可省略。
例句：It is time that the children went to bed.
　　　It is high time that the children should go to bed.
8、need "不必做"和"本不该做"
didn't need to do表示：
过去不必做某事, 事实上也没做。.
needn't have done表示：
过去不必做某事, 但事实上做了。
9、as, 或者whether…or…谓语多用be的原形，引导让步虚拟从句，这种用法通常采用倒装结构。
例句：Church as we use the word refers to all religious institutions, be they Christian, Islamivc, Buddhist, Jewish, and so on.
注意1：部分动词的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气，形式为should do, 其中should常被省略。

此类动词有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request, command等表示命令、建议、要求等.

注意2：在一些惯用语之后经常需要用虚拟，来表示与事实相反或者难以实现的事情

这类习语有：as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only, for fear that, unless, in case, lest等
例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
(如果没有你的帮助，我就不能准时到达)

注意3：在下列形容词引导的that从句中必须要用虚拟语气(should) do，但是由于 should经常被省略，所以实际上用的就是动词原形。

这类形容词有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that
例句：It is necessary that he (should) realize his situation.
注意4：在虚拟语气的从句中，动词'be'的过去时态一律用"were"，不用was，
即在从句中be用were代替。
例句：If I were you, I would go to look for him. （如果我是你，就会去找他。）
　　　If he were here, everything would be all right. （如果他在这儿，一切都会好的。）
注意5：如suggest, insist不表示"建议" 或"坚持要某人做某事时"，即它们用于其本意"暗示、表明"、"坚持认为"时，宾语从句用陈述语气。
例句：The guard at gate insisted that everybody obey the rules.

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-28 22:40:27

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-28 22:42 编辑


第5期倒装
。
。
。
【什么是倒装】

如果句子谓语提前，则句子为倒装语序（inverted order），分为
完全倒装（full inversion）和部分倒装（partial inversion）
Full inversion: 整个谓语提前，如：
Down tell half a dozen apples
忽然掉下来五六个苹果。
There comes the bus
公车来了。

Partial inversion: 只有部分谓语提前，如：
How are you doing?

。


【一些常见的倒装句】

1，由引导词there 引导的句子：
There’s an outdoor concert tonight in the park
。
2, 由there , here, now, then 等副词引导的句子。
There comes the rest of the party.
。
3, 由so, neither, nor 引导的句子：
I like singing and so does Helen
I don’t eat meat and neither does Tom.
Nor will I deny that
。
。
【一些状语从句中的倒装语序】
1、有些有If引导的条件状语从句（主要包含有were, had, should 的从句），可以把IF省略，把上述动词放到主语前面去：
。
Weren’t it for their assitance, we wouldn’t be able to do so well.

Had we got there earlier, we would have caught the train.

Should Mary call, say that I'll be back in an hour.
2、有些让步状语从句中又是也有倒装的情况，（主要把标语或部分谓语提前）：
。
Clever though he was, he couldn’t conceal his eagerness for praise.

Try as I would, I couldn’t make her change her mind.

Talented as he is, he is not yet ready to turn professional.

Search as they would, they could find no one in the wood
【某些副词或状语引导的倒装句】

1、些又否定意义的副词，若放在句首，句子常用倒装。
。
Never would he know what she had suffered.
Never before has such a high standard been achieved.
Scarcely was she out of sight when he came
。
2, 有个别其他副词放在句首时，又是也会有这个现象：
Often would she(she would) weep when alone.
Bitterly did he repent that decision. 他深深地悔恨那个决定。
Gladly would I give my life to save the child.
。
3, 有些短语，（特别是介词短语）移到句首时也可能引导倒装语序：
On no account must we give up this attempt.
Under no circumstances could we agree to such a principle.
一般这类的都是一些否定含义的短语，类似的还有：In vain, not until, at no point
还有表示唯一的，如：only in this way
So…that结构： So bright was the moon that the flowers were bright as by day.
。

。
【一些谓语前移的情况】
1、<状语前置>有些句子没有宾语且主语又比较长。又是可把状语提前，而把主语放在谓语后面去。

Before him lay miles of undulating moorland: 他前面是一片高低起伏的荒原

After the banquet came a firework display in the garden. 宴会后花园里燃放了烟火。

From the distance came occasional shots. 从远处传来零星的枪声。

In the distance could be seen the purple mountains. 远处可以看见紫色的群山。
2、为了描绘更生动，有些与介词同行的副词可以移到句首，把主语放在谓语后面。

Up went the arrow into the air. 嗖的一声箭射上了天。

She rang the bell. In came a girl she had not seen before. 她按铃，进来一个她从未见过的姑娘。

Down flew the eagle to seize the chicken 老鹰飞下来抓小鸡。
【分词和表语移到句首的情况】

1、进行时态中的分词有时可移到句首，来对这个动作加以强调。
Lying on the floor was a boy aged about seventeen.
Standing beside the table was an interpreter
Watching the performances were mostly foreign tourists.
。
2, 已过去分词做表语的句子，过去分词有时也可以提前，把主语放到后面去。
The most widely distributed is the Hui people
Seated on the ground are a group of young people.
Hidden underground is a wealth of gold, silver, lead and zinc.
。
3, 作表语的介词短语有时也可以提前。
Among its products are farm machines and mining equipment.
Around the lake are a huge number of farms.
Near the sourthen end of the village was a large pear orchard.
。
4, 其他表语也可提前
Worst of all is the humiliations he suffered. 最不堪的是他经受的许多屈辱。
Below is a restaurant.
Higher up were forests of white birches. 在往上去是一片白桦林。
。。


【其他倒装句】

1，祝愿的句子:
Long live world peace! 世界和平万岁！
May you have a long and happy life. 祝你幸福长寿。

2、间接引语后的插入语，主语有时可放在谓语后面：
“I do hope,” said Nancy, “they haven’t all forgotten about it.”
。
3, 有时修辞上的考虑，表语也可以提前：
Very grateful we are for your help.
A very reliable person he is, to be sure. 他是个很可靠的人，没问题。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-28 22:43:36

为啥为啥为啥，标了颜色显示不出来??????????
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-29 02:36:38

习作汇总
https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/thread-1034966-1-1.html 阿狗143
https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/thread-1031403-1-1.html ISSUE13
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-29 23:37:07

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-29 23:40 编辑

写作贴第10讲如何有效论证
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
举例：
Weak Use of Evidence
1)
Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content
缺陷：论证和题目结合不紧密，不是论据无关，而是作者没有表现这种合理的关系在哪里，其实就是却一句话或者是一个逻辑连接词的问题．

Stronger Use of Evidence
2)
Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim
大家其实可以看出来这段的论证好在哪里：划线的部分首先是首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子，让你知道你在读什么，然后就是后边的几乎每个句子都有逻辑的连接词汇连接了起来．
关键在逻辑连接词，把例子和论点充分结合，避免平铺直叙，达到深化的作用
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-11-29 23:41:42

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-11-30 12:06 编辑

第11讲CONCLUSION
A conclusion should
•        stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
•        give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
•        leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
Suggestions
•        Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.
Play the "So What" Game.

•        Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
o       Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
•        Redirect your readers
o        Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.
•        Create a new meaning
o        You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
•        Point to broader implications.（扩展宽度）
For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.
Strategies
•        Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.
Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）
•        Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.
•        Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）
•        Posing questions:（提出问题） Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?
Strategies to Avoid
•        Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）要明确让读者一眼看到文章中心
•        Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
•        Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
•        Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
•        Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
•        Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.        The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.（避免单纯的复述）
2.        The "Sherlock Holmes（福尔摩斯）: Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" her with your main idea, much like a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.（开头留悬念结尾揭示答案我觉得很好啊，怎么算无效CONCLUSION？阅卷者更喜欢直接的观点啊。。。）
3.        The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
4.        The "Grab Bag（摸彩带，混杂，聚合）" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.（与主题无关的信息要舍弃）
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-1 12:25:04

啊啊啊啊啊，我明明写了三页了，咋第三页的东东都不见了！！！！！！！！！！！！
作者: pluka    时间: 2009-12-1 13:47:28

坛子出问题了吧，大家都丢楼，俺滴楼唰唰唰没了一半……
作者: kulewy531    时间: 2009-12-1 13:53:24

我也丢楼了还是作文和intro翻译哎
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-1 18:47:49

我也丢楼了还是作文和intro翻译哎
kulewy531 发表于 2009-12-1 13:53

验证了草木写作贴的提到的一条，一定要存档...........
有很多东西由于不能用WORD直接贴到帖子上，要在帖子里面现改，所以我很多总结都是直接在帖子上面改没存档......................
杯具.....
以后再也不嫌麻烦了，一定要复制到WORD，再在帖子里面慢慢改......................
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-1 23:53:03

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-1 23:59 编辑

TOPIC: ARGUMENT206 - The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Parkville Daily Newspaper.
"Throughout the country last year, as more and more children below the age of nine participated in youth-league softball and soccer, over 80,000 of these young players suffered injuries. When interviewed for a recent study, youth-league softball players in several major cities also reported psychological pressure from coaches and parents to win games. Furthermore, education experts say that long practice sessions for these sports take away time that could be used for academic activities. Since the disadvantages apparently outweigh any advantages, we in Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine."

WORDS: 384

TIME: 00:30:00
DATE: 2009-8-1 13:58:06
In this argument, the author concludes that Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine. To support his conclusion, the author points out that over 80,000 of young players suffered injuries throughout the country last year. And he also cites that youth-league softball players reported pressure form coaches and parents in several big cities and these sports take away time for academic activities. However, the argument suffers a few flaws.
To begin with, the author falsely assumes that children under nine in Parkville suffer injuries just like those throughout the country.
First, the child in Parkville may have different interests in sports, such as basketball. Second, the author fails to provide the number of children who is under nine and suffered injuries（题干已经提供数据了，不是像此文所说的没有提供数据，措辞不严谨，应该是说没有提供更为详细可靠的数据比如百分比之类） throughout the country last year. Perhaps only a few children under nine suffered from injuries. Third, the author fails to prove that the children get injuries because of taking sports rather than other possibilities(这里可以扩充一下其他的可能性，例如意外事故等). All these scenarios, if true, will undermine the author's conclusion.
In addition, the author unjustifiably claims that children in Parkvill receive pressure from coaches and parents. The study is interviewed in several big cities, we are not informed whether Parkville is a big city.（此论据薄弱） Even assuming that it is a big city, the author still cannot apply the study to Parkville. There are maybe differences between Parkville and other cities. Perhaps Parkville has stricter regulations to coaches, or perhaps the competition in Parkville is not so serious.
Furthermore, it is unwarranted to claim that these sports take away time from academic activities. First, we are not informed how many hours are used for sports and academic activities. Perhaps sports time is far less than the time for academic activities. Second, sports may help to do academic activities better. Without ruling out these possibilities, it is unwise to discontinue organized competition.
Last but not least, the author suggests too hastily to discontinue all the competition. Even if some competition is dangerous, some others may be good for children. Common sense tells me that children need to take sports. The disadvantage of discontinue may outweigh the advantage.
To sum up, the author fails to substantiate the conclusion that Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine. The author need further information and reliable study to make the conclusion convincing.
1语言简单了点：Fails to 句式滥用，first second third出现了两回了，处处都可以看到The author claims/suggests/assumes,有凑字数嫌疑 但回头看看我写的第一篇阿狗，也和这人差不到哪里去...这人还是限时，我还是花了好几个小时....
2论据感觉不充分，比如Parkvill城市的大小说明了什么问题我看得不是很明白。
3总结没有很好地把作者反对的观点和赞同之处结合起来。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 00:00:14

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-2 00:33 编辑

2.限时argument131，过两天就考了，请求指点
TOPIC: ARGUMENT131 - The following appeared in an environmental newsletter published in Tria Island.

"The marine sanctuary on Tria Island was established to protect certain marine mammals. Its regulations ban dumping and offshore oil drilling within 20 miles of Tria, but fishing is not banned. Currently many fish populations in Tria's waters are declining, a situation blamed on pollution. In contrast, the marine sanctuary on Omni Island has regulations that ban dumping, offshore oil drilling, and fishing within 10 miles of Omni and Omni reports no significant decline in its fish populations. Clearly, the decline in fish populations in Tria's waters is the result of overfishing, not pollution. Therefore, the best way to restore Tria's fish populations and to protect all of Tria's marine wildlife is to abandon our regulations and adopt those of Omni."
WORDS: 314
TIME: 00:30:00
DATE: 2009-7-31 21:03:35

In this argument, the author concludes that the Tria Island should abandon its regulations and adopt Omni's in order to restore its fish populations and protect all of its marine wildlife. To support his conclusion, the author cites the example of Omni Island which has regulations that ban fishing. However, the argument suffers from a few flaws.

To begin with, the author assumes too hastily that the decline in fish populations in Tria's waters should blame on overfishing.（应该是 the decline should be blame for overfishing.）
Firstly, there are many other nature factors which would influence the fish population, such as water temperature, spaning season(这词儿啥意思，百度谷歌没查到….), extreme weather phenomenon and so forth. Secondly,
the author fails to prove that the banned actions have not happened. If the water is polluted, the fish population will probably decrease.
Besides, the oil may also float from other place. All these sceranios（scenanios）, if true, will undermine the author's conclusion that overfishing should be responsible for decline in fish populations.

In additon , even assuming that overfishing leads to the decline in fish populations, the author falsely concludes that Tria should follow the example of Omni. The author overlooks the differences between the two Islands. There might be disparity in Island weather, water quality, fish sorts and so on. These defferences will make Omni's regulations unsuccessful in Tria. What's more, the author doesn't prove that the fish caught in Tria is within 10 miles of Tria, (想说明什么？这里可展开说明一下)which will undermine the conclusion.

Further more, even assuming that the Omni's regulation will success in Tria, the argument still has some flaws. First, the Omni's regulations might not be the best one. There are may be better ones such as stricker ban on dumping. Second, the Omni's regulation cannot guarantee to protect all the marine wildlife.

To sum up, the author fails to substantiate his conclusion that Tria should adopt Omni's regulations. To support his conclusion, the author should provides more information.
看完后最直观的感受，和第一篇几乎一模一样，一翻，果然是同一个人……….
还是和第一篇一样的毛病
语言单调疲乏，有几处用词小错误，可能不伤大雅，虽然论坛里面再三强调思想重要语言其次，但同一个词再三地用，这也太单调了吧
辩驳之处只是蜻蜓点水，泛泛而论，没有深入驳倒。（看原文红字批）论点有重复之处，一开始就提出自然问题，到后来拿Omni例子时又把自然问题摆出来了，逻辑不严密（看粗体字）。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 00:00:39

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-2 00:21 编辑

3.Argument 35 首次限时，欢迎猛拍
35. The following appeared in the summary of a study on headaches suffered by the residents of Mentia.


"Salicylates are members of the same chemical family as aspirin, a medicine used to treat headaches. Although many foods are naturally rich in salicylates, for the past several decades food-processing companies have also been adding salicylates to foods as preservatives. This rise in the commercial use of salicylates has been found to correlate with a steady decline in the average number of headaches reported by participants in our twenty-year study. Recently, food-processing companies have found that salicylates can also be used as flavor additives for foods. With this new use for salicylates, we can expect a continued steady decline in the number of headaches suffered by the average citizen of Mentia."
------------------
正文
In this summary the author concludes that the number of headaches suffered by average citizen of Mentia will continue to decline. To justify this argument, the author show me some evidence that many foods are naturally rich in salicylates(S), which are similar to aspirin, a medicine used to treat headache. Moreover, the author cites a twenty – year study, amid which the average number of headaches is reported declining. However, close scrutiny of the argument reveals many logical and statistic problems that will without doubt render it unconvincing. （句式变换，简单复述题干的关键之处）
To begin with, the author’s argument relies on a hasty assumption that S is the very factor leading to the decline of the number of headaches. However, no certain proof has been shown to confirm this connection. （很好，一开始就直击薄弱之处）There is a high possibility that it’s some other chemicals that added in foods curing the headaches, but not S. And it’s also possible that even though S is curing the headaches, the consequence is not apparent enough for a survey to check out.

Even if the connection between the use of S and decline of headache is confirmed,
（紧接联系上文，符合ETS全文逻辑严密的要求）the author fails to show the details of the twenty-year study to prove it representative. First, the number of people who has taken the survey is not given. Perhaps the sample is too small to be considered valid. Furthermore, the situation of these sample people is also unknown. It’s possible that the symptom of the headache of the people is not severe enough, and that it’s some other factors resulting in the recovery of their headache, even that it’s cure all by themselves.

Even if the two factors that will lead to the failure of the argument are both proved, the author still cannot prove that the trend of using S as preservative will continue. It’s totally possible that all the companies tend to give up using S as preservative for some reasons, like recent discovery or governmental restricts. Or perhaps, there will be some other chemicals found to be more efficient than S as preservative, which will without doubt result in the decline of using S.（此论据好像与题干关系不大，题干本身就指出食品公司将会使用S药物，会导致头痛率的下降，而这里是将来出现其他的药物来代替S）

In sum, the argument is unpersuasive as it stand in many facets. Firstly, to strengthen the argument, the author must show me more evidence to prove that it is the S which added as preservative that cure people’s headache, not other chemicals. Secondly, to convince me, the author also have to show more details about the twenty – year study to prove it representative. Finally, the author also have to give adequate evidence to show that the tendency of using S as preservatives will continue. Without ruling out all the other possibilities, the argument will never convince me.
行文流畅，一环扣一环，除了最后一点辩驳有点薄弱之外
语言丰富，基本符合了ETS5分标准，好吧，我经验不足，最起码可以超过3.5分吧

https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=989214&highlight偶然搜到此贴跑去拜读了
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 00:43:03

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-2 09:51 编辑

在我看来觉得此文很好了，再看666的点评泪奔…………….
先分析下你的提纲，的确题目有说到这4点，但是这4点并非全部来支持high quality的，实际上题目也有在最后一句提到过be economical. 此外我们在分析所谓的quality的时候，最好不要笼统的宣称blabla是为了提高quality.毕竟quality也是有很多种的，比如服务，器械，营业人员的水平，环境是否清洁等等。
所以作者的理由应该是这样：
1.医院治愈时间长短和治愈比率，作者实际上是想说的“医术”和“医疗器具”的优势
2.作者提到的是more employees per patient，而不是单纯的more workers.这个里面是有很大的猫腻的，大家应该一眼就开出来
3.抱怨是面对的服务质量


There are several facets are questionable in this argument. At first, the stayed time is not a good indication about the quality of treatment. Secondly, the cure rate can not indicate about the quality about the hospital. Thirdly, more employees for per patient could not ensure a better treatment(这里应该还有一个总员工人数的问题) for the patient. Finally, few complaints were received about the service does not demonstrate all the other people are satisfied with the service. So, the assertion which the author concluded in the argument is unreliable.(属于直接列举型的开头，1，2两个点可以合并一下。毕竟你后文当中1，2其实也是合并写的)

To begin with, the author has tried to make us believe that the Saluda hospital (SH) could provide better quality treatment（漏了个and）（啊啊啊啊，我没看到，不，这不是理由，只能说我在语法方面还是很薄弱） because the average length of a patient's stay and the cure rate there is shorter than Megaville Hospital (MH).Lacking information about what kind(the extend.毕竟你下文说的仅仅是slight illness和serious disease) of illness the patient have got, the author can not confidently draw any conclusion about(of) the quality about the two hospitals. Maybe the patients who visited to SH have some slight sickness, and people may choose(这个属于合理的他因，说明所有重病患者都比较倾向于大医院) the big hospital like MH to cure some serious disease like cancer, or AIDS, and that kinds of sicknesses are not easy,even possible to heal.(这里少掉一个比较致命的东西，估计你后文也有这种情况：没有提到这种可能的他因对作者立场的关键性负面作用. 你的结论是the author can not confidently draw any conclusion，为什么can not?你提到了他因，但是为什么这种他因能够支持你的话，反对作者的？这个是需要说清楚的)想起前面的文，基本都有这种毛病，仅仅罗列了理由，至于为啥这些理由能够反驳作者的立场却没有很好的具体阐述，比如第2篇中提到P城市的小，反驳作者对于体育活动对小孩有害的立场有什么联系，看不出来。

Another question about the argument is that though there are more employees for per patient of SH than MH, the author can not make sure that every patient will be provided a better service. For the simple reason that we don't know the jobs of those employees, there may be some of them are bus drivers or cooks in cafeteria(这个是不合理的，大医院同样会有这些雇员，而且只多不少。这里的关键性入手点应该是per patient.实际上如果小医院本来就没什么生意，而大医院经常人满为患，自然小医院平均员工多一些). They can do nothing to help patient restore. Granted that all the jobs the employees worked are helpful to the patients. We don't know whether they are loyal to their occupation（这里同样有问题，loyality或者preoccupation,都不是所谓的“critical strike”，它们和你要提到的quality of service关系不大。关键的在这里：小医院可能没有大医院那么如此全面的医疗人员分布。比如麻醉师，比如操作X-Ray的。）. So the author generated the conclusion too hastily. (排开他因不合理以外，整段话的论述很不充分，除开TS句，就全部是他因了。然而我们的目的"并不是为了找他因，而是为了批作者的话"，所以自己的说理和逻辑分析，才是predominance)

Finally, the data about complaints about service of SH could not ensure us (that) SH provides better service. Because we don't know, how many patients have been the two hospitals respectively to cure some sicknesses, and what fraction of them has reported a complaint. May be the quantity of the complaints of SH is less than that of MH. But the fraction may be larger(这是啥意思...这里的关键点是可能很多病人不满但是没抱怨吧，直接讲出来就行，没必要去扯什么分数，老米这种逻辑思维单纯的肯定不会明白你在说什么). Granted that both the quantity and fraction of the complaints received by SH is less. The author can not convince us that all the other people are satisfied with the service.（最后一句，不知道是时间问题，还是你的思维问题，属于画蛇添足了，如果不能确定充分论述，那么就放掉这个点，拿出一个point但是不说清楚，就会成为败笔。花时间去找10个weak point把它们一一列举，不如花同样的时间把两个点彻底的讲清楚。）

In conclusion, this argument can not be taken seriously as it stands. To strengthen it, the author should provide the detailed information about what kind of illness the patients have, what jobs do the employees worked for, and the exact proportion about the received complaints of all the patients.（结尾不改，个人习惯～）
看了666点评，不敢说懂了很多，突然觉得草木写作贴中关于论点的论证（第10讲），其文只提到了充分利用逻辑词，使论点得到充分的阐述，但在具体例子当中，更主要的是如何把一点辩驳说清楚说充分。果然还是要看别人写的文章和他人点评，总结经验。
个人觉得666有两点说的灰常对
1.然而我们的目的"并不是为了找他因，而是为了批作者的话"，所以自己的说理和逻辑分析，才是predominance)他因我想是题目中对此问题的产生有其他的可能性，但更主要的是关注题干所提出的观点的不合理性
1.花时间去找10个weak point把它们一一列举，不如花同样的时间把两个点彻底的讲清楚。）
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 09:54:20

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-2 10:08 编辑

5.模板化是不是太严重了？思路有没有问题？求猛拍！！！！！！！！

TOPIC: ARGUMENT159 - The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences, many citizens are experiencing rising costs of electricity. A recent study of household electric costs in Claria found that families who cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electricity than did families using air conditioners alone for cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners spent less on electricity than those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.
WORDS: 431
TIME: 00:30:00
DATE: 2009-3-17 下午 08:10:53

In this argument, the author recommends both using air conditioners and fans as an effective way of saving money on electricity. In order to justify it, the author cites a survey that different families being diverse in the way of cooling the house spend different money on electricity. However, close scrutiny of the statistic and the line of reasoning reveal that it is not convincing.

A threshold problem with the argument involves the statistical reliability of the survey. Lacking of assurance and information about the randomness and relative size of the survey' sample, the author cannot convince me the conclusion of the survey is reliable. As the author mentions, the nation of Claria covers a vast physical area, without enough large sample, so it is entirely possible that the survey is not representative of the real situation of Claria. Moreover different place will have different temperature and the price of electricity（这里应深入阐述一下举具体例子，比如有的地方不热就不用或少开空调与电扇自然电费就少；有的地方则反之。）, without comprehensive consideration these factors, I strongly doubt the reliability of the survey. The dubious survey undermines the follow conclusions which rely on it.

Secondly, the author asserts different way of cooling the house causes the decrease of electricity consuming just because they happen together. （巧合因素，感觉不够充分）Obviously, the evidence for the casual relationship is too vague to believe. Furthermore, to satisfy the same requirement, common sense informs us air condition costs more electricity than fans. （应该在题目角度上反驳而不是就着这类无意义的细节讨论）Thus, there must be other reasons causing the decrease of the electric consumption. The most reasonable one is that the expense for air condition is so money-consuming that the citizens would like to tolerate the hot weather rather than pay for it.（此论点想反驳什么？空调耗电费导致人们宁愿忍受炎热所引导出来的结论是什么？）

Even though the author can substantiate foregoing assumption and assertion, I still cannot accept his/her recommendation because the author overlooks other factors contributes to the amounts of electricity. As we know, for a family, facilities of cooling the house take little part of electricity. Computer, lights, television, fridge and so forth cost more electricity. Thus it is possible that even though the method of saving electricity recommended by the author works, it makes little contribution to the total electricity consuming so that we cannot see the change on spending money. Furthermore, if the electric consumptions of other factors increase, it will not save the money, strongly contradicting to the conclusion of the author.（此论点不错！可能采用作者所提供的空调与风扇结合会省电，但其他的家电耗电提高了，也达不到省钱的效果）

To sum up, the recommendation suffers from statistic and logic flaws causing that it is not warranted. In order to strengthen it, the author should provide the compelling evidence to prove the reliability of the survey and the casual relationship between the way of cooling their house and decrease of electric consumption. Additionally, the author should also provide appealing evidence to prove the total electric consumption will decrease.
看完666对第4篇的点评后，然后发现此文也是如此，列出了他因，但这他因如何能够反驳作者的立场，这么关键的地方却没写。
逻辑顺序应该好好安排下
第一点是讲幅员辽阔各个地区气候不一样，但仅仅也是讲到这里了，这种不一样说明了什么，如何反驳我找不到任何句子说明...
第二点说空调和电扇结合省钱可能是巧合现象，常识告诉我们空调更耗电，后面又突然出现一个理由是人们更愿意忍受酷热天气而不愿开空调....
第三点论据还不错是全文的唯一亮点了
感觉看下来论点很散没有主线
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 10:53:02

6.TOPIC: ARGUMENT163 - The following is taken from the editorial section of the local newspaper in Rockingham.

"In order to save a considerable amount of money, Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building that some citizens have proposed. The old town hall is too small to comfortably accommodate the number of people who are employed by the town. In addition, it is very costly to heat the old hall in winter and cool it in summer. T\he new, larger building would be more energy efficient, costing less per square foot to heat and cool than the old hall. Furthermore, it would be possible to rent out some of the space in the new building, thereby generating income for the town of Rockingham."
WORDS: 391
TIME: 00:25:46
DATE: 2009/3/12 10:40:26

Citing the comparison between the old hall and new hall, the author comes to the conclusion that on the purpose of saving money, Rockingham' century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building. However, this argument is based on a series of unproven assumptions, which render it unconvincing as it stands.

One such assumption is that the new hall will save energy. Even though the new one will be more energy efficient, costing less per square foot, the author ignores the fact the new hall is far larger than the old hall. In which case, the overall costs of the new hall would be no less, perhaps more than the energy costs of the old hall. Unless the author could provide exact data to demonstrate the new hall can really save energy, his assumption is dubious. (很好，提出合理的假设是新建筑会省能源，但面积大，总的来说却不如老建筑)

The author's claim that building the new hall will save a considerable amount of money is open to doubt. On the one hand, tearing down the old hall and building the new hall is considerably money-consuming. The author does not inform the exact amount of money needed; maybe it might lead the town council to budget strain.（财政紧缩） On the other hand, the author mentions some of the space could be rented out to generate income. However, people might not be willing to rent the hall, in which case, the town would not get any revenue. In short, without providing solid evidences that building new hall would save money, the author's proposal is unpersuasive.

Finally, as the current hall is century-old, it might have historic values. For example, the old hall might be a famous tourist site of town, which attracts thousands of tourists every year. Or perhaps, the old hall might have certain special meaning in the local residents' minds. They might regard the hall as the symbol of the town. If either of the cases is true, the old hall's merits far outweigh the new one's advantages.

All in all, this argument relies on certain unwarranted assumptions and therefore specious at best. To convince readers to accept his/her conclusion that replacing the old hall with new one, the author should provide information on whether the new hall will save energy and save a considerable amount of money, and last but not least, the old hall' historic values.
逻辑推理如下
1 节能问题
2 支出和创收问题：拆老建新耗财，租房不一定有人租
3 老建筑本身的价值
我相信这篇文章做到了条条深入辩驳的要求，个人拙见也提不出什么更好的要求了…..
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 18:58:06

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-7 19:17 编辑

7   TOPIC: ARGUMENT137 - The following appeared in an editorial in the Mason City newspaper.

"At present, Mason City residents seldom use the nearby Mason River for any kind of recreational activity, even though surveys of the region's residents consistently rank water sports (swimming, fishing, and boating) as a favorite form of recreation. Since there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river, residents must be avoiding the river because they think that it is not clean enough. But that situation is about to change: the agency responsible for rivers in our region has announced plans to clean up Mason River. Therefore, recreational use of the river is likely to increase, so the Mason City council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the publicly owned lands along the Mason River."
WORDS: 416          TIME: 00:30:00          DATE: 2009/3/9 16:28:42

In this augument, the author drew the conclution about the increase of recreational use of the Mason River, after his/her seemingly convincing procedure of reasoning, and suggested the City council to increase the budget for the improvement of lands along Mason River. As far as I see it, this argument omits some sunbstential information, and therefor suffers some logical fallacies.

To begin with, the author falsely established a causal relationship between the complaint about the quality of the water and the seldom using of the nearby River for recreational activity. Although the two things happened simultaneously, but there are pobably many other reasons for seldom using of the water, too. For example, in the city there is a swimming pool, which supplies a good service and has new infrastructure. So the residents prefer going there to siwmming in the river.（prefer to swim in the river 就可以了吧） Like swimming pool, other places, such as park and artifical lack, will attract people as well. Without providing us the information about other places in the city, the author's assumption is invalid.（他因）

In addition, can the annoucement about cleaning up Mason River by the agency make the use of river increased? Even assuming that the residents seldom use the River, because they worried the quality of the water, （这句基本是重复题目的问题，应适当缩写）a promise about cleaning up cannot make the river really clean at a short time. The environmental restore will take a relative long time, as we know. Moreover, the author did not tell us the detail of the cleaning plan. When does begin it, and how does the agency put it into practice? （这句啥意思？）So the author's conclution about a increase of use of the water lacks credibility.

Last but not least, the author's suggestion is also doubtful. Even if the river can be cleaned up, it is not clear that why the council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the lands along the Mason River? Can this plan represent the residents' real will? It is entirely possible that a majority of residents want to keep these lands wild as before, so that they can get a real relax in the nature. The author did not show the oppinion of the residents, therefore the final suggestion may be not proper.

To sum up, in this argument, the evidence is not enough to support waht the author maintained. To strenghten, more information, such as a introduce of the city, a detailed plan about cleaning up the river and a poll about the improvement of lands, are necessary.
作者逻辑推理如下
1.        提出水质与河的利用没什么关系（质疑），提出可能人们有其他的选择。这里举出游泳的例子，个人觉得这例子单薄了点，而且语言有点啰嗦。估计是作者为了凑字数。
2.        突然冒出了个河水治理需要时间，而且也没充分说明这论点是如何反驳作者观点。
3.        最后一点仅仅停留在质疑的层面上，蜻蜓点水漂过
总之，感觉这篇文章相当薄弱没有分量感，而且很多单词错误估计是不熟悉电脑的缘故，语法上也有些问题。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-2 19:08:37

咦？
我刚发的几句话又不见了？
再试试..........
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-3 09:20:07

试一下还能不能留言...
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-3 09:24:18

7   TOPIC: ARGUMENT137 - The following appeared in an editorial in the Mason City newspaper.

"At present, Mason City residents seldom use the nearby Mason River for any kind of recreational activity, even though surveys of the region's residents consistently rank water sports (swimming, fishing, and boating) as a favorite form of recreation. Since there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river, residents must be avoiding the river because they think that it is not clean enough. But that situation is about to change: the agency responsible for rivers in our region has announced plans to clean up Mason River. Therefore, recreational use of the river is likely to increase, so the Mason City council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the publicly owned lands along the Mason River."
WORDS: 416          TIME: 00:30:00          DATE: 2009/3/9 16:28:42

In this augument, the author drew the conclution about the increase of recreational use of the Mason River, after his/her seemingly convincing procedure of reasoning, and suggested the City council to increase the budget for the improvement of lands along Mason River. As far as I see it, this argument omits some sunbstential information, and therefor suffers some logical fallacies.

To begin with, the author falsely established a causal relationship between the complaint about the quality of the water and the seldom using of the nearby River for recreational activity. Although the two things happened simultaneously, but there are pobably many other reasons for seldom using of the water, too. For example, in the city there is a swimming pool, which supplies a good service and has new infrastructure. So the residents prefer going there to siwmming in the river.（prefer to swim in the river 就可以了吧） Like swimming pool, other places, such as park and artifical lack, will attract people as well. Without providing us the information about other places in the city, the author's assumption is invalid.（他因）

In addition, can the annoucement about cleaning up Mason River by the agency make the use of river increased? Even assuming that the residents seldom use the River, because they worried the quality of the water, （这句基本是重复题目的问题，应适当缩写）a promise about cleaning up cannot make the river really clean at a short time. The environmental restore will take a relative long time, as we know. Moreover, the author did not tell us the detail of the cleaning plan. When does begin it, and how does the agency put it into practice? （这句啥意思？）So the author's conclution about a increase of use of the water lacks credibility.

Last but not least, the author's suggestion is also doubtful. Even if the river can be cleaned up, it is not clear that why the council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the lands along the Mason River? Can this plan represent the residents' real will? It is entirely possible that a majority of residents want to keep these lands wild as before, so that they can get a real relax in the nature. The author did not show the oppinion of the residents, therefore the final suggestion may be not proper.

To sum up, in this argument, the evidence is not enough to support waht the author maintained. To strenghten, more information, such as a introduce of the city, a detailed plan about cleaning up the river and a poll about the improvement of lands, are necessary.
作者逻辑推理如下
1.        提出水质与河的利用没什么关系（质疑），提出可能人们有其他的选择。这里举出游泳的例子，个人觉得这例子单薄了点，而且语言有点啰嗦。估计是作者为了凑字数。
2.        突然冒出了个河水治理需要时间，而且也没充分说明这论点是如何反驳作者观点。
3.        最后一点仅仅停留在质疑的层面上，蜻蜓点水漂过
总之，感觉这篇文章相当薄弱没有分量感，而且很多单词错误估计是不熟悉电脑的缘故，语法上也有些问题。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-5 20:10:18

如果我再发不出去...
就只好含泪另开贴了...
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-5 20:10:31

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-7 19:20 编辑

8.这篇又是化工,一边写一边骂,真恶心的题材...
觉得自己的2,3段就是在讲一件事:这个技术could not be broadly actualized,是不是重复了...
算了,吃完饭来改.


TOPIC: ARGUMENT71 - Copper occurs in nature mixed with other minerals and valuable metals in ore, and the proportion of copper in the ore can vary considerably. Until fairly recently, the only way to extract pure copper from ore was by using a process that requires large amounts of electric energy, especially if the proportion of copper in the ore is low. New copper-extracting technologies can use up to 40 percent less electricity than the older method to process the same amount of raw ore, especially when the proportion of copper in the ore is high. Therefore, we can expect the amount of electricity used by the copper-extraction industry to decline significantly.
WORDS: 475          TIME: 00:30:00          DATE: 2009/3/6 17:32:50

Comparing the new technologies with the traditional ones, and then based upon the superiority in electricity reducing of the former, the author thus predicted an optimistic perspective of the new copper-extracting skills. However, to prove those hypothesize requires more work of reasoning and more relative background evidences.(用词很精彩，浓缩了题目的论点。)

To begin with, the author might intensively conceal the purity of copper proceeded and the expenditure of replacing new equipment. Primarily, the quality of the products should not be overlooked. Admittedly, for its important influence in earning profits, cost should be considered as an important factor in comprehensive judgment of new industrial skills, whereas the quality and quantity of the products are even more decisive in determining practical value of certain new technology. As is self-evident, one industrial innovation could be broadly accepted only when its manufactures satisfied customers. If, for example, the new process of copper-extracting technologies failed to extract more pure copper, factories would never be willing to accept new technologies although the traditional one expends more electricity. In addition, the technical costs are undeserved slipped. When the CEO of one copper-extracting corporation endeavor to decrease their daily cost of energy, the primary consideration of him/her would be how much should he/she pay for the new equipment? If the costs of exchanging equipment, for instance, are much higher than the spending of extra electricity, one would require great act of will to eliminate old equipment. Since the expectation of the author established mainly in wide spread and broad using of the new industrial skills, he/she should not neglect the possibilities mentioned above.
新技术能否提炼高纯度的铜；更新新技术的投入可能要大于获利
What is more, the effects of the new technologies to environment as well face the similar challenge. Are those new industrial skills detrimental to ecosphere? There might be opportunity that the equipment utilizing those technologies would release great amount of detrimental gases or polluted water to our living circumstance. Actually, if certain new technology will be harmful to our generations, it would never be actualized. Since the author rashly skip this possibility while focus merely on the power saving, the optimistic perspective he/she expecting might never emerge. True, new revolutionary industrial technology rarely failed to influence our daily lives, nonetheless, before verifying its practical influences, the positive anticipation is somewhat too hastily.
合理的他因：对环境的影响
Last but not least, the author failed to take into account that there might be other alternative possibilities to reach out to the purpose of energy saving. Do there exist any chemical compounds that could accelerate the copper-extracting action? As is known to all, appropriate catalyst could lower the temperature required in chemical interactions and therefore reduce the cost of electricity.
额额额额，这个纯熟专业领域里面了，幸好ETS不要求考生对这方面需要很精通的知识…
In sum, were there detailed background information demonstrating quality of the products and cost of the machine, particular description convincing the essential impact to circumstance, comprehensive deduction excluding other possible approaches, the expectation of the author would be more rational.
逻辑分析比较深刻，和前面几篇文章质量明显又是另外一个档次。
但第2段两个推理是可以分开说，两者之间并没有什么很密切的联系。新技术能否提高铜冶炼的纯度以及新技术的投入与获利。堆在一段里显得臃肿。
然后作者又提出合理的他因，即新技术对环境的影响
第三点，估计这位是研究化学的…但在AWINRO中ETS很明确表示了它不需要考生在专业领域里面的知识。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-5 23:17:18

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-7 19:21 编辑

9    159.The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences, many citizens are experiencing rising costs of electricity. A recent study of household electric costs in Claria found that families who cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electricity than did families using air conditioners alone for cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners spent less on electricity than those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.
时间 30:00

----------------正文------------------------
In this argument, the arguer points out that the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity. To support his recommendation, the arguer claims that it is based on a recent study. However, at the first glance, the arguer seems to be plausible, but after a close scrutiny, it lies in several fallacies and logical flaws discussed below.

To begin with, the arguer neglects an important factor which the nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. This phenomenon leads to the different temperature in different region. Therefore, in common sense, with different temperature it is absolutely different costs on electricity. For example, A is natural cooler than B, so A must pay less electric money on fans or air conditioners because the residents in A have already felt cooler than B. Consequently, without consider this factor, the arguer's claim is open to doubt.
具体情况具体分析，C国幅员辽阔，气候不同
Secondly, the arguer fails to prove that it is the fact that all the electric costs which they have seen is the fans' or air conditioners' using cost. In other word, the arguer commits a false equal relationship between the overall electric cost and the fans' and air conditioners’ cost. It is entirely possible that when the residents are using fans or air conditioners, they also use other electric facilities, such as computers, televisions and so forth. Thus, without ruling out other possibilities about the electric cost, the arguer's claim can not convince us thoroughly.
电费因素，不仅是空调风扇，还有其他电器
Even if I was to concede that it is the fact that this overall electric cost is equal to the cooling equipments' cost, the arguer's point is also suspect. It is likely that the longer we use the electric facilities, the more opportunity (probability) they will be wrong (they happen to malfunction). It is absolutely possible that the saving money is so little that we can neglect it while the electric equipment is mighty expensive. Therefore, it may not save money if these facilities have something wrong as the result of long time usage.
不同制冷机耗电量
To sum up, this argument lacks credible because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To better bolster and strengthen it, the arguer needs to provide specific information about the electric cost and offer us more data of local temperature in different regions.
红色为自己后来先修正的
总的来看论点基本都击中点子了，而且正如666经常提出的，都比较充分地展开论述。
作者: jorge    时间: 2009-12-6 23:56:11

Good luck with your GRE!

Regards from GTER group.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-7 19:22:13

万岁~终于可以安心写东西了
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-7 19:22:37

偶然看到此贴，觉得受益匪浅。特此全文转载~
其实，对于GRE，我们确实需要分数，必要时，非得用些应试技巧，这种功利心是难以避免的，但，我个人觉得，我们对它的心态应上升到另外一个高度，即，训练自己的思维逻辑写作能力，毕竟我们到米国还是得写论文，尤其是文科生比如历史系法律系艺术史系的童鞋们。

AW进阶手册——精确写作，完善逻辑
前言：有关英文写作，想必大家在经历了一定时间的AW磨砺后都会有所感觉，至少能写出成文的句子，并把自己的意思很明确地翻译出来了。但这仅仅是一个开始，英文写作与中文写作中巨大的鸿沟造成了很多考生在自认为发挥很不错的情况下还是只能拿到3分到4分，即使事例很充分、观点很鲜明、结构很完整。

其中一个重要的障碍就是中文的低文脉（low context）和英文的高文脉（high context）之间的隔阂。我们看自己写的文章， 觉得什么都说到了，而且之间似乎联系很紧密，但由于时态、指代和表达上的问题，加上思想的随意性，很容易造成文章在别人，特别是英语母语者看不懂，理解不清楚，只能靠猜，这样自然就大大降低了阅卷官对其AW的印象。

鉴于此，鄙人写此文以提出自己对写作中精确表达意思及联系逻辑的一些看法，希望对各位希望能进一步提高自己英文写作能力，特别是AW应试能力的板油有所帮助。


PART A. 名词指代

这里说的指代有两种，一种是用代词、特殊疑问词指代前文提过的事物，另一种是用名词直接指代客观事物。前者由于存在诸多语法规律而比较容易掌握，基本语法都会的同学应该不会有问题，所以这里不再累述。而后者因为需要根据语境进行把握，所以相对较难。我们主要说这个。

上过新东方戴云教主旧托语法课的同学应该对一句话特别熟悉：“单数可数名词不得单独存在。”也就是说可数名词单独出现的时候，需要用惯词、物主代词或形容词前置。其中用定惯词表示前文所提过的事物或者一类事物，用不定惯词表示单一事物。惯词在这里其实是起到一个定义的作用，以防止句中的名词来历不明，有点类似于在计算机语言开始前定义变量的语句。这也说明了英文对于文脉的严谨要求，所有的词都要经过初定义以显示其所指对象，而在文中出现的名词也必有所指。因此对待第一次提到的名词就要特别小心，切忌天马行空按意识蹦名词出来。

举个例子（从本版第一页随机抽取，感谢houyanchun版友）
It is well known that the history of human beings is like a abundant and precious mine including various achievements which our ancestors have attained and all kinds of lesson ranging from policies to art which are waiting later generations to search and research carefully.
这是文章的第一句话，提到的名词都标出来了。history没问题，题目讨论对象，直接点出。human beings没问题，泛指世界人民。mine为比喻，由于用了like也比较明确，指自然界中的矿藏。achievements，问题有了，前文用到了mine，那么这里的achievements应该是跟mine有关，但这俩没有直接的字面联系，所以achievements应该是用来解释矿藏中藏的某些东西，换言之是个双重比喻，history-mine, achievement-?。ancestor用来限定和解释achievement的现实含义，没问题。lesson，问题又来了，除了和achievements问题类似外，lesson有教训、课程两种意思，这里指的哪个？从语句中无法判断，后面限定了是policies to art，那么似乎该理解成课程，可是是谁教的课程？mine？ history？ 无论对应哪个在字面上还是没有直接关系。至于之后的politics(政治，policies是政策的复数)和arts则更没有参照，属于无中生有，在题目规定了以history为讨论的大前提下，如何过度到这两个领域没有依据，因此显得没有逻辑。之后的generations和ancestors并列，似乎没问题，但仔细推敲也会发现，ancestors其实跟跟we(our)对比的，所以later generations应该指we，但如果这样直接用代词不就好了。

如果对每个名词都加以推敲，原文要表达的意思应该如下：
History of human beings is like an abundant and precious mine. It maintained treasures our ancestors left us, their achievements and lessons ranged in diverse fields, from politics to arts, from science to humanity. Such a great mine is worthy searching carefully.
可以看出修改的部分主要是让所有名词都能找到它的对应点，一方面对句中，一方面对现实世界中。

名词指代精确的目的是为了让读者知道你所写文章所讨论的对象是什么，属于哪个范畴，因此在下笔先想好自己要讨论的事物，在写作中看看自己的表达有没有说清楚是这种事物，用到的词是否精确，如果不精确，就用从句、同位语、分词结构等加以限定、解释，从而达到精确表达的目的。



PART B. 句子语境

中文和英文一大区别就是中文没有时态，想说是什么时候的事情直接加时间状语修饰就行了。而英语对于句子的语境有着严格的规定，所叙述的情况发生在哪里、何时发生都要有所明确。由于大部分情况下语境都可以根据上下文判断，所以我们对这种要求不会很敏感，但写出来英文就容易给英语母语者造成困惑。如果说PART A在说的事情是词不能无中生有，那么这里所说的就是句子不能无中生有，空中楼阁。

还是先举例说明（从本版第一页随机抽取，感谢hardaway版友）
The speaker asserts that the growing significance of the video camera for its speciality of accurating and convincing will take place of the written records to play a main role of writing records. In my view, in some cases ,this contention is worth trusting in. While, the enduring development of the science for recording will not completely take all the room of documenting  fields as long as the people's pursuit for contents of language wasn't vanish.
这里两个句子，一个在说在特定情况下如何如何，一个要说某样事如何如何，两句话并不属于同一语境，按照正常的逻辑规律，应该是in certain cases....while under other circumstances....而后面一句的主语在之前也没提过，发生在什么时候也没说，怎么发生的也没说，仅仅是以对应题目为要求的话又显得词义替换过大，所以会让人搞不清这句话在说的是什么意思。

整理上下文并定义语境后修改如下：
....In my view, this prediction may happen in some cases, like for vivid entertainment or surficial stimulation. But as long as our language does not disappear, the science of multi-media recording will only develop parallel to written methods, without taking away all their existence.
在这里把句子中的一项名词性动作换作一般动词，表示其一直发生，从而表达判断、陈述的意思。而some cases则经常重新定义，可以指向后文又不显得空洞。

说到这里就需要提一下各种语态的用法，也算是帮大家复习下：

现代时：包括现代进行时、一般现代时，主要用于叙述正在发生的事情、真理、判断等适用于任何语境的句子。
将来时：表示预测、计划等，同样可表示判断。
过去时：用于叙述过去发生的事情。

可以发现，使用过去时的时候都是要特指发生过的某件事情，所以这时对于时间的语境要特别注意，通常不加限定的话是指人类历史中的事情，而加了限定则特指某一段时间，这段时间需要靠之前提到的内容进行指定。

举个简单的例子（从本版第一页随机抽取，感谢ccbban版友）
At the very beginning, human did create machines to help us in some specific kinds of work.
这里的时态限定就不清楚，beginning of what? Modern history? Industrialization? Human history?

结语：

写了这么半天，主要是总结一下我在这一年来英文写作的一些经验，有看板油的作文想出，有从英文系的朋友那讨教过来的，也有从外国人那学来的，多多少少希望能给大家一些帮助，特别是有些不太习惯英文的严格写作模式，高中写习惯了小资情调的意识流散文的同学。

最后附上一份我的WRITING SAMPLE的修改，修改者是耶鲁大学建筑史教授，可以说他的修改很全面的解释了什么是英文的文脉，文章主题在讲估衣街的保护与历史建筑的话题，跟ISSUE26是同一个主题：
Preservation and restoration of historical buildings and urban spaceshas never been an easy issue. [This sentence is fine grammatically. It promises that you will explain how much more complex these issues arefor Guyi St.]  During the past half century, China’s academic field may trulyunderstand this point:[There is a problem with tense here: "During the past half century"locates the 'time' of the sentence in the past 50 years. but the verb"may understand" is oriented to the future. Are you making a claimabout the past or the future here? Also, what is so important about the"academic field" understanding, rather than, say, the government, or thepublic, or developers?] after the republic was established in 1949, the conflict betweenmodernization and history propelled it to erase myriad relics fromancient cities.[you presume a conflict between modernization and history but don'texplain what that is. These are enormous terms with complex meanings butyou use them casually] Although experts have not stopped devoting their efforts to protectingthese cultural treasures,[There's another problem with 'time', that is, when are these expertsdevoting their efforts? Now, 50 years ago? Before 1980?] it was only after the 1980s that the history issue awakened theauthorities and forced them to seek better solutions than destruction.[What is the "history issue"? You use it casually but, as a reader, Idon't know what you're referring to. And how is destruction a solution?And if there are better solutions, what exactly is the problem?Preservation?]  
修改后：
The preservation and restoration of historic buildings and urban spaceshas never been an easy issue. But in China, these matters areparticularly difficult. The founding of the republic in 1949 led to thedestruction of countless ancient monuments, as Maoist revolutionariestried to divert popular attention from the past to the future. Only inthe 1980s did architects in this country begin to address the loss of China's cultural heritage. However, many national treasures continue to be destroyed as a result not of culturalrevolution but record breaking population growth and industrial development.
最最后，想说的是，英文写作特别是AW和以后大部分留学生需要面对的学术写作，是一项严谨而科学的工作，在文章中推敲自己的表达完善自己的逻辑显得非常必要。希望这篇能唤起大家对这方面的注意，在实践中多想一个方面，并通过练习来提高，以适应未来所要面对的写作任务。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-7 19:44:21

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-7 20:02 编辑

10.  阿狗180"Many other companies have recently stated that having their employees take the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course has greatly improved productivity.（此题的立场） One graduate of the course was able to read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; another graduate rose from an assistant manager to vice president of the company in under a year. Obviously, the faster you can read, the more information you can absorb in a single workday. Moreover, Easy Read costs only $500 per employee-a small price to pay when you consider the benefits to Acme. Included in this fee is a three-week seminar in Spruce City and a lifelong subscription to the Easy Read newsletter. Clearly, Acme would benefit greatly by requiring all of our employees to take the Easy Read

At first glance, it would seem, according to the logic of the argument, that Acme Publishing Company (AC) will benefit greatly by requiring all of the employers to take the Easy Read, would be a foregone conclusion. However, the reasoning behind the argument is flawed for several reasons: the author's assumption that the employees taking the Easy Read has greatly improved productivity is open to doubt; the author omits the possibility the training may be useless to Acme; and the author fail to provide information to support that all employees of Acme need to take the training.

The author's assumption that the employees taking the training have improved productivity is specious.（抽去修饰词即employees have improved productivity即是“工作者证明为有效”读着别扭，应该是training have been improved productivity.不知对否 ） The author only takes two employees, the number of whom is too small to represent the overall employees taking the training, to support him. Perhaps other employees' productivity has not improved; even worse, taking the three-week seminar will require the employees to take a three- weeks excuse, which will serious affect the normal jobs of the employees. Besides, there may be other factors that explain the achievements of two employees. Perhaps, their abilities have already been very outstanding. Without the training one of them still can read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; while the other still can rise to vice president. In sum, the author should provide more details of the other employees taking the training.
主要攻击样本小；课程要花费三个星期，影响工作；那两个之所以在课程训练中有成效可能有别的原因，比如受教育程度高
The author fail to guarantee other companies' success will apply to Acme. After all they are different companies and belong to different fields. Perhaps the training will not succeed in Acme for its disparities from other companies, such as the company size, the employees' jobs and the education background of employees.（与上一段所提到的abilities有类似之处，可合并写） For example, maybe the employees of Acme are graduating from those famous universities, and they already have outstanding reading speeds, which do not have to be improved any more. Without considering the dissimilarities between these companies, the author can not assert Acme’s employees need the training.
这段实际上就是上一段中abilities的扩展，即受教育程度
Even assuming the employees of Acme have the need to improve their reading speed, the author's proposal that all employees take the training does not make sense. Common sense tells us that a company's employees have various jobs, many of which do not need the employees to read. For example, the company may have cleaners, whose jobs are just to do the cleaning. If require these cleaners to take the training, at the expense of $500 per person, would it not a waste of money?
不是所有工种的雇员都需要学此课程
Improving the productivity is of great importance to the company; however, the personnel director of Acme should not be hasty to give his proposal. To convince the readers to accept his conclusion, the author has much work to do: he should find if the training really can improve productivity; he should provide data to show whether Acme's employees need to take it and which employees need and which need not the training
此文的逻辑顺序没有安排好，中间两端攻击点有重复之处
第2段写了三点，与其把攻击点写的多多的，每个攻击点都一句结束，还不如选几点好好深入攻击。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-7 22:27:20

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-7 22:38 编辑

11，阿狗65"For many years all the stores in our chain have stocked a wide variety of both domestic and imported cheeses. Last year, however, the five best-selling cheeses at our newest store were all domestic cheddar cheeses from Wisconsin. Furthermore, a recent survey by Cheeses of the World magazine indicates an increasing preference for domestic cheeses among its subscribers. Since our company can reduce expenses by limiting inventory, the best way to improve profits in all of our stores is to discontinue stocking many of our varieties of imported cheese and concentrate primarily on domestic cheeses."

According to the sales of their newest store and the results of a survey by Cheeses of the World, the president of a chain of cheese stores comes to the conclusion that the west way to improve profits in all of their stores is to discontinue stocking many of their varieties of imported cheeses and concentrate primarily on domestic  cheeses. Though sound as it seems, the reasoning is flawed in several aspects.

To begin with, in the newest store the domestic cheddar cheeses from Wisconisin are the best selling cheeses does not mean that all the domestic cheeses sell well. It is entirely possible that all the other domestic cheeses nevertheless sell badly. Perhaps, in the newest store, the domestic cheeses except for those from Wisconisin sell not as well as the imported cheeses and the overall sales of imported cheeses are far more than that of domestic cheeses. If this is the case, discontinuing stocking the imported cheeses, the stores, whose overall sales will drop sharply, will definitely lose huge profits. Unless the president finds out the other cheeses' sales, his proposal will not be convincing.
个体不代表群体：国内奶酪除了来自W以外不如进口奶酪（这点子不错，我还没想到，我第一反应是新开的店不代表所有的店，估计这论点被人用了N次，万恶的陷阱啊）
Besides, even assuming that in the newest store, the sales of domestic are better than those of imported cheeses, the president's advice still be too hasty. The president has not provided any evidence that the newest can typify all of their stores. There are many disparities among all the stores, such as the geography positions, the economical conditions of the cities where the stores are located, the tastes of the stores' customers, which will lead to different  results of the president' proposal in variable stores. To guarantee this proposal can improve profits, the presidents must make an investigation to learn what the sales in other stores and whether the sales of the newest store can represent all the stores' sales.
地方性的经济条件，口味之类等
In addition, the result of the survey by the magazine can lends little support to the president's proposal. The majority of the survey's respondents are the subscribers of the magazine and not representatives of the overall customers of this chain of cheese stores. Perhaps the respondents' tastes differ greatly from the tastes of this chain of stores' customers, who more prefer imported cheeses. If the president wants to know what the tastes of his stores' customers, he should do a survey among the customers of their chain of stores, rather than blindly believing one magazine’s survey.
不要随便相信杂志的调查，应从实际出发调查自身顾客的口味（这论点似乎不错，但事实上，杂志代表的是大众口味，该店或多或少还是要借鉴杂志等相关媒体对顾客的调查，以了解市场的需要借此推广符合顾客要求的产品）
In sum, there are still many jobs demanding the presidents to do before his proposal's carried out. Such as, making an investigation to learn what the sales of the other cheeses and what the tastes of customers in all the stores of the chains are
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-7 22:39:08

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-7 22:45 编辑

666批改，又看到666批改了，看她的批改，不光看到别人的错误，也能看到自己所忽视的一些问题，自己认为还不错的，在她看来错误百出，我通篇看下来觉得没啥语法错误居然被她揪出了很多.............泪奔，再想想看前面的帖子，肯定是有很多问题我忽视了。
"For many years all the stores in our chain have stocked a wide variety of both domestic and imported cheeses. Last year, however, the five best-selling cheeses at our newest store were all domestic cheddar cheeses from Wisconsin. Furthermore, a recent survey by Cheeses of the World magazine indicates an increasing preference for domestic cheeses among its subscribers. Since our company can reduce expenses by limiting inventory, the best way to improve profits in all of our stores is to discontinue stocking many of our varieties of imported cheese and concentrate primarily on domestic cheeses."

According to the sales(这里要说清楚是cheese sales) of their newest store and the results of a survey by Cheeses of the World (magazine), the president of a chain of cheese stores comes to the conclusion that the west way to improve(improve这个词用作提高的意思的时候是形容质量而非数量的) profits in all of their stores is to discontinue stocking many of their varieties of imported cheeses and concentrate primarily on domestic  cheeses. Though sound as it seems, the reasoning is flawed in several aspects.（这段看得出来，你审题错误了。按照你的第一段，仅仅是两个原因就推出了结论，然而，
作者的论证方式是：1.国产的奶酪卖的好（已给）+2.杂志的调查（已给）---> 推论1：本国的产品更受欢迎（潜台词：外国的不受欢迎）

【你忽略了这些】3.limiting inventory对减少开销有用（已给）--->推论2：limiting inventory对增加利润有用

接下来：推论1+推论2---->只卖本国的，不卖外国的奶酪对增加利润有用。（结论）
【然而你的第一段：】1+2--->结论
所以用这种简单的模板式开头，自然就会出现逻辑错误，我都能看出来，相信ETS老师绝对能看出来，我想这个也是为什么最近的XDF之类模板，考下来大家都觉得有话说，理当得高分，然而实际上得分低的原因。）

To begin with, in the newest store the domestic cheddar cheeses from Wisconisin are the best selling cheeses does not mean that all the domestic cheeses sell well. （第一个批驳点：部分不能代表整体）It is entirely possible that all the other domestic cheeses nevertheless sell badly. Perhaps, in the newest store, the domestic cheeses except for those from Wisconisin sell not as well as the imported cheeses and(连词用的不对) the overall sales of imported cheeses are far more than that of domestic cheeses. If this is the case, discontinuing stocking the imported cheeses, the stores, whose overall sales will drop sharply, will（虚拟语气表推测） definitely lose huge profits. Unless the president finds out the other cheeses' sales（过于笼统）, his proposal will not be convincing（这个用特殊颜色标出来，我最后来说）.（这段最大的问题是破题不好，通常的情况下看来，5种最畅销的奶酪，已经能够包括到接近80%的奶酪市场情况了，而作者依然认为奶酪的总销量会被其他的不畅销的本国奶酪拖后腿从而低于外国奶酪（估计还占不到20%）的销量，这是小概率事情。）（咦？666是从哪里看到国产货及进口货对奶酪市场占有的百分比啊，而且，作者提出不是5种国产货以外的奶酪吗？）

Besides, even assuming that in the newest store, the sales of domestic are better than those of imported cheeses, the president's advice still be too hasty.（这句是败笔，句子内部是有逻辑联系的，句子之间也是有逻辑联系的，然而不管是从你的even if,还是下面一句话，我始终看不出你是如何套到advice（就是最后的结论）上去的，批驳的中间段一定要记住：你批的不是结论，是推出结论的直接或者间接的“推论”，就是那个-->） The president has not provided any evidence that the newest can typify all of their stores.（仔细多读几遍这个句号的前后两句话，就会有一种特别难受的感觉，因为他们之间没有关系，就是硬生生的摆在一起而已） There are many disparities among all the stores, such as the geography positions（我始终想不明白geography positions如何影响到作者结论的，估计ETS老师也不明白，你是不是该在下面举个例子？）, the economical conditions(这个倒是容易懂) of the cities where the stores are located, the tastes of the stores' customers, which will lead to different  results（空话！最忌讳这种，要说就说明确，是哪些） of the president' proposal in variable stores. To guarantee this proposal can improve profits, the presidents must make an investigation to（怎么扯到的investigation上的...） learn what the sales in other stores and whether the sales of the newest store can represent all the stores' sales.（问题1：这段写的很“空”，我稍微回头算了一下，至少有4句话就是翻来覆去，不停的换表达方式的说：“作者给的材料没有代表性，不能够证明作者的结论”，然而为什么不能证明？你的有限的3句回答当中出了事实上，在我看来前面的几篇阿狗都或多或少有这样的问题，主要是为了凑字数，但AWINTRO指出effective writing有效写作，不说废话，直击重心。很多时候我们太懒得思考了。问题2：和上一段简直说的就是一件事情。都是讨论的没有本国的奶酪销售没有代表性，上一段至少我看明白了是因为不能由部分推至整体，这一段完全搞不懂是从哪个角度入手的，非常的混乱...）

In addition, the result of the survey by the magazine can lends little support to the president's proposal. （讨论调查的代表性）The majority of the survey's respondents are the subscribers of the magazine and (could) not (be) representatives of the overall customers of this chain of cheese stores. Perhaps the respondents' tastes differ greatly from the tastes of this chain of stores' customers, who more prefer imported cheeses. If the president wants to know what the tastes of his stores' customers,(这句话是怎么来的？题目中有提到？) he should do a survey among the customers of their chain of stores, rather than blindly believing one magazine’s survey.（因果关系不明显，推断也是有问题的，仅仅是两个probably, perhaps，你就推出了最后一句，从而证明了第一句？如果这样都行，那随便个人都能否定全世界了。你需要更多“详细”的论述说明1.为什么这种可能性会发生，2发生了这种可能性以后对作者的推论有什么压倒性的影响。）

In sum, there are still many jobs demanding the presidents to do before his proposal's carried out. Such as, making an investigation to learn what the sales of the other cheeses and what the tastes of customers in all the stores of the chains are.（个人习惯，向来不改结尾，没意思）"
zycly86 发表于 2009-2-19 16:49
问题很大，很多，很严重，除开语言比较流畅文字功底还不错以外，逻辑实在是相当多漏洞可以钻。
总结一下你的中间3段，除开第二段不知所云以外，1，3段分别对应的是两个作者已经给出的材料。
然而我在第一段结束的时候画的那个推理过程，可以很明显的看出，作者的漏洞，大大的有，绝对不是你批2个给出材料的可信度，就能够insightful驳倒的
我想大家根据 XDF或者其他人的资料，都是觉得批标注了（已给）的东西的真实性才是argument,实际上，真正最重要的东西，在“--->”上，光死盯着一个材料的真实性，可信度，代表性，仅仅只是皮毛而已。
语言也仅仅是一个锦上添花的东西，关键还是内涵。
此外最需要提醒你的一点就是：黄色的批注，是经常犯的错误，argument，每个小段批的都是推断，不是批的结论，更不是批的材料。
最后评一下分好了，3-4分之间吧
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-8 10:34:44

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-8 10:50 编辑

绿色字是我对此文的一些想法
这是我日志的惯例哈

https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=412534&extra=page%3D1%26amp%3Bfilter%3Ddigest argument应该这样写（一）
arguement51The following appeared in a medical newsletter.

"Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain. This hypothesis has now been proved by preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients. The first group of patients, all being treated for muscle injuries by Dr. Newland, a doctor who specializes in sports medicine, took antibiotics regularly throughout their treatment. Their recuperation time was, on average, 40 percent quicker than typically expected. Patients in the second group, all being treated by Dr. Alton, a general physician, were given sugar pills, although the patients believed they were taking antibiotics. Their average recuperation time was not significantly reduced. Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment“

先看我同学是怎么写的
他的3段攻击大概是这样的

1。2个医生背景不同
2。2个实验组的具体情况信息实在太少，不足以判断
3。并不一定所有的病人都会发生2次感染

想来他的思路具有一些普遍性

前提：Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain
结论：Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment

最明显一些关键词，我已经给标出来了。剩下的也有值得关注的 比如 结论里面的 part。
是否发现，单单这2句话，比那一段实验还要有多话说？
secondary infections may ——> 一个仅仅是may 的事情，居然推广到都会发生，显然错了
some——>all 一些病人 推广到 所有病人 显然也错了
severe muscle strain 和一般的 muscle strain 病人能同等对待么？只有严重肌肉损伤的人中才有某些人可能发生再次感染，没有说任何关于整个肌肉损伤病人的信息。

由此，一下就至少3个攻击点
怎么攻击，不用我说了，这个你们很熟悉
但是在这里，我必须要再次强调为什么要先攻击这个地方
这个是西方的习惯，先攻击最重要的逻辑问题
为什么这个比2个病患组的例子更重要？
病患组的例子你再怎么攻击，最多也就是能说“这些证据，并不能表明[前提]是一定存在的”，那也就等于说，[前提]还是有可能存在的。你最后的攻击无非就是“一个不一定确实存在的[前提]，不能推导到那样的结论”
而我攻击前提和结论这个逻辑层面，我就能说，即便[前提]是完全正确的，我也不能得到那样的结论。
所以，要先攻击这个逻辑关系
这个地方说的有点绕，希望大家仔细想下

最重要的是攻击推理过程，不是攻击论据如何怎么样，以下绿色段落是本人在AWINTRO翻译中选的关于如何处理阿狗话题出现的论据（数据百分比及统计，跟此题中的样本攻击类似）
怎样解释在阿狗话题里面出现的数据，百分比，以及统计。
一些文章包括被用来作为支撑作者结论的证据的数据，百分比或统计。举例，一篇文章可能主张一个确定的公社活动在此年没有上一年流行了，因为此年只有100个人出席和上一年150人出席相比，出席率下降了百分之三十三。记住最重要的是你不需要去考证数据，百分比及统计的精确性。相反的是，你需要评价的是，它们作为证据能否支持结论。在以上例子中，结论是公社活动不再流行了，你需要问你自己，100个人和150个人之间的不同能支持此结论吗？在此案例中，写下其他可能性的解释。举例，在此年天气可能更糟糕，在此年活动可能在不方便的时候举行的，在此年活动的花费更高了，或者，在同一时间出现了其他更流行的活动。每一个都可能解释出席率的不同，因此它削弱了关于活动不流行的了结论。同样的，百分比有可能支持或削弱依靠百分比所表现出的确实的数据的一个结论。考虑这个观点，是学校的戏剧小组值得投入因为它的成员人数已经提高了百分之百，如果是由过去的5个人到现在的十个人，这个百分之百的提高可能是有意义的。记住，在阿狗话题中的任何数据，百分比，或统计都只能作为证据来支撑结论，你需要经常考虑它们是否能确实支持结论。

那这3个点攻击完了，这个主逻辑层次攻击完了
怎么着至少攻击了2段了吧？如果你愿意此刻攻击了3段了
接着是什么？接着才是那2个病患组的攻击，也就是攻击他的前提了
想怎么攻击怎么攻击
但是不知道你们发现了没有，不管你怎么攻击这个证据，顶多也就是个information too vague，没有能重伤这个文章让别人怀疑的能力。


而我们最开始的攻击，相对于前者，可以说就是招招致命，让人足够怀疑了。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-8 11:25:31

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-8 11:31 编辑

12 TOPIC: ARGUMENT6 - The following was written as a part of an application for a small business loan by a group of developers in the city of Monroe.

"A jazz music club in Monroe would be a tremendously profitable enterprise. Currently, the nearest jazz club is 65 miles away; thus, our proposed club, the C Note, would have the local market all to itself.(因为最近的俱乐部很也比较远就推出C俱乐部肯定会占据本地市场，只考虑到地理因素，还有俱乐部质量啊，客源啊等一些问题) Plus, jazz is extremely popular in Monroe: over 100,000 people attended Monroe's jazz festival last summer, several well-known jazz musicians live in Monroe, and the highest-rated radio program in Monroe is 'Jazz Nightly,' which airs every weeknight. （也许提高了本地居民的音乐欣赏水平如果C本身水平不高也不一定能够占据市场）Finally, a nationwide study  indicates that the typical jazz fan spends close to $1,000 per year on jazz entertainment.(不一定都花在J俱乐部，比如买音乐碟啊音响啊等等) It is clear that the C Note cannot help but make money."（忽视特殊性，全国平均对JAZZ投入高不代表M地J粉丝对此投入也高）
WORDS: 429
TIME: 00:30:00
DATE: 2009-2-19 15:55:39

    In this argument, the author brought out several facts to support his loan plan. First, currently there is no jazz club nearby Monroe (M). Second, jazz is of great popularity in M. Third, nearly $1000 was spent per year in jazz nationwide. （题目限定的对象是J粉丝，这里没写出来，没仔细看题啊）A careful inspection will reveal that these facts are not sufficient to guarantee a profitable result of C note.条理清晰，提出题目的的三个推论1 M附近没有J俱乐部；2 M地J非常流行；3 全国调查平均每个J粉丝每年有1000美元投入，可以看到接下来的攻击必然是这种顺序
    To begin with, the favor of 'Jazz Nightly' doesn't necessarily indicate that M's resident will also be interested to take part in a jazz club. On the contrary, the highest-rated radio program which airs every weeknight may attract those people, and provide them with a reason not to attend a jazz club. After all, turning on the radio is much more convenient than driving to a club. Neither can the residence of several well-know jazz musicians infer that a jazz club located in M will be warmly welcomed. It is quite possible that those musicians are acting in the nearest jazz club, or on frequent nationwide show.
Without evidence that the people in M will be eager to attend a jazz club, I can not accept that C will be so welcomed.
J收音节目吸引居民，使他们觉得没必要去C，可能那些音乐家代替了J俱乐部
    Another critical fallacy the argument suffer is, the nationwide study that typical jazz fan spends nearly $1000 per year on jazz doesn't necessarily apply to M. It is quite possible that the fans in M do not follow these general trends. Besides, the money spend on jazz club may only contribute a little part to the whole budget. Thus, lacking evidence that M's residents will behave similarly as the typical jazz fans do, and they will indeed spend large amount of money on jazz club, the author's conclusion that C Note will make money is unconvincing.
攻击全民调查(M不一定随潮流；不是1000都花在俱乐部上)
    Finally, even assuming the people in M will be crazy about jazz club and they prone to spend a lot of money attending a jazz night, it doesn't means that C Note will definitely be profitable. As we all know, both revenue and cost contribute to the profit. Probably the rent in M is quite expensive, or the salary level in M is relatively high, which will inevitably increase the cost. Unless the author provides more information about supply, demand, and relative costs, it is almost impossible to make sure whether C Note will make money.
C本身支出…（偏题了吧…）
    In conclusion, the argument is not well reasoned. To strengthen it the author should provide clearer evidence that M's residents will go in for C Note. The author should also clearly analyze the relative costs against its incomings, and make this application more persuasive.
基本是按题目出现的漏洞攻击的，最后一点我不大赞同，攻击的是推论过程，而不是论据本身的问题。
另外可以攻击那个100000个人参加的爵士乐节，那些人可能大部分都是从外地慕名而来的（这点子我还真没想到）
还有最近的那家俱乐部，如果非常出名的话，60miles并不会显得很长
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-8 11:32:22

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-8 22:03 编辑

改到这里发现跟前面看过的那帖子同一个话题，但总觉得单凭攻击开头Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain. 推导出Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment."这一过程总觉得有点奇怪，但也想不出问题在哪，看到此兄的辩驳，发现我一直觉得不对劲的问题就在这里

但是，我认为楼主在这个问题上显得有点固执。当然，argument的攻击顺序，要遵从一定的逻辑性为好，但楼主在这里引用的这个argument作为例子，是有些misleading的！不可能把实验的内容放掉的！
下面是我的分析：

"Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain. This hypothesis has now been proved by preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients. The first group of patients, all being treated for muscle injuries by Dr. Newland, a doctor who specializes in sports medicine, took antibiotics regularly throughout their treatment. Their recuperation time was, on average, 40 percent quicker than typically expected. Patients in the second group, all being treated by Dr. Alton, a general physician, were given sugar pills, although the patients believed they were taking antibiotics. Their average recuperation time was not significantly reduced. Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment“

没错，我们的重点是攻击结论。但实际上，这个argument有两个表示结论的句子：This hypothesis has now been proved by……和all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment。
对于第一个结论，作者凭什么认为了这个假设被证实了？注意，实验中根本没有直接提到secondary infection! 那怎么说证实了呢？实际上，这里蕴含的假设是，因为抗生素能够防止secondary infection,而服用了抗生素的病人康复得更快，所以，是secondary infection阻碍了病人的康复。这样，错误就很明显了：能说第一组人就没有发生二次感染，第二组人就有发生二次感染吗？服用了抗生素，并不能保证不会发生二次感染，同时，只服用了糖丸的，也可能没有发生二次感染。没有弄清楚这个问题，不论实验结果如何，这个假设都是不能被证明的。
第二个：所有有肌肉损伤的病人都应该采用抗生素作为治疗。
那我们就要看作者是怎么推出这一结论的：由于在实验中，第一组采取了抗生素治疗，而第二组只用了糖丸，结果第一组恢复时间明显缩短，而第二组没有。所以，作者才会在结论中认为，要[采取抗生素]作为治疗。
显然，这里他的致命伤在于抗生素的问题。该实验是否真的证明抗生素有效？（医生不同，患者不同，这些都是我们驳论的角度）即使确实是抗生素造成了第一组病人的康复时间缩短，是否可以推广到所有病人？

从以上两个结论的分析，我们可以看出，这篇argument的所有焦点，都集中在那个实验上。而首句和末句之间，似乎是有暗含联系，但也完全可以孤立开来看。因为它们实际上都是通过中间部分的实验得出的结论。楼主强调“重点”，这才是重点啊！而开头和结尾之间的暗含联系，如果要说的话，也只有通过中间的实验才能说清楚。（这里就是我所关注的问题，毕竟，作者是靠这些实验来证明他的推论，而我们就是要反驳这种推理，从实验推出结果的过程）

综上所述，不能同意搂主的观点。首先是楼主关于“前提”和“结论”的判断不对，其次，some, severe这些措辞上的差异，和文中费大量笔墨去解释的实验过程中包含的错误以及从实验过程推出结论的逻辑错误，相比起来，哪个更是“细枝末节”呢？

毕竟，从出题者的角度出发，你想，他不会费了半天劲编出两个漏洞百出的实验，却希望你只抓住开头那么一个纯粹是引出性质的句子大肆发挥吧？
空口无凭，还是得靠题目出现的问题来攻击啊。而那些问题就是出现在实验之中，作者为什么推出那样的结论，是因为实验而推导出来的。也就是说，论据到论点，论据还是不能忽略的。AWINTRO指出论据中的（百分比啊什么的，就类似于此题中的实验，不是白给的，要反驳的是从论据推理出结果的过程，过程啊）感觉楼主忽略了过程。



13
阿狗51"Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe muscle strain. This hypothesis has now been proved by preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients. The first group of patients, all being treated for muscle injuries by Dr. Newland, a doctor who specializes in sports medicine, took antibiotics regularly throughout their treatment. Their recuperation time was, on average, 40 percent quicker than typically expected. Patients in the second group, all being treated by Dr. Alton, a general physician, were given sugar pills, although the patients believed they were taking antibiotics. Their average recuperation time was not significantly reduced. Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment."
WORDS: 458
TIME: 00:29:57
DATE: 2009-2-17 PM 12:40:35
According to the preliminary result of a study of two groups of patients, the author comes to the conclusion that all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment. Although sound it seems, the argument is flawed in several aspects.
由实验推出所有的肌肉损伤者都需要服用抗生素
Primarily, maybe other factors other than the taking the antibiotics contributed the different effects of the two treatments in the study. The two groups of patients were treated by different doctors. Except for the antibiotics, there are many differences between the treatments - the doctors' skills, the treatment measures and the equipments the doctor used. Maybe, Dr. Newland has better skills, and the measures and equipments he used were more advanced. All of these advantages can explain why the recuperation time of Dr. Newland's patients was greatly reduced. In addition, the conditions of the patients in the two groups maybe different. Perhaps, the patients of the first group have less serious injuries than those of the latter group, leading the first group easily to recover.
攻击两组医生不同，其治疗方案啊什么的也许不同，还有治疗条件等之类
Besides, the author ignores the negative effects of the antibiotics. Nearly all the medicines have more or less side effects. The author provides no evidence to prove the antibiotics is an exception. The author only mentions the patients' recuperation time, no informing us whether the patients in the first group had some new symptoms, such as headache, nausea, powerless and sleepy. Even if the patients did not have any new symptom, there is no guarantee that in the future they will not have any symptoms caused by the antibiotics. Perhaps, many patients have serious headache three months later. Lacking clinical experiment, the author can not assert that the antibiotics do not have negative effects, considering the safety of the patients.
怀疑两组患者是否有其他的病症（个人觉得攻击论据本身没有什么意义，应该论证的是推论的荒谬）
Additionally, given that the antibiotics do not have any side effects and help patients with severe muscle strain recover, the author's proposal that all the patients with muscle strain should take antibiotics is unacceptable. The treatments of the patients with light muscle strain are not the same with those of the patients with severe muscle strain. Perhaps, without taking antibiotics, the patients with light muscle strain will still recover quickly and will not have the danger to get second diagnosed. If this is the case, it is not reasonable to advise those patients to take antibiotics, letting alone the high price of antibiotics.
两组的患者肌肉损伤程度不同，推出其治疗方案不同，可能不需要抗生素，伤势轻的患者可以较快地恢复。（？？？？作者并没有提到此点，是推测吗，扯远了吧，重点是攻击如何推出抗生素对肌肉损伤治疗有效的荒谬推理，而不是攻击样本中如何如何）

In sum, the argument is not well reasoned. To strengthen it, the author must prove us that it is the antibiotics rather than other factors explain the difference between the recoveries of the two groups of patients. What is more, the author should prove the antibiotics have no side effects and all the patients with muscle strain need to take them.
作者: 123runfordream    时间: 2009-12-8 22:49:53

哇~~
我要个你学习学习。
这段时间我都干嘛了~~忏悔！！
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-8 23:28:39

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-8 23:36 编辑

再次回味自己翻译过的AWINTRO，果然感觉比以前明晰了很多
这东西，非得自己实实在在地思考才能悟到一些东西
ETS已经把所有的写作方法都告诉我们了，就如寄托前辈所说，剩下的就是自己的思考问题了

尽管你不需要知道具体的分析技巧和术语，你应该熟悉阿狗任务的指导和一些关键的概念，包括如下：
•可取代的解释：一个可能更有力的版本导致了这些项目出现问题，一个可取代的介绍分割或限定最初的解释是因为它更能说明一些具体的事实。
•分析：把某些东西打破的过程是为了去了解他们是怎样一起工作组成整体，还有一个通常在写作中关于结果的陈述的过程（这句我翻译不清楚.....）
•辩论： 通过合理推断和证据来支撑的一个主张或一系列主张。一系列合理推断意味着说明某些事情的真实或虚假。
•假设：一种不直接说明或验证的简述，某些人为了维持特别的立场而必须抑制的。某些被承认但必须是真的为了使结论真实可信的东西。一个通常也是不直接说明和验证的简述，通常它的持有能让你保持一个特定的观点。它可能是默认的，但是它的正确性往往是为了验证你的结论是正确的。（番茄翻译得真好啊….）
•结论：通过一系列推论而总结出来的最终观点，如果推论是合理的就是有根据的；最终的结果主张。
•反例：一个例子，真实的或假设的，是用来驳倒或驳斥阿狗里面的一个观点。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-8 23:31:15

哇~~
我要个你学习学习。
这段时间我都干嘛了~~忏悔！！
123runfordream 发表于 2009-12-8 22:49

额....
惭愧...
我还是贪玩了些，刚刚玩了校内里面的连连看一个小时，OMG，简直上瘾了....
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-9 12:43:59

感动啊，我的ISSUE13居然有两个人来改
那只鬼啊，你的我已经改了
C啊，你的ISSUE我也好好看看
经历了这几天草木练习，翻译AWINTOR，批改阿狗，看论坛的精华帖，再回头看看自己的ISSUE，真是漏洞百出，当时写着要拼命用上高级词汇显得文章档次高些，但，AWINTRO告诉我，要用精确的词汇，合适的例子，这里，C再次提醒了我，还有鬼也帮我梳理了我文章中乱七八糟的逻辑关系，再次鞠躬感激不尽。
下次，我会努力奉上更好的作文
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-9 19:37:37

我的I处女作...
被三个板油批得到处都是密密麻麻的颜色，惭愧啊....
回想起当时写作的状态，真是不知道干嘛去了...
不过，最高兴的是大家都热心帮忙~
我也要攒点人品~
谁给我改我就给谁改~~~
在改别人的文中，有些我不太肯定的错误我自己也查下用词用句，事实上，也是自我知识完善的过程
一起加油~~~~~~~~
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-10 10:16:35

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-10 10:37 编辑

第13讲主要讲逗号
哪些情况下用逗号，哪些情况下不需要
Compound Sentence Commas

Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
Comma Splices

See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.
If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
·
reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses) （合并成一个句子）
·
add a coordinating conjunction after the comma 加连接词
·
replace the comma with a semicolon 分号代替逗号
·
replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause 用句号，问号，惊叹号以及大写字母代替逗号
comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.
Introductory Commas
Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).
If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:
While I was writing, the phone rang.
Other introductory commas
·ends in -ing
·is an infinitive (to + verb)
·is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)
Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase.
Disruptive Commas
General guidelines
2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
   correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.
Series Commas

place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series
Commas with Nonessential Elements（在句中表示不重要的部分）

Students who cheat only harm themselves.
  Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-10 22:13:51

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-10 23:54 编辑

14讲Proofreading Your Writing
General Strategies
1写完后深呼吸思想放松再回头检查
2留足够时间来仔细检查语法词汇错误
3大声读....
4扮演读者的角色查看文章
5问朋友或写作导师帮忙查看文章
You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually.
1找到错误，复习老师的评语与建议
2为错误列表，向老师寻求帮助，他们会给你建议如何订正避免
Finding Common Errors
1不能依赖电脑自动纠错功能
2逐字逐句检查
3字典
4警惕弱智拼写错误
Left-out and doubled words
1Make sure each sentence has a subject.
2Make sure each sentence has a complete verb
3See that each sentence has an independent clause;
注意句子的独立，若单句太多就注意是否该用连词
又是注意逗号.....
Analysis
1.Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?

2.Will your reader see these connections among the topics?

3.Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.

4.Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be the topics of most of the sentences.
要从读者角度出发来修改文章

Paragraphs

   隔一段时间再来修改文章，会有新鲜感，可能会避免因熟悉而可能忽视的错误
带着问题来评价你的草稿
表达你的主要观点（这一点我总是看到草木贴其他杂七杂八都反复强调此点）
审查你文章中的例子是否支持观点（翻译AWINTRO就经常看到此点，举例子是为了支持自己的观点，当然，不能单纯地摆例子，而是借例子来扩展深入阐述自己的辩论）

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 00:04:18

话说，我怎么在帖子里面改不了字的大小和颜色（一部分）
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 00:07:10

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-11 08:51 编辑

逛C的帖子发现了此链接
对于Issue的一些想法(暨平衡思路的结构组织分析)
大致看了下觉得还不错，明早起来研究去也~~~
https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=673637&highlight=
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 17:05:12

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-11 17:09 编辑

14 TOPIC: ARGUMENT4 - The following was posted on an Internet real estate discussion site.
"Of the two leading real estate firms in our town-Adams Realty and Fitch Realty-Adams is clearly superior. Adams has 40 real estate agents. In contrast, Fitch has 25, many of whom work only part-time. Moreover, Adams' revenue last year was twice as high as that of Fitch, and included home sales that averaged $168,000, compared to Fitch's $144,000. Homes listed with Adams sell faster as well: ten years ago, I listed my home with Fitch and it took more than four months to sell; last year, when I sold another home, I listed it with Adams, and it took only one month. Thus, if you want to sell your home quickly and at a good price, you should use Adams."
WORDS: 365         TIME: 00:30:00          DATE: 2009/1/25 16:57:13

In this argument, the author draws a conclusion; （这里不需分号，用that）one should choose Adams Realty (AR) rather than Fitch Realty (FR), by a series of deductions. However, to my understanding, the suggestion is based on invalid analogies and incogent evidences.

First and foremost, the author emphasizes that AR owns more real estate agents than FR possesses. But he failed to consider possibilities that more workers are by no means more work efficient. The workers in FR may share comfortable work environment, enough human touch（人情味）, and （be）surrounded by optimistic attitude which are rarely in AR. Therefore, workers in FR have more motivations to urge themselves to higher profits. Furthermore, the cost of human resource management and operation must be taken in to consideration to judge the final profits. It is highly probably that AR spent more budgets on workers' salaries and daily water rate and electric charge, which potentially influenced its profits.  
1员工多不代表有效率(比如FR可能有良好的氛围)
2公司的运营成本要考虑在内
Moreover, high price of home sales may not lead to high profits either. As it is known to us all, profit is produced by sell price minus cost. So besides the price of building, we have to consider another aspect -- production and operation cost. Perhaps FR has many long-term suppliers, and they built mutually beneficial relationships and cooperation together. Hence the prices of materials of FR are much lower than the ones of AR, Which play a crucial role in determining final profits. So the conclusion: AR is more powerful than FR is doubtful.
这段有问题了，说的是建筑的成本，事实上房屋经纪公司不一定是自己建房子，而且题目也指出作者把房子交给经纪公司代卖
Finally, the author failed to consider the change of price and requirement in real estate market. Maybe customers were poorer than they are now（这句怪怪的，说以前比现在穷，直接说现在有钱了呗）, or probably by the development of the town, the population explosion is emerged. Thus the needs of apartment are obviously elevated, which, result in fast sale. So, the suggestion that buying AR's building lead to quick sell of house is not as cogent as it seems to be.
经济发展情况影响房价或销售速度，看来作者注意到时间的漏洞了，但他没有明确说清楚，十年前和去年，这个时间区分应该要强调一下。
As is mentioned above, the conclusion is not persuasive to me. The author has to furnish more effective evidences such as the annual bulletins of two companies and more background information just like comparing the economy now to it was ten years ago to readers.
基本是看到什么漏洞就攻击啥，没有主线连接下来
而且第3段逻辑有问题，作者没有明确经纪公司的作用
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 17:20:08

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-11 17:38 编辑

第16讲 比喻
前面讲了一堆名人对比喻的看法

extended or telescoping metaphor: A sustained metaphor.单看这词儿还真不大明白，看例子就懂了
        The teacher descended upon the exams, sank his talons into their pages, ripped the answers to shreds, and then, perching in his chair, began to digest.

implied metaphor: A less direct metaphor.
        John swelled and ruffled（滋扰） his plumage（羽毛） (versus John was a peacock)额...没有括号我还真看不出来这是暗喻，要联合上下文呢。

mixed metaphor: The awkward, often silly use of more than one metaphor at a time. To be avoided！尽量避免混杂的比喻，一切务必能使读者读懂为重心
        The movie struck a spark that massaged the audience's conscience.

dead metaphor: A commonly used metaphor that has become over time part of ordinary language.
        tying up loose ends, a submarine sandwich, a branch of government, and most clichés（这个句子俺没看懂...）

simile（类比）: A comparison using "like" or "as"（我们小虾最常用的也能上手的....）
        Her face was pale as the moon.

metonym（换喻）: The substitution of one term for another with which it is commonly associated or closely related.
        the pen is mightier than the sword, the crown (referring to a Queen or King), hands (referring to workers who use their hands),

synecdoche（代喻 又称举偶,它是以部分代替全部或全体代替部分的一种修辞手法）: The substitution of a part for the whole or vice versa (a kind of metonym).
        give us this day our daily bread

至于怎样比喻，古人深知此道啊~~~
我相信在比喻两方对象，大家是有话可说的吧
现在的问题是，如何用英文思维去表达，草木是简单地提出起到一个抛砖引玉的作用~最重要的是还是平常的积累~
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 19:48:29

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-11 20:27 编辑

语法第6讲 从句
关于基础的语法比较多，这里就不贴了，只贴一些我认为比较重要的或者说我容易犯的错误
比较：because, since, as和for

1）　because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或 since。
　 I didn't go, because I was afraid.
　 Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.

2）　由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。
　 He is absent today, because / for he is ill.
　 He must be ill, for he is absent today.
结果状语从句引导结果状语从句的连词有：so...that, such...that, so that, that, so等。
Mickey Mouse is so attractive that the children are reluctant to leave.

比较： so和 such

　其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so 是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。 so 还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little连用，形成固定搭配。
　so foolish　　　　　　　such a fool　　　　　　　
　so nice a flower　　　　such a nice flower　
　　
　so many / few flowers　 such nice flowers　　　　
　so much / little money. such rapid progress　　　
　so many people　　　　　such a lot of people　
　
（ so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。）
　 so…that与 such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。
　 The boy is so young that he can't go to school.
　 He is such a young boy that he can't go to school

as / though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前（形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前）。
　　Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.
　= Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.
注意： a.　句首名词不能带任何冠词。
　　　　b.　句首是实义动词，其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主语之前。
　　 Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
　 = Though he tries hard, he never seems…
　虽然他尽了努力，但他的工作总做的不尽人意。
作者: 123runfordream    时间: 2009-12-11 21:27:00

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 22:22:19


123runfordream 发表于 2009-12-11 21:27

这表情，至于么.....
还有3天了，OMG语法部分才开个头...
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 22:36:18

15 TOPIC: ARGUMENT169 - The following appeared in a letter from a department chairperson to the president of Pierce University.

"Some studies conducted by Bronston College, which is also located in a small town, reveal that both male and female professors are happier living in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the same geographic area. Therefore, in the interest of attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers to our faculty and improving the morale of our entire staff, we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member we hire. Although we cannot expect all offers to be accepted or to be viewed as an ideal job offer, the money invested in this effort will clearly be well spent because, if their spouses have a chance of employment, new professors will be more likely to accept our offers."
WORDS: 421         TIME: 00:30:00          DATE: 2008-12-7 16:38:55

In the argument, the arguer recommends that we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member we hire in order to attract the most gifted teachers and researches and improve the morale of our entire staff. The argument is mainly based on some studies conducted by Bronston College. Although the recommendation sounds indeed reasonable at first sight, a series of logical flaws may undermine the argument.

The threshold problem of this argument is that the studies conducted by Bronston College might not be reliable despite of the similar location.  The information about the studies is too vague. Neither does the arguer provide information concerning the process of these studies, nor does the arguer offer any evidence that these studies are reliable. Without enough evidence about the study, it is impossible to assess the validity and reliability of these studies.
感觉这段是空话，没有提出实质性的东西，就是反复说B大学的调查空泛没有具体证据，也没有提出例子来说明，其实可以提出，调查范围小啊，该地方适用到另外一个地方就不一定起作用
In addition, whether the spouse's job offer is the main factor influencing the most largely on the most gifted teachers and researches is questionable. The arguer unfairly assumes that the spouse's job offer is an attractive condition for most gifted teachers and researchers and that it is difficult for their spouses to find proper jobs. However, there is no guarantee that this is the case, nor does the arguer provide any evidence to substantiate the assumptions. （前面一堆模板到后面终于提出实质性的观点了）It is highly possible that the most gifted teachers and researches focus more on the scientific environment and the level of their fellows instead of their spouse's job. Besides, their spouses might also be capable enough to find a better job in companies or government rather than Pierce University. Without proving the assumptions, the arguer cannot convince me to accept his/her recommendation.
可能优秀人才更加注重研究环境和资源，其配偶可能会找到比学校更好的工作
Last but not least, the arguer groundlessly assumes that this recommendation would be effective to improve morale of our entire staff. As the arguer mentions, the offer is only for each new faculty member we hire. If so, the old faculty member might feel it is not fair for them and their spouses. As a result, even though the method is able to attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers, it undermines the morale of our old staff.
新旧员工的区别待遇不公平
In sum, the argument lack credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide more evidence to prove the reliability of these studies and revise the recommendation in order to fulfill its function of improving the morale of our entire staff.
感觉第2段和第3段前半段都抽掉也不影响文章中心，模板堆砌得太多了，阿狗要的是辨证，而不是字数堆砌。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-11 22:37:22

16 TOPIC: ARGUMENT188 - A new report suggests that men and women experience pain very differently from one another, and that doctors should consider these differences when prescribing pain medications. When researchers administered the same dosage of kappa opioids-a painkiller-to 28 men and 20 women who were having their wisdom teeth extracted, the women reported feeling much less pain than the men, and the easing of pain lasted considerably longer in women. This research suggests that kappa opioids should be prescribed for women whenever pain medication is required, whereas men should be given other kinds of pain medication. In addition, researchers should reevaluate the effects of all medications on men versus women.
WORDS: 424          TIME: 00:28:34          DATE: 2008-12-1 15:54:44
(已经放到word里面改过错别字)
In the argument, the arguer draw a conclusion that kappa opioids should be prescribed for women whenever pain medication is required, whereas men should be given other kinds of pain medication. Besides, the arguer also suggests that researchers should reevaluate the effects of all medications on men versus women. The argument is mainly based on a research about 28 men and 20 women having their wisdom teeth extracted. However, although the conclusion sounds indeed reasonable at first thought, several logical flaws may seriously undermine this argument.（看了十几篇，几乎篇篇都有这句话，看腻了，但不说这个呢，一来表意似乎不足，起码要说句预示下段的内容啊，二来凑字数，看了精华版，无夏奶奶说她几乎没有一句模板，好厉害啊！！！）

First of all, the arguer commits a fallacy of "hasty generalization". Firstly, the research only tests one kind of painkiller-- kappa opioids without testing other kinds of painkiller's effect. Based on a specific example, it is logically unsounded to make suggestion for all medications. It is very possible that other kind of medications might be completely different from kappa opioids, they might have the same effect on men and women, or might be more effective on men than women. Secondly, the result of the research is limitedly based on one kind of situation--extracting the wisdom teeth. It is likely that this situation is not typical in general and in other cases kappa opioids might have the same effect on men and women. In fact, in the face of such limited evidence, it is fallacious to draw any conclusion at all.  
K止痛药试验不能证明所有止痛药一定对女人有效；K止痛药的实验对象只有牙痛患者
Moreover, the research cited by the arguer is too vague to be informative. The number of the subjects, 28 men and 20 women, might constitute an insufficiently small sample to draw any reliable conclusion. Also, the sample might be unrepresentative of the most people. It is possible that the women in the group are more health than the men. Without better evidence that the research is statistically reliable, the arguer cannot convince me to accept his conclusion.
实验的男女数量不同；男女身体素质（这就是所谓的攻击样本吧？坛子里很多人都说不要攻击样本，最好攻击推理，但事实上关于此题，样本确实有很大的问题呢。）
Last but not least, the arguer assumes that kappa opioids are more effective to women than men, according to the evidence that the women reported felling much less pain than the men. But it is not sufficient to substantiate the assumption. It is entirely possible that the women might own more powerful ability to stand the pain or the men might express the pain openly.
男女忍痛能力….这也算是个吧，反正我是没想到这种
To sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to do more scientific and substantial research. To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information regarding the reference of other medications.
如果不能攻击样本，此题能批的漏洞就没几个了…..
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-12 11:40:15

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-12 11:42 编辑

17 TOPIC: ARGUMENT80 - The following appeared as an editorial in a health magazine.

"Clormium 5 is an odorless, tasteless, and generally harmless industrial by-product that can enter the water supply. A preliminary study has linked cooking with water containing clormium 5 to an increased incidence of allergies and skin rashes. Tests of the drinking water in several areas have revealed the presence of clormium 5.（可能还有其他成分的影响） Although it is possible to remove clormium 5 from water, the costs of routine testing and purification are higher than many communities can afford. Therefore, in order to prevent allergies and skin rashes, communities that cannot afford to rid their drinking water of clormium 5 should replace drinking fountains in public buildings, such as schools and libraries, with bottled-water coolers."（前面已说过linked cooking with water containing clormium 5一般来说是家庭用水来做饭，有谁会跑到公共场合去接水做饭？）
WORDS: 397          TIME: 00:28:25          DATE: 2008-11-6 19:56:41

Before the implementation the recommendation in the argument above, there are several evidence which need to be reexamined in some other aspects, as discussed below.

To begin with, the result of study is open to doubt. Firstly, the argument above provide no detail or information concerning how many people participate the study and how they are selected. （样本容量问题）Common sense tells us that the smaller the sample size is, the less reliable and credible the result of study will be. Perhaps, only 100 people participate the study, if this is the case, this small sample size is insufficient and imprecise to draw any conclusion. Also due to lacking of information concerning how people are selected to participate the study, we cannot conclude whether the result of study is representative enough. Secondly, the study overlooks other factors which can lead to allergies and skin rashes. Perhaps, due to eating some unclean food, some of the participants get allergies and skin rashes. If this is the case, the conclusion renders its incredibility due to ignore other factors which can lead the same symptoms, such as skin rashes.
样本容量小；可能有其他的原因导致allergies and skin rashes

In addition, even if the result of the study is substantiated, it does not follow that presence of clormium 5 will definitely cause allergies and skin rashes. Perhaps, the amount of clormium 5 in the drinking water is little so that it is insufficient to cause people sick. Perhaps, some other materials exist in the drinking water too, which prohibit the effect of clormium 5 to cause people sick. Without ruling out all these possibilities above, the conclusion of argument is groundless to me.
水里面有其他成分导致sick（其实上一段中也有类似的意思，可以挪下来和这段合并一起谈，即可能有其他的原因）
Last not the least, even if the foregoing assumptions are all substantiated, it does not follow that replacing drinking fountains in public buildings with bottled-water coolers will be the best solution. The argument overlooks other methods to deal with drinking water containing clormium 5, which maybe more economical and effective. Perhaps, adding some medicines into the water can offset the effects of clormium 5. Further, the argument does not provide any information concerning bottled-water. Perhaps, these bottled-water still contains clormium 5. In this sense, the recommendation amounts to nothing.
感觉这段像诡辩：瓶装水比处理C5要省钱（题目已经明确指出处理C5可能要花费很多钱所以要用bottled-water coolers，也就是说暗示B可能省钱也可能没有C5）
In conclusion, the argument above fails to convince me. To strengthen the argument, the arguer should provide more detail about the preliminary study above and other methods which can be used for dealing with the drink water containing clormium 5.
看了后面有人的批改，觉得此人逻辑好严密啊，我没注意到的问题他注意到了，看下别人的评语也可以扩展一下自己的思维辨析能力
我还没有参加AW考试，提一点点拙见
文章的结论：Therefore, in order to prevent allergies and skin rashes, communities that cannot afford to rid their drinking water of clormium 5 should replace drinking fountains in public buildings, such as schools and libraries, with bottled-water coolers."
如果想让这个结论成立，需要做几个假设：

1.allergies and skin rashes是clormium 5引起的（第一个假设）。A preliminary study has linked cooking with water containing clormium 5 to an increased incidence of allergies and skin rashes. 这里的红色字体有些问题，preliminary study 得出的结论是否科学？这里提到的是cooking和allergies and skin rashes有关，是什么样的关系？如果含有clormium 5的水不去cooking，那么会不会就没有allergies and skin rashes？如果是这样，那public buildings就没必要装bottled-water coolers，因为这里的用水不是用来cooking的。

2.那些负担不起除去clormium 5花费的社区的饮用水里含有clormium 5（第二个假设）。这一点是值得怀疑的，文章只是说Tests of the drinking water in several areas have revealed the presence of clormium 5.那有可能付不起除clormium 5费用的社区的饮用水不含有clormium 5

3.replace drinking fountains with bottled-water coolers是有效果的（第三个假设）。文章没有提供相关的证据，即使是有效果的，那检测和净化的费用是最便宜的吗？

4.replace drinking fountains in public buildings, such as schools and libraries能够有效的防止 allergies and skin rashes（第四个假设）。仅仅通过在公共场合安装这个 bottled-water coolers就可以了吗？在家庭，工作....的地方一样会感染啊！
而你在这里所攻击的对象：1. 调查样品、方法
                                    2. clormium 5 和allergies and skin rashes的因果关系
                                    3. bottled-water coolers不一定是最好的办法
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-12 21:26:49

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-12 21:36 编辑

18 TOPIC: ARGUMENT15 - The following appeared in a newsletter offering advice to investors.

"Over 80 percent of the respondents to a recent survey indicated a desire to reduce their intake of foods containing fats and cholesterol, and today low-fat products abound in many food stores. Since many of the food products currently marketed by Old Dairy Industries are high in fat and cholesterol, the company's sales are likely to diminish greatly and their profits will no doubt decrease. We therefore advise Old Dairy stockholders to sell their shares and other investors not to purchase stock in this company."
作者思路：
攻击调查人数的可靠性；被调查者的身体状况；调查的区域（经济发达区胖人多反正则少）又是一个攻击调查的思路方式。质疑调查背景啊数据啊之类，提出其他可能的假设
低脂肪食物受欢迎不代表高脂肪食物没有市场
不一定不能获利：口味价格；OD公司可改变策略生产健康食品从而获利
对此逻辑，感觉一般，大众思路，逮到点子就攻击，关于语法问题我本人就很差也看不出来....
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-12 21:38:25

https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthre ... p%3Bfilter%3Ddigest各位小朋友，你有没有真心爱过ＧＲＥ。。？
真是道出我的心声啊，毕竟是要出去靠论文的，迟早要出来混的，又为什么不珍惜现在难得的机会呢
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-12 21:49:00

不知道大家有没这样的感觉，写了一篇一休或者阿狗，看都不再看就无比鸡冻地贴上来等着别人给改，好一点的可能还自己改改拼写错误语法错误；别人改过之后觉得：嗯，说的对，这里就应该这样，我当初自己再想想其实可以避免，这句话其实我自己再斟酌斟酌也可以改得更好。。。。。。
这时候你得到的是什么？是一个对“发文之前要是自己再想想就能避免的错误”以及“自己再斟酌一番也能写出来的句子”的修改。没错，这样你是得到了提高。但试想，如果你能每次发文之前都仔仔细细地自己把文章先修改到“完美”----这个“完美”是指你自己看再多遍都觉得实在没什么可改的地方了----也即，发挥这次写作的一个极限，这时，其他板油给你改出的问题，才更有价值。因为这些“问题”一定是你在改自己作文的过程中不曾发现的问题。这时候你又得到了什么？是一次“极限”以后的再度提高。——米饭袜子
确实，我的ISSUE13处女作就是写完了没仔细改太恶心了不想回头检查，是的，感谢那些热心板油给我修改，但如果一味这样下去的话，我的作文会得到实质性的提高吗。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-12 23:00:33

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-12 23:02 编辑

19 TOPIC: ARGUMENT1 - The following appeared in a memorandum written by the vice president of Nature's Way, a chain of stores selling health food and other health-related products.

"Previous experience has shown that our stores are most profitable in areas where residents are highly concerned with leading healthy lives. We should therefore build our next new store in Plainsville, which has many such residents. Plainsville merchants report that sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all-time highs. The local health club, which nearly closed five years ago due to lack of business, has more members than ever, and the weight training and aerobics classes are always full. We can even anticipate a new generation of customers: Plainsville's schoolchildren are required to participate in a 'fitness for life' program, which emphasizes the benefits of regular exercise at an early age."

While it is true that the facts presents above contribute to the idea that the residents in Plainsville concern about leading a healthy life, it can hardly be concluded from the facts that Nature's way company should build its new store in Plainsville.
P城镇居民热衷运动->应该在此地设连锁店（推理有点牵强...中间漏了一段逻辑推理，应该是此连锁店认为该地有市场）
In the first place, people in Plainsville may in the favor of wearing comfortable clothes during their leisure time since the suits and leather shoes are much too formal in their spare times. Therefore, it will not be surprising that the sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are all-time highs. Moreover, perhaps Plainsville is a location which contains kinds of stadiums, in which various of sports are made everyday. So surely the sales of running shoes and exercise clothing will be high due to the enormous population taking exercise there. Thus, the sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all time highs can not provide enough evidence that the residents in Plainsville are in favor of leading healthy lives as well as health food.（怎么突然跳出这个健康食品…）
运动装是休闲服；有许多不同运动的人->导致运动装备热卖而不一定是关注健康生活
Second, there are many possible alternatives ignored ,which can also greatly influence the health pub’s business. Perhaps the former management faculty of that club failed in increasing the pub’s attractiveness, which includes the quality of service, the infrastructure of the pub and etc, therefore, even people who like exercise would not like to attend the pub. So when the problems mentioned are solved properly, it is quite possible that the pub has more members than ever. Thus, there is no clear causal relationship between the increase of pub members and the increase of people who are interested in leading healthy lives.
俱乐部客源多是它本身的服务项目水平提高了而不一定是人们关注健康生活
Finally, not all the next generations are participating the “fitness for future” program willingly. Given that people always reject compulsory things, the products of Nature’s way may be rejected subconsciously by the ones who attend the program nilly-willy. Even if all of the future generations participate the program actively, there are obviously differences between regular exercise and health food. It is highly possible that a man who is interested in basketball likes Coca-cola and hamburgers desperately. Thus, it is unwarranted that the next generation who participate the “fitness for life” program is surely the potential customers of the company.
新生一代不一定喜欢运动，就算有喜欢的，有可能喜欢垃圾食品->新生一代不一定是潜在的热爱生活的顾客
To sum up, the argument is not sound as it stands. To make it logically acceptable, the author has to provide more clear evidence that there are causal relationships between the high sales of running shoes and exercise clothing and the concern of leading healthy lives. To make it more convincing, the author also has to prove that people who participate in 'fitness for life' program would also be interested in health food.
看完后发现，发现作者没有明确定义healthy lives，他好像认为爱吃健康食品就等于健康生活，运动就不算热爱健康生活，而且，我认为最致命的漏洞是没有明确store卖什么，如果也卖运动服装的话呢，那作者真是搬起石头砸自己的脚
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 10:42:36

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 10:44 编辑

https://bbs.gter.net/bbs/viewthre ... p%3Bfilter%3Ddigest争取高分，从第一印象开始——被人忽视的argument开头
666出品必定精品~~~~~~~~
看了这么多前人写的argument，到第20篇时，我觉得该作者在开头这一段尝试666的方法，对题目进行梳理，然后得出ETS认为的逻辑推理，再到下面开始推理是再反驳开头ETS是如何推出荒谬推理。
一个好的开头究竟应当有些什么内容？

正如我上文提到的，开头的最大的作用应该在于帮助写作的时候理清文章的脉络，一个好的开头应该就是一个文章的缩影，应该给阅卷的老师三个直观的印象：1. 这些逻辑点确实是来自于文章的抽象2. 这个学生抓的逻辑点都是正确的。3.从这些逻辑点的顺序当中可以猜测到该生的正文论证顺序。
38.Thefollowing memo appeared in the newsletter of the West Meria Public Health Council.

"An innovative treatment has come to our attention that promises to significantly reduce absenteeism in our schools and workplaces. A study reports that in nearby East Meria, where fish consumption is very high, people visit the doctor only once or twice per year for the treatment of colds. Clearly, eating a substantial amount of fish can prevent colds. Since colds are the reason most frequently given for absences from school and work, we recommend the daily use of Ichthaid, a nutritional supplement derived from fish oil, as a good way to prevent colds and lower absenteeism."

仍然举上面那篇argument为例子，当最开始看到题一步步阅读的时候，脑子里面就应该开始抽象出一些作者的推论了，或许大家都不能第一遍看完就列出我上面写的那么详细的多步推论，（就连我自己也不行…）然而，大概的推论过程应该在你的脑子里面很清醒的展现出来，比如类似这样的缩略版：

Study à 感冒的人少
感冒的人少+吃鱼多 à鱼里面有物质对感冒有效
鱼对感冒有效+感冒是第一请假理由 à 吃鱼油可以避免请假

我想，在短短的1分钟内，能够理论这么一个思路，就足够了，ETS的老师也明白你不可能再30分钟的时间里面面俱到，但是你有了这样的思维，至少就和其他的上来就开始套模板的开头不一样了，接下来我们可以这样开头：

Grounding on the study in East Meria, supposing that eating a substantial amount of fish can prevent colds, and then synthesizing the two hypothesizes and another factor that colds are the reason most frequently given for absences from school and work, the author accordingly suggests that the daily use of Ichthaid is a good way to prevent colds and lower absenteeism. However …

类似这样的开头，首先并不花时间，因为除了一些连词和动词以外，大部分都是照抄原文，经过简单的练习以后，绝对能够在3分钟之内搞定，然而，它的价值却比模板高的多。当ETS拿到这么一个开头的时候，首先他必然会对你的综合能力感到满意，因为这些逻辑关系，的确是文章当中提到的，也是顺理成章的关系；其次你在这样一个开头里面传达了一个信息：我接下来要批的东西，已经都在这个开头里面啦。老师们都是很有经验的，很容易就能看出你这篇A，主要批的是三个东西：1.study的真实性，代表性或者全面性, 2. 那个supposing的合理性, 3.综合结论的谬误。接下来他们在读你的正文的时候，自然而然会有一种感觉：这个学生的逻辑性不错，至少段落之间，是绝对没有问题的，因为他的开头已经告诉了我，他的批判是按照逻辑来的。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 10:47:18

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 10:54 编辑

20 TOPIC: ARGUMENT137 - The following appeared in an editorial in the Mason City newspaper.
"At present, Mason City residents seldom use the nearby Mason River for any kind of recreational activity, even though surveys of the region's residents consistently rank water sports (swimming, fishing, and boating) as a favorite form of recreation. Since there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river, residents must be avoiding the river because they think that it is not clean enough. But that situation is about to change: the agency responsible for rivers in our region has announced plans to clean up Mason River. Therefore, recreational use of the river is likely to increase, so the Mason City council will need to increase its budget for improvements to the publicly owned lands along the Mason River."
M城居民很少用河来进行娱乐活动尽管最近调查说该居民喜欢水上运动
因为他们抱怨水很脏
agency宣称会净化M河
所以M城应该提高发展河岸土地开发的预算
该题的荒谬思路就是这样来的
这位同学是这样开头的
WORDS: 554          TIME: 0:30:00          DATE: 2008/10/9

In this argument, the author claims that the Mason City need to improve the publicly owned lands along the Mason River, because after the river is cleaned up, more and more people will use the river for recreational activities. Close scrutiny shows that the evidences lend little support to the conclusion.
开头进行了一番逻辑推理
M城市需要发展the publicly owned lands along the Mason River，是因为河水变干净后会有越来越多的人来利用河来娱乐。（简单明了，归纳出ETS的错误推理，然后接下来就是要反驳他的推理了）
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 10:55:22

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 11:04 编辑

看了666的争取高分要注意argument开头
发现前面改的文章开头确实太八股了
看得确实腻，我也没意识到这种开头的缺点....
因为我本人也确实是这样开头...
但事实上，AW写作最注重的是什么
是思考
它要求文章能够体现你的思路
而不是句式或例子的堆砌
常见的模板开头一般是两种类型：

1直截了当，这种模板通常的方式就是 In this argument, the author concludes that… however, it suffers from several logical flaws. 简单实用吧，然而，除了告诉阅卷人：我开始行文了！以外，这种开头还有别的用处么？当ETS的老师批的头晕脑胀四肢发慌的时候，流水线一般出现在他面前的居然是几百几千份这种工厂里面出来的开头，看着就倒胃口的压缩食品，他会怎么想？“你说的东西没错，但是除了几个单词以外，实在是看不出什么内容，真TM恶心。”估计当时给你的文章档次就压了一级。更何况，ETS提倡的是思维的展现，不是你打字的速度，更不是你抄写的能力，这种开头如何能够配得上高分？可笑的是新东方的老师们，一遍一遍的强调着：开头要简洁，一句话足矣，时间用的越少越好。来给广大的中国考生洗脑，被洗脑的考生们又把这种思想开始淳淳善诱师弟师妹们，造成了现在的普遍的错觉：开头不重要。时代在变化，ETS 的胃口也在变化，然而这种理念持续了足足有8年之久或者更长，却从来没有变过。无怪乎最近两年的AW成绩普遍的开始下降，细小之处就能看出端倪来。

2固定逻辑式，这种模板的表述一般来说是：In this argument, the author concludes that… To support the conclusion, the arguer points out that … and provides the evidence that … A careful examination of this argument would reveal how groundless the conclusion is.
对于这类型的开头，从本意来看，比第一种强多了，但也会是最大的败笔之处。因为令人遗憾的是，绝大多数的同学们使用这种开头的目的，不是为了理清楚题目的逻辑关系，而是为了凑字数，他们忘记了思考，一种务必要贯穿整个写作过程的speculation. 为了方便的说明我的观点，特地找了一篇这样的模板型开头，感谢flyex童鞋.
估计稍微灵活的童鞋们都是这样写，而我在看的20篇有几篇也确实这样写，没有理清楚ETS的荒谬思路，只是简单罗列了下理由，至于来龙去脉就更不谈了。
38.Thefollowing memo appeared in the newsletter of the West Meria Public Health Council.

"An innovative treatment has come to our attention that promises to significantly reduce absenteeism in our schools and workplaces. A study reports that in nearby East Meria, where fish consumption is very high, people visit the doctor only once or twice per year for the treatment of colds. Clearly, eating a substantial amount of fish can prevent colds. Since colds are the reason most frequently given for absences from school and work, we recommend the daily use of Ichthaid, a nutritional supplement derived from fish oil, as a good way to prevent colds and lower absenteeism."

In this argument, the arguer concludes that daily use of lchthaid will help people to prevent colds and lower absenteeism. To support this conclusion, the arguer cites the evidence that in East Meria, people seldom to the hospital for the treatment of colds because of the high consumption of fish in that place. Carefully examination of this supporting evidence, however, reveals that it lends little credible support to the arguer’s suggestion.

我想，很多童鞋当写完这么一个开头的时候，下了考场自我感觉都会非常的良好，觉得4分在手了，内容写的稍微全面一点的话，5分也不在话下，那么我现在告诉大家，这样的开头，其实是彻底的失败，从内容表达上来说，这个开头只值3分或者更低。不信？看我接下来的说法。

我们先来分析一下文章的结构：(à表示推出)
A study reports that in nearby East Meria, where fish consumption is very high, people visit the doctor only once or twice per year for the treatment of colds
通过这句话，我们能够发现作者的第一步推理：study reports(已知) à EM的人为感冒而看医生较少是 indeed exist.（推理1） à EM的人感冒少（推理2）
Clearly, eating a substantial amount of fish can prevent colds.
这句话可以得出第二部推理：这种现象（推理2）+ 鱼类消费高（事实1） à 鱼类对这种现象有帮助（推理3） à 鱼类的某种物质对抑制感冒有帮助（推理4）
Since colds are the reason most frequently given for absences from school and work, we recommend the daily use of Ichthaid, a nutritional supplement derived from fish oil, as a good way to prevent colds and lower absenteeism."
然后下一个推论：感冒是主要的旷工借口（事实2） à 感冒是主要的旷工原因（推论5）+ 推论4 à 鱼类的某种物质可以抑制感冒，减少旷工。（推论6）à 鱼油中提炼的营养品可以抑制感冒，减少旷工（推论7）
最后是结论：推论7 à 吃这种营养品可以预防感冒，减少旷工（结论）

实际上，是这么多步奏的推论和隐含前提的共同作用，才得出这么个荒谬的结果，而上面那位童鞋仅仅把得出结论的原因归咎为：the evidence that in East Meria, people seldom to the hospital for the treatment of colds because of the high consumption of fish in that place. 当ETS老师看到这样的开头的时候，第一个反应估计就是：这个人题都没读懂就开始瞎写。自然后面的评价不会高到哪儿去。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 12:29:02

1) 以y结尾的专有名词，或元音字母+y 结尾的名词变复数时，直接加s变复数：
　
如：　two Marys
the Henrys

monkey---monkeys　 holiday---holidays
　比较：
层楼：storey ---storeys　 story---stories

2) 以o 结尾的名词，变复数时：
　　a. 加s，如： photo---photos
piano---pianos
　　　　　　　　
radio---radios　
　zoo---zoos；
　　b. 加es，如：potato--potatoes　tomato--tomatoes
c. 均可，如：zero---zeros / zeroes

3) 以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时：
　　a. 加s，如： belief---beliefs　roof---roofs
　　　　　　　　 safe---safes　 gulf---gulfs；
　　b. 去f,fe 加ves，如：half---halves　　
　　　knife---knives　leaf---leaves　wolf---wolves
　　　wife---wives　life---lives　thief---thieves；
　　c. 均可,如：　handkerchief:
　　　　　　　 handkerchiefs / handkerchieves

3 名词复数的不规则变化
1）child---children
　foot---feet　
tooth---teeth
　　mouse---mice　　
man---men　 woman---women　
注意：与 man 和 woman构成的合成词，其复数形式也是 -men 和-women。
　如： an Englishman, two Englishmen.但German不是合成词，故复数形式为Germans；Bowman是姓，其复数是the Bowmans。

2）单复同形　如：
　　deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese
　　li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin　
但除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。
如:
a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters

3）集体名词，以单数形式出现，但实为复数。
　
如： people　police　cattle 等本身就是复数，不能说 a people，a police，a cattle，但可以说 a person，a policeman，a head of cattle, the English，the British，the French，the Chinese，the Japanese，the Swiss 等名词，表示国民总称时，作复数用。
　　　如： The Chinese are industries and brave.　中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。

4）以s结尾，仍为单数的名词，如：
　　 a. maths, politics, physics等学科名词，为不可数名词，是单数。
　　 b. news 是不可数名词。
　　 c. the United States，the United Nations 应视为单数。
　　　The United Nations was organized in 1945. 联合国是1945年组建起来的。
　　 d. 以复数形式出现的书名，剧名，报纸，杂志名，也可视为单数。
　　　"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.
　　　<<一千零一夜>>是一本非常有趣的故事书。

5) 表示由两部分构成的东西，如：glasses (眼镜)　trousers,　clothes
　
若表达具体数目，要借助数量词 pair(对，双);　suit(套); a pair of glasses; two pairs of trousers


6）
另外还有一些名词，其复数形式有时可表示特别意思，如：goods货物，waters水域，fishes（各种）鱼
4 不可数名词量的表示
1）物质名词
　　a. 当物质名词转化为个体名词时。
　　　
比较：　Cake is a kind of food.　蛋糕是一种食物。 (不可数)
　　　　　　　 These cakes are sweet.　这些蛋糕很好吃。 (可数)
　　b. 当物质名词表示该物质的种类时，名词可数。
　　　This factory produces steel.　(不可数)
　　　We need various steels.　(可数)
　　c. 当物质名词表示份数时，可数。
　　　Our country is famous for tea.
　　　我国因茶叶而闻名。
　　　Two teas, please.
　　　请来两杯茶。

2）
抽象名词有时也可数。
　　four freedoms 四大自由
　　the four modernizations四个现代化
　　物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。
　　如：
　　a glass of water 一杯水　
　　a piece of advice　一条建议

5 定语名词的复数
名词作定语一般用单数，但也有以下例外。
　1) 用复数作定语。
　　
如：sports meeting 运动会
　　　　 students reading-room 学生阅览室　
　　　　 talks table 谈判桌　
　　　　 the foreign languages department 外语系

2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时，其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。
　
如：men workers　　women teachers
gentlemen officials

3) 有些原有s结尾的名词，作定语时，s保留。
　
如：goods train (货车)
　　　 arms produce　武器生产
　　　 customs papers 海关文件
　　　 clothes brush衣刷

4) 数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。
　如：two-dozen eggs　两打/（二十四个鸡蛋)　
　
　 a ten-mile walk 十里路　

　　 two-hundred trees 两百棵树
　
　 a five-year plan.　一个五年计划
　　
个别的有用复数作定语的，如： a seven-years child

6 不同国家的人的单复数
名称　      　总称(谓语用复数）　一个人　　两个人

                     the                    a/an　　　　two
中国人　　the Chinese　　  a Chinese　 two Chinese
瑞士人　　the Swiss            a Swiss　　   two Swiss
日本人　　the Japanese　　a Japanese　 two Japanese
法国人　　the French　    a Frenchman　 two Frenchmen
英国人　　the English　　an Englishman　 two Englishmen
德国人　　the Germans　　a Germans　　two Germans
澳大利亚人Australians　　  an Australian　two Australians
俄国人　　the Russians　　a Russian　　  two Russians
意大利人　the Italians　　 an Italian　       two Italians
希腊人　　the Greek    　　a Greek　　    two Greeks
美国人　　the Americans　an American　  two Americans
印度人　　the Indians　　  an Indian　　 two Indians
加拿大人　the Canadians　a Canadian　 two Canadians
瑞典人　　the Swedish　　a Swede　  　two Swedes　　


7 名词的格
在英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系，带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格，如：a teacher's book。名词所有格的规则如下：
1）
单数名词词尾加"'s"，复数名词词尾没有s，也要加"'s"，
如the boy's bag 男孩的书包，men's room 男厕所。
2）
若名词已有复数词尾-s ，只加"'"，
如：the workers' struggle　工人的斗争。
3）
凡不能加"'s"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系，
如：the title of the song 歌的名字。
4）
在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，
如：the barber's 理发店。
5）
如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有"；只有一个's，则表示'共有'。

如：John's and Mary's room（两间）　　John and Mary's room（一间）
6）
复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。
　
如：a month or two's absence
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 12:30:12

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 12:34 编辑

3、名词用法难点

一、 关于特殊名词的具体考点如下：、
　　1．容易误用为复数的不可数名词：(这些名词一般不能用作复数，谓语动词用单数)
　　advice 建议，忠告 living 生活，生计
　　equipment 装备，设备 progress 前进，发展
　　furniture 家具，设备 scenery 风景，景色
　　information 通知；信息 machinery 机器，机械
　　knowledge 知识，学问 traffic 交通流量
　　baggage / luggage 行李，皮箱 trouble 烦恼，麻烦
　　cash 现金 thunder 雷声，轰隆声
　　apparatus 仪器 weather 天气，处境
　　clothing 衣服 work 工作，劳动
　　paper 纸，钞票 luck 运气，幸运
　　technology 工艺，技术 jewelry 珠宝
　　2． 复数形式的名词用于单数概念，其谓语动词用单数。(这些名词一般为表示学科或疾病的名词)
　　economics 经济学 measles 麻疹
　　physics 物理学 mumps 腮腺炎
　　mathematics 数学 rickets 软骨病，佝偻病
　　dynamics 动力学 news 新闻
　　The United States 美国 The New York Times 纽约时报

二、与名词相关的主谓一致关系（再次重温主谓一致原则~~~~~~~）
　　英语中，主语和谓语在数、性和格上应该保持一致，但在实际应用中很容易被忽视，尤其是主语和谓语之间出现插入语，故考试中经常考到主谓一致。除了以上特殊名词谓语有特殊要求外，现将主谓一致的考点归纳如下：
　　1． 复数原则：两个或者两个以上的名词由and连接作主语时；主语由both … and … 连接时，谓语动词用复数。
　　Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.
　　Both bread and butter are sold in that grocery. 那个杂货店既卖面包，也卖黄油。
　　
2． 就近原则： 由 either … or … ; neither … nor …; not only…but also…; …or …； there be …等引导的主语， 谓语动词的单复数取决于最靠近动词的名词的单复数。
　　Not only the students but also their teacher is invited to attend the party.

　　3． 就远原则：主语，＋ as well as +另一个主语，谓语动词的单复数取决于第一个主语的名词的单复数。
　　My mother, as well as my two brothers, has a key to the office.
　　我母亲，还有我的两个哥哥都有一把办公室的钥匙。
　　同例：with…; together with…; along with…; including…; in addition to…; besides …; except…; as much as…; accompanied by …; rather than…等等

　　4． 表示时间、距离、价值、量度的复数名词作主语时谓语动词用单数。
　　One hundred dollars is a large sum for the poor .
　　Twenty days have passed since I met her last time.
　　自从我上次见到她到现在已经过去二十天。 ( twenty days 这里不作整体看待， 故谓语动词用复数。)

　　5． and连接两个名词表示一个概念做主语时，谓语用单数; 若表示的是多个不同的概念时，谓语动词用复数。
　　War and peace is a constant theme in literature.
　　战争与和平是文学中永恒的主题。(War and peace是一对概念，看作一个主题)
　　同例： ham and eggs n.火腿蛋 steam and bread
　　law and order
bread and butter
　　apple pie and ice cream
folk and knife
　　wheel and axle 轮轴
needle and thread
　 love and hate
egg and rice 蛋炒饭
　
The writer and translator is delivering a speech in our university tonight. (指同一个人)
　 The writer and the translator are delivering a speech in our university tonight. (指两个人)


A black and a white dog are playing in the yard. (指两只狗)
　　A black and white dog is playing in the yard. ( 指一只狗)

　　6．动词不定式、动名词、名词性从句做主语时+单数谓语
　　 Early to bed and early to rise makes one healthy, wealthy and wise.
　　( 指“早睡早起”一件事)
　　To work hard is necessary
　 What I said and did is of no concern to you.
　 Reading three classical novels and making some social investigations are assignments for the students during the holiday. ( 注意： 指不同性质的两件事，谓语用复数 )

　　7． many a, more than one + 单数可数名词，尽管表示复数意义， 谓语仍用单数。
　　Many a student has made such a mistake.
　 More than one stranger agrees with me.
　　[注意]
　　在“more + 复数名词 + than one”结构作主语时，谓语动词用复数。
　　More persons than one have been involved. 卷入其中的远不止一人。

　　8． 由 every …and every …; each … and each…; no … and no…; many a …and many a … 等连接的并列主语，谓语动词用单数。
　　Every man and every woman working here is getting along well with me.
　　No difficulty and no hardship has discouraged him.

　　9. 由 all of, most of, half of , a lot of, part of 等加名词构成的主语，谓语动词的数取决于该名词的单复数。
　　 All of us are going to see the game.
　　All of his time was spent on gambling
　　 Three-fourths of the people are illiterate.
　　 同例： plenty of…， one fourth of…， none of…， some of …， majority of …， … percent of …， the rest of …， reminder of …。

　　10. a number of ( a total of , an average of ) +复数名词，谓语动词用复数。
　　the number of ( the total of, the average of ) + 复数名词， 谓语动词用单数。
　　A total of ten thousand dollars were donated last month.
　　The total of dollars donated last month was 100,000 dollars.
　　同例： a / the variety of；a / the group of

　　11. 定语从句的谓语动词注意与先行词保持一致，但注意the only one of… 的用法。
　　 One of those men likes to drive fast.
　　 One of those men who like to drive fast is her son.
　　 He is the only one of those men who likes to drive fast.

　　12. 由some，any, no，every 构成的复合词如somebody, nothing, nobody, anything, everybody等代词作主语，谓语动词用单数；由each, every one, no one, either, neither, another, the other作主语时，谓语动词用单数；由either, neither, each, every修饰名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如：
　　More than one example is necessary to make the students understand this rule clearly.
　　Neither is satisfactory.
　　Is either of the singers reading now?

　　13. the + adj / v-ed 表示一类人时， 用复数谓语动词; 表示抽象概念时， 谓语动词用单数。
　　The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.
　　病人得到了医治，失踪的也找回来了。
　　同例： the poor / dumb / innocent / guilty / unemployed / aged / oppressed / exploited…
　　We can do the difficult first. The impossible takes a little longer.
　　我们先从难题开始，不会的可能花的时间长一些。
　　The best is yet to come. 好戏还在后头。

　　14. a pair of + 由两部分物体构成的名词(如：shoes, scissors, glasses, jeans, pants, trousers)作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
　　My new pair of pants is being altered. 我的一条短裤正在修改。

　　15. 当主语被one ( a ) and a half 修饰时，谓语动词用数。

　　One and a half apples is left on the plate.

　　16. 当主语由 a series of…， a portion of …， a species of …， a kind of …， a sequence of …， a chain of…， a piece of … 加名词(单数或复数)构成时， 谓语用单数。
　　A series of lectures on psychology is said to be given by Mr. Li.
　　A large portion of her poems was published after her death.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 12:42:31

代词
3）指代车或国家，船舶的名词，含感情色彩时常用she。（额，我还真不知道这个可以用she。。。感觉像情人或母亲）
注意： 在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。
a. 在承认错误，承担责任时，

It was I and John that made her angry.

是我和约翰惹她生气了。
b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称， 如：I and you try to finish it.
c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时，
d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
3.6 双重所有格

物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置，修饰一个名词，而必须用双重所有格。
公式为：
a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。如：
a friend of mine.
each brother of his.

3.7 反身代词
1） 列表

2）做宾语
a. 有些动词需有反身代词

absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave

We enjoyed ourselves very much last night.我们昨晚玩得很开心。

Please help yourself to some fish.请你随便吃点鱼。
b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词

take pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth.

I could not dress (myself) up at that time.那个时候我不能打扮我自己。
注：有些动词后不跟反身代词， get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up 等。
Please sit down.请坐。
3） 作表语； 同位语
be oneself: I am not myself today.我今天不舒服。
The thing itself is not important.事情本身并不重要。

4） 在不强调的情况下，but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如：
No one but myself (me) is hurt.
注意：
a. 反身代词本身不能单独作主语。
(错) Myself drove the car.
(对) I myself drove the car.我自己开车。
b. 但在and, or, nor 连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself 作主语。
Charles and myself saw it.

5）第二人称作宾语，要用反身代词。
You should be proud of yourself.你应为自己感到骄傲。


2） 相互代词的句法功能：a. 作动词宾语；
People should love one another. 人们应当彼此相爱。
b. 可作介词宾语；
Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other.吠、鸡鸣、蛙儿对唱。
说明：传统语法认为，相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other， 存在于两个以上人和物之间用one another。现代英语中，两组词交替使用的实例也很多，例如：
He put all the books beside each other.
他把所有书并列摆放起来。
He put all the books beside one another.
他把所有书并列摆放起来。
Usually these small groups were independent of each other.
这些小团体通常是相互独立的。
c. 相互代词可加-'s构成所有格，例如：
The students borrowed each other's notes.
学生们互借笔记。
指示代词
说明1：指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人，但作其他句子成分时只能指物，不能指人，例如：
(对)That is my teacher.那是我的老师。（ that作主语，指人）
(对)He is going to marry this girl.他要和这个姑娘结婚。（this作限定词）
(错)He is going to marry this.（this作宾语时不能指人）
(对)I bought this.我买这个。(this指物，可作宾语)

说明2：
That和those可作定语从句的先行词，但this和 these不能，同时，在作先行词时，只有those可指人，试比较：
(对) He admired that which looked beautiful.他赞赏外表漂亮的东西。
(对) He admired those who looked beautiful. 他赞赏那些外表漂亮的人。（those指人）
(错) He admired that who danced well.（that作宾语时不能指人）
(对) He admired those who danced well.他赞赏跳舞好的人。（those指人）
(对) He admired those which looked beautiful. 他赞赏那些外表漂亮的东西。（those指物）

2） 疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前，没有性和数的变化，除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which, whose还可作限定词。试比较：
疑问代词：Whose are these books on the desk?
桌上的书是谁的？
What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion?
美国的领土扩张是朝哪个方向的？
限定词：Whose books are these on the desk?
桌上的书是谁的？
What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States?哪些事件使密西西比河以东的大部分土地归属于美国？
说明1：
无论是做疑问代词还是限定词，which 和 what 所指的范围不同。what所指的范围是无限的，而which则指在一定的范围内，例如：
Which girls do you like best?

你喜欢哪几个姑娘？
What girls do you like best?

你喜欢什么样的姑娘？
说明2：
Whom是who的宾格，在书面语中，它作动词宾语或介词宾语，在口语中作宾语时，可用who代替，但在介词后只能用whom, 例如：
Who(m) did you meet on the street?
你在街上遇到了谁？（作动词宾语）
Who(m) are you taking the book to?
你要把这书带给谁？（作介词宾语，置句首）
To whom did you speak on the campus?
你在校园里和谁讲话了？（作介词宾语，置介词 后，不能用who取代。）
说明 3：
疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时，过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首，现代英语中，疑问代词在句首，介词在句未，例如：
For what do most people live and work?
大部分人生活和工作的目的是什么？（旧文体）
What are you looking for?
你在找什么？（现代英语）
说明4：
疑问代词还可引导名词性从句，例如：
I can't make out what he is driving at.
我不知道他用意何在。
Can you tell me whose is the blue shirt on the bed?
你能告诉我床上的蓝衬衣是谁的吗？
Much of what you say I agree with, but I cannot go all the way with you.
你说的我大部分同意，但并不完全赞同。
2） 不定代词的功能与用法
a.除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词，也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。
I have no idea about it.

b. all 都，指三者以上。
all 的主谓一致：all的单复数由它所修饰或指代的名词的单复数决定。
All goes well.一切进展得很好。
all 通常不与可数名词单数连用，如：不说 all the book，而说 the whole book。
但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用，如 all day，all night， all the year； 但习惯上不说 all hour，all century。
all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用，如 all China，all the city，all my life， all the way

3)both都，指两者。
a. both 与复数动词连用，但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。

b. both, all 都可作同位语，其位置在行为动词前， be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省去，则位于助动词或情态动词之前。
Who can speak Japanese?We both (all) can.

4)neither两者都不
a.neither作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
b. 作定语与单数名词连用，但neither… nor 用作并列连词，可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。
c.可用于下列句型，避免重复。
She can't sing，neither (can) he.

neither 与nor
d.如前句是否定式从句，则主句用neither，而不用 nor。
If you don't do it，neither should I.如果你不干，我也不干。
e. 如后连续有几个否定句式，则用nor，不用neither。
He can't sing，nor dance，nor skate.
3.13 none, few, some, any, one, ones

一、 none 无
1) none作主语，多与of 构成短语 none of。在答语中，none可单独使用。
Are there any pictures on the wall?None.
2) none作主语，谓语动词单复数均可。但如做表语，则其单复数与表语一致。
It is none of your business.

二、few 一些，少数
few 作主语时，谓语动词用复数，多用于肯定句。
三、some 一些
1) 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。
2) 当做"某一"解时，也可与单数名词连用。（= a certain）
You will be sorry for this some day.
总有一天，你会后悔这件事的。
A certain (some) person has seen you break the rule.
某些人不同意你的看法。
注意：
(1)在肯定疑问句中用some代替any。
(2)some用于其他句式中:
a.肯定疑问句中：说话人认为对方的答案会是肯定的，或期望得到肯定回答时。
Would you like句式中，表委婉请求或建议，如：
Would you like some coffee?
b.在条件状语从句中表示确定的意义时，如：
If you need some help，let me know.
c.some位于主语部分,
Some students haven't been there before.
d.当否定的是整体中的部分时，some可用于否定句。如：
I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
这些年我没有收到一些老朋友的信。
四、any 一些
1)any 多用于否定句和疑问句和条件状语从句中。
当句中含有任何的意思时，any可用于肯定句。
Here are three novels. You may read any.这有三本小说，你可任读一本。
五、one, ones 为复数形式
ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前，则用some, any，而不
用 ones。
Have you bought any rulers?Yes，I 've bought some.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 12:43:52

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 13:38 编辑

3.14 代词比较辩异 one，that 和it

one表示泛指，that和it 表示特指。that与所指名词为同类，但不是同一个，而it 与所指名词为同一个。
I can't find my hat. I think I must buy one.(不定)
我找不到我的帽子了。我想我该去买一顶。
The hat you bought is bigger than that I bought.(同类但不同个)
你买的那顶帽子比我买的大。

I can't find my hat. I don' t know where I put it. ( 同一物)
我找不到我的帽子。我不知道我把它放在哪了。
1．anyone 和 any one
anyone仅指人，any one既可指人，也可指物。

2．no one 和none
a)none 后跟of短语，既可指人又可指物，而no one只单独使用，只指人。
b)none 作主语，谓语动词用单，复数均可，而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。

None of you could lift it. 你们中没有人可举起它。
---- Did any one call me up just now?-- 刚才有人打电话给我吗?
---- No one.--没有。

3．every 和each
1)every 强调全体的概念， each强调个体概念。

Every student in our school works hard.我们学校的学生都很用功。

Each student may have one book..每个学生都可有一本书。

2)every 指三个以上的人或物(含三个)，each指两个以上的人或物 (含两个)。

3)every 只作形容词，不可单独使用。each可作代词或形容词。

Every student has to take one.

Each boy has to take one.

Each of the boys has to take one.

4)every不可以作状语，each可作状语。

5)every 有反复重复的意思，如 every two weeks等； each没有。

6)every 与not 连用，表示部分否定； each 和not连用表示全部否定。
Every man is not honest. 并非每个人都诚实。
Each man is not honest.这儿每个人都不诚实。
only a few (=few)not a few (=many)quite a few (=many)
many a (=many)
Many books were sold.
Many a book was sold.
卖出了许多书。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 14:27:56

第9期 动词的时态

5 be going to / will

用于条件句时， be going to表将来
will表意愿
If you are going to make a journey, you'd better get ready for it as soon as possible.
Now if you will take off your clothes, we will fit the new clothes on you in front of the mirror.

6 be to和be going to

be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事。
be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。
I am to play football tomorrow afternoon.(客观安排)
I'm going to play football tomorrow afternoon. (主观安排)
10 比较过去时与现在完成时

1）过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情，强调动作；现在完成时为过去发生的，强调过去的事情对现在的影响，强调的是影响。

2）过去时常与具体的时间状语连用，而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用，或无时间状语。
一般过去时的时间状语:
yesterday, last week，…ago, in1980, in October, just now, 具体的时间状语
共同的时间状语:
this morning, tonight, this April, now, once，before, already, recently，lately
现在完成时的时间状语
for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till / until, up to now, in past years, always,
不确定的时间状语

3）现在完成时可表示持续到现在的动作或状态，动词一般是延续性的，如live, teach, learn, work, study, know.
过去时常用的非持续性动词有come, go, leave, start, die, finish, become, get married等。
举例：
I saw this film yesterday.
（强调看的动作发生过了。）
I have seen this film.
（强调对现在的影响，电影的内容已经知道了。）
Why did you get up so early?
（强调起床的动作已发生过了。）
Who hasn't handed in his paper?
（强调有卷子，可能为不公平竞争。）
She has returned from Paris.
她已从巴黎回来了。
She returned yesterday.
她是昨天回来了。
He has been in the League for three years.
(在团内的状态可延续)
He has been a League member for three years.
(是团员的状态可持续)
He joined the League three years ago.
( 三年前入团，joined为短暂行为。)
I have finished my homework now.

---Will somebody go and get Dr. White?
---He's already been sent for.
句子中如有过去时的时间副词（如 yesterday, last, week, in 1960）时，不能使用现在完成时，要用过去时。
（错）Tom has written a letter to his parents last night.
（对）Tom wrote a letter to his parents last night.
11 用于现在完成时的句型

1）It is the first / second time…. that…结构中的从句部分，用现在完成时。
It is the first time that I have visited the city.
It was the third time that the boy had been late.

2）This is the… that…结构，that 从句要用现在完成时.
This is the best film that I've (ever) seen.
这是我看过的最好的电影。
This is the first time (that) I've heard him sing.这是我第一次听他唱歌。
12 比较since和for

Since 用来说明动作起始时间，for用来说明动作延续时间长度。
I have lived here for more than twenty years.
I have lived here since I was born..
My aunt has worked in a clinic since 1949.
Some new oilfields have been opened up since 1976.
I have known Xiao Li since she was a little girl.
My brother has been in the Youth League for two years.
I have not heard from my uncle for a long time.

注意：并非有for 作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。
I worked here for more than twenty years.
(我现在已不在这里工作。)
I have worked here for many years.
(现在我仍在这里工作。)
小窍门：当现在完成时+一段时间，这一结构中，我们用下面的公式转化，很容易就能排除非延续动词在完成时中的误使。
1)(对) Tom has studied Russian for three years.
= Tom began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.
2)(错) Harry has got married for six years.
= Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.
显然，第二句不对，它应改为 Harry got married six years ago.或 Harry has been married for six years.

13 since的四种用法

1) since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。
I have been here since 1989.

2) since +一段时间+ ago
I have been here since five months ago.

3) since +从句
Great changes have taken place since you left.
Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.

4) It is +一段时间+ since从句
It is two years since I became a postgraduate student.

14 延续动词与瞬间动词

1) 用于完成时的区别
延续动词表示经验、经历； 瞬间动词表示行为的结 果，不能与表示段的时间状语连用。
He has completed the work.他已完成了那项工作。 (表结果)
I've known him since then.我从那时起就认识他了。(表经历)

2)用于till / until从句的差异
延续动词用于肯定句，表示"做……直到……" 瞬间动词用于否定句，表示"到 ……，才……"
He didn't come back until ten o'clock.
他到10 点才回来。
He slept until ten o'clock.
他一直睡到10点。
典型例题
1. You don't need to describe her. I ___ her several times.
A. had metB. have metC. metD. meet
答案B. 首先本题后句强调对现在的影响，我知道她的模样，你不用描述。再次，several times告知为反复发生的动作，因此用现在完成时。

2.---I'm sorry to keep you waiting.
---Oh, not at all. I ___ here only a few minutes.
A. have beenB. had beenC. wasD. will be
答案A. 等待的动作由过去开始，持续到现在，应用现在完成时。
16 用一般过去时代替完成时

1)两个动作如按顺序发生，又不强调先后，或用then，and，but 等连词时，多用一般过去时。
When she saw the mouse， she screamed.
My aunt gave me a hat and I lost it.

2 ) 两个动作相继发生，可用一般过去时；如第一个动作需要若干时间完成，用过去完成时。
When I heard the news, I was very excited.

3)叙述历史事实，可不用过去完成时，而只用一般过去时。
Our teacher told us that Columbus discovered America in 1492.
19 不用进行时的动词

1) 事实状态的动词
have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure, continue
I have two brothers.
This house belongs to my sister.

2) 心理状态的动词
Know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need, forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate
I need your help.
He loves her very much.

3 ) 瞬间动词
accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse.
I accept your advice.

4) 系动词
seem, remain, lie, see, hear, smell, feel, taste, get, become, turn
You seem a little tired.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 14:43:59

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 14:45 编辑

In this argument, the author claims that the Mason City need to improve the publicly owned lands along the Mason River, because after the river is cleaned up, more and more people will use the river for recreational activities. Close scrutiny shows that the evidences lend little support to the conclusion.
开头进行了一番逻辑推理
M城市需要发展the publicly owned lands along the Mason River，是因为河水变干净后会有越来越多的人来利用河来娱乐。
To begin with, the author unfairly assumes that the residents of Mason City need to use Mason River for recreation. In this argument, the author cites that residents of Mason City are fond of water sports. If it is true, there must be many good places in Mason City for swimming, fishing, and boating. The gyms in this city must all have swimming pools because swimming is popular. There maybe several parks in the city where people can go for fishing or boating. If not, how can the residents consistently rank water sports as their favorite? For that matter, people will not eager to use Mason River as another place for water sports. Therefore, it is not necessary to improve the public lands along the river.
M城居民有其他更好的进行水上运动的场所
What is more, the author fails to consider other possible reasons for the seldom using of Mason River. No evidence shows that the quality of the water is the most important reason which prevent people to use Mason River for recreation. It is entirely possible that Mason River is too terrantial to be used for swimming or boating regardless how clean the water it is. Or perhaps there is a chemical factory nearby the river so that eating fish in the river is not healthy. The location of Mason River is also important, is it near the residential area? Without ruling out other possible reasons, the author can not convince me that residents will go to Mason River for recreation after the water is cleaned up.
河水的干净如何其实不影响有的水上运动比如划船->河水净化后不一定会吸引更多居民进行水上运动
The author also unfairly assumes that the Mason River will be definitely cleaned up. Although the agency has announced plans to clean up Mason River, it can not guarantee that the plans will be effective. Announcement is one thing, operation the cleaning plan is anoher thing. No evidence shows that the agency is responsible enough. If the agency is responsible and efficient, why there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river? If they keep the quality of the water well, there would be no need to clean up it. It would be better to disscuss the budget after the river is truely cleaned up.
这段是空话..我不懂这段的逻辑，agency的计划不一定有效，事实上，我们攻击的是推理，不是质疑题目本身提出的措施，比如说agency说净化河水是为了吸引居民在这里玩（ETS思路）这里应该抨击的是”不一定能够吸引居民”这个过程，而不是质疑agency到底能不能净化河水。
Even if we accept all the assumptions, it does not necessarily means the Mason City council need to add budget for improvements to the public lands along the river. Nothing is mentioned the condition of the public lands, and we can not conclude that the lands can not meet residents needs. Does people need to use the public lands when they do water sports? In addtion, increasing budget will add the tax of residents, does that worth the cost?
河岸土地和净化水源以及吸引游客没关系
To sum up, the argument is unconvincing as it stands. To substantiate it, the author need to do some detailed suverys about why people seldom use Mason River for water sports, and cite more evidence show that the agency will clean up the river. Furthermore, more datas are needed in order to bolster the plan for improving the public lands along the river.
逻辑需要好好地梳理下，开头蛮好，到后来就不行了
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-13 18:04:24

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-13 18:51 编辑

第十期 连词
1 并列连词与并列结构

并列连词引导两个并列的句子。
1)and 与or
判断改错：
(错) They sat down and talk about something.

(错) They started to dance and sang.
(错) I saw two men sitting behind and whisper there.
(对) They sat down and talked about something.
(对) They started to dance and sing.
(对)I saw two men sitting behind and whispering there.

解析：

第一句： and 连接两个并列的谓语，所以 talk 应改为 talked。
第二句：and 连接两个并列的动词不定式，第二个不定式往往省略to，因此sang 应改为 sing。
第三句：and 连接感观动词saw 后面的用作的宾补的两个并列分词结构，因此whisper应改为whispering。
注意：and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。（or也有此用法）


Make up your mind, and you'll get the chance.

= If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance.

One more effort, and you'll succeed.

= If you make one more effort, you'll succeed.

2)both …and两者都
She plays (both) the piano and the guitar.

3)not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且）
She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar.


注意： not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。

Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.

4)neithe…nor 意思为"既不……也不……"谓语动词采用就近原则，与nor后的词保持一致。
Neither you nor he is to blame.

2 比较and和or
1) 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。

2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点：

There is no air or water in the moon.

There is no air and no water on the moon.
在否定中并列结构用or 连接，但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构，因此要用and。
典型例题
---I don't like chicken ___ fish.
---I don't like chicken, ___ I like fish very much.
A. and； and B. and； but C. or； but D. or；and
答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but 表转折。
判断改错：
(错) We will die without air and water.
(错) We can't live without air or water.
(对) We will die without air or water.
(对) We can't live without air and water.


3 表示选择的并列结构
1) or意思为"否则"。

I must work hard, or I'll fail in the exam.

2) either…or意思为"或者……或者 ……"。注意谓语动词采用就近原则。

Either you or I am right.


4 表示转折或对比

1) but表示转折，while表示对比。

Some people love cats, while others hate them.

典型例题
--- Would you like to come to dinner tonight?
--- I'd like to, ___ I'm too busy.
A. and B. so C. as D. but
答案D。but与前面形成转折，符合语意。而表并列的and， 结果的so，原因的as都不符合句意。

2) not…but… 意思为"不是 ……而是……"

not 和but 后面的用词要遵循一致原则。

They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being.

5 表原因关系

1) for
判断改错：

(错) For he is ill, he is absent today.

(对) He is absent today, for he is ill.

for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。

2) so, therefore
He hurt his leg, so he couldn't play in the game.

注意：

a. 两个并列连词不能连用，但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。
You can watch TV, and or you can go to bed.
He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in the game.


b. although… yet…，但although不与 but连用。

(错)Although he was weak, but he tried his best to do the work..

(对)Although he was weak, yet he tried his best to do the work.

6 比较so和 such

其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副
词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。

so + adj. such + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + a(n) + n. such + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. [不可数]such +n. [不可数]

so foolish such a fool
so nice a flower such a nice flower
so many/ few flowers such nice flowers
so much/little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people


so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。

so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-14 18:14:45

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-14 18:29 编辑

第十一期动词 动词语态
7 助动词should, would的用法

1）should无词义，只是shall的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，只用于第一人称，例如：

I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week.

我昨天给他打电话，问他我下周干什么。
比较：

"What shall I do next week?"I asked.

"我下周干什么？"我问道。（可以说，shall变成间接引语时，变成了should。）

2） would也无词义，是 will的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，用于第二、第三人称，例如：
He said he would come. 他说他要来。
比较：
"I will go," he said. 他说："我要去那儿。"
变成间接引语，就成了：
He said he would come.
原来的will变成would，go变成了come.
动词的语态
==========================


语态有两种：主动语态和被动语态。
主语是动作的发出者为主动语态；主语是动作的接受者为被动语态。
1）若宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，变为被动语态时，该不定式前要加"to"。此类动词为感官动词。
feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch

The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
We saw him play football on the playground.
--> He was seen to play football on the playground.

2）情态动词+ be +过去分词，构成被动语态。

Coal can be used to produce electricity for agriculture and industry.

1 let 的用法

1）当let后只有一个单音节动词，变被动语态时，可用不带to 的不定式。

They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.

2） 若let 后宾补较长时，let 通常不用被动语态，而用allow或permit 代替。
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.
----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.

2 短语动词的被动语态

短语动词是一个整体，不可丢掉后面的介词或副词。
This is a photo of the power station that has been set up in my hometown.
My sister will be taken care of by Grandma.
Such a thing has never been heard of before..

3 表示"据说"或"相信" 的词组

believe, consider, declare, expect, feel , report, say, see, suppose, think, understand
It is said that… 据说
It is reported that… 据报道
It is believed that…大家相信
It is hoped that…大家希望
It is well known that… 众所周知
It is thought that…大家认为
It is suggested that…据建议
It is taken granted that… 被视为当然
It has been decided that… 大家决定
It must be remember that…务必记住的是
It is said that she will leave for Wuhan on Tuesday.

4 不用被动语态的情况

1) 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand
break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比较： rise, fall, happen是不及物动词；raise, seat是及物动词。
(错) The price has been risen.
(对) The price has risen.
(错) The accident was happened last week.
(对) The accident happened last week.
(错) The price has raised.
(对) The price has been raised.
(错) Please seat.
(对) Please be seated.
要想正确地使用被动语态，就须注意哪些动词是及物的，哪些是不及物的。特别是一词多义的动词往往有两种用法。解决这一问题唯有在学习过程中多留意积累。


2) 不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语：
fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to
This key just fits the lock.

Your story agrees with what had already been heard.

3) 系动词无被动语态：
appear, be become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn

It sounds good.

4) 带同源宾语的及物动词，反身代词，相互代词，不能用于被动语态：
die, death, dream, live, life
She dreamed a bad dream last night.

5) 当宾语是不定式时，很少用于被动语态。

(对) She likes to swim.

(错) To swim is liked by her.

5 主动形式表示被动意义

1)wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell, drive…
The book sells well.这本书销路好。
This knife cuts easily. 这刀子很好用。

2)blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build
I was to blame for the accident.
Much work remains.

3) 在need, require, want, worth (形容词), deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。
The door needs repairing.= The door needs to be repaired.
This room needs cleaning. 这房间应该打扫一下。
This book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。

4) 特殊结构：make sb. heard / understood (使别人能听见/理解自己)，have sth. done ( 要某人做某事)。

6 被动形式表示主动意义

be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
He is graduated from a famous university.
他毕业于一所有名的大学。
注意： 表示同某人结婚，用marry sb. 或get married to sb. 都可。
He married a rich girl.
He got married to a rich girl.

7 need/want/require/worth

注意：当 need, want, require, worth(形容词)后面接doing也可以表示被动。
Your hair wants cutting.你的头发该理了。
The floor requires washing. 地板需要冲洗。
The book is worth reading.这本书值得一读。
典型例题
The library needs___, but it'll have to wait until Sunday.
A. cleaning B. be cleaned C. clean D. being cleaned
答案A. need (实意) +n /to do，need (情态)+ do，当为被动语态时，还可need + doing. 本题考最后一种用法，选 A。如有to be clean 则也为正确答案。
典：done，"不可能已经"。must not do 不可以（用于一般现在时)。


作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-15 00:28:16

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-15 00:39 编辑

3) 当不定式作主语的句子中又有一个不定式作表语时，不能用It is… to…的句型
(对)To see is to believe.百闻不如一见。
(错)It is to believe to see.
4 It's for sb.和 It's of sb.

1）for sb. 常用于表示事物的特征特点，表示客观形式的形容词，如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等：

It's very hard for him to study two languages. 对他来说学两门外语是很难的。
2）of sb的句型一般用表示人物的性格，品德，表示主观感情或态度的形容词，如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。

It's very nice of you to help me. 你来帮助我，你真是太好了。

for 与of 的辨别方法：
用介词后面的代词作主语，用介词前边的形容词作表语，造个句子。如果道理上通顺用of，不通则用for。如：

You are nice.(通顺，所以应用of)。

He is hard.(人是困难的，不通，因此应用for。)
7 不定式作状语

1）目的状语
To… only to (仅仅为了),in order to,so as to,so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus.他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。
I come here only to say good-bye to you.我来仅仅是向你告别。

2）作结果状语，表事先没有预料到的，要放在句子后面。
What have I said to make you angry.（我每次都这样说：what have i said makes you angry,现在一看才知道我是错的....）
He searched the room only to find nothing.

3)表原因
I'm glad to see you.

典型例题
The chair looks rather hard, but in fact it is very comfortable to ___.
A. sit B. sit on C. be seat D. be sat on
答案：B.如果不定式为不及物动词，其后应有必要的介词。当动词与介词连用时，常位于"形容词+动词不定式"结构的末尾。
9 省to 的动词不定式

1） 情态动词 ( 除ought 外，ought to)：
2） 使役动词 let, have, make：
3） 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。
注意：在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。

I saw him dance.
=He was seen to dance.

The boss made them work the whole night.
=They were made to work the whole night.
4） would rather，had better：
5） Why… / why not…：
6） help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth：
7） but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。
8） 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：
9） 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：

He is supposed (to be) nice.他应该是个好人。
举例：

He wants to move to France and marry the girl.
He wants to do nothing but go out.

比较： He wants to do nothing but go out.

He wants to believe anything but to take the medicine.
11 不定式的特殊句型too…to…

1）too…to 太…以至于…
He is too excited to speak.
他太激动了，说不出话来。

---- Can I help you ? 需要我帮忙吗?

---- Well, I'm afraid the box is too heavy for you to carry it, but thank you all the same.不用了。这箱子太重，恐怕你搬不动。谢谢您。

2) 如在too前有否定词，则整个句子用否定词表达肯定， too 后那个词表达一种委婉含义，意 为"不太"。

It's never too late to mend.(谚语)
改过不嫌晚。

3)当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是：非常… 等于very。

I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高兴能帮助你。

He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。
2)so kind as to ---劳驾

Would you be so kind as to tell me the time?

劳驾，现在几点了。

15 动名词与不定式

1） 动名词与不定式的区别：还是得在具体运用中才能体会这些区别
动名词表达的是： 状态，性质，心境，抽象，经常性，已发生的
不定式表达的是： 目的，结果，原因，具体，一次性，将发生的


a. 动词后加动名词doing作宾语 V. + doing sth
admit 承认　　　appreciate 感激,赞赏　avoid 避免　　　　
complete 完成　 consider 认为　　　　 delay 耽误　　 deny 否认　　　 detest 讨厌　　　　　 endure 忍受　　　　enjoy 喜欢　escape 逃脱　　　　　 prevent阻止    fancy 想象　　　finish 完成　　　　　 imagine 想象　　 mind 介意　　　 miss 想念　　　　　　 postpone 推迟　　　　　　　 practice 训练　 recall 回忆　　　　　 resent 讨厌　　　　　 resist 抵抗　　 resume 继续　　　　　 risk 冒险     suggest 建议　　face 面对　　　　　　 include 包括　　　　stand 忍受　　　understand 理解　　　 forgive 宽恕keep 继续
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-15 00:42:10

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-15 00:59 编辑

1 独立主格

（一）：独立主格结构的构成：
名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词；
名词(代词)+形容词；
名词(代词)+副词；
名词(代词)+不定式；
名词(代词) +介词短语构成。

（二） 独立主格结构的特点：（说实话，大段大段的语法我看不懂，看例子才懂了............）

1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。

举例：
The test finished, we began our holiday.
= When the test was finished, we began our holiday.
考试结束了，我们开始放假。

The president assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
= After the president was assassinated, the whole country was in deep sorrow.
总统被谋杀了，举国上下沉浸在悲哀之中。

Weather permitting, we are going to visit you tomorrow.
如果天气允许，我们明天去看你。
This done, we went home.
工作完成后，我们才回家。

The meeting gone over, everyone tired to go home earlier.
会议结束后，每个人都想早点回家。

He came into the room, his ears red with cold.
他回到了房子里，耳朵冻坏了。

He came out of the library, a large book under his arm.
他夹着本厚书，走出了图书馆

2 With的复合结构作独立主格

表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语
举例: He stood there, his hand raised.

= He stood there, with his hand raise.

典型例题

The murder was brought in, with his hands ___ behind his back。
A. being tied B. having tiedC. to be tiedD. tied
答案D. with +名词（代词）+分词+介词短语结构。当分词表示伴随状况时，其主语常常用with来引导。由于本句中名词"手"与分词"绑"是被动关系，因此用过去分词，选D.

注意:

1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：

当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制

A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.

( hand前不能加his)。

2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分 词，不及物动词用过去分词。

He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.


典型例题：
Weather___, we'll go out for a walk.
A permitted B permitting C permits D for permitting

答案 B. 本题中没有连词，它不是复合句，也不是并列句。句中使用了逗号，且we 小写，可知其不是两个简单句。能够这样使用的只有独立主格或with的复合结构。据此判断，本句中使用的是独立结构， 其结构为：名词+分词。由于permit在这里翻译为'天气允许'，表主动，应用现在分词，故选B。
如果不会判断独立结构作状语的形式，不妨将句子改为条件句，例如本句改为If weather permits, we'll go out for a walk. 然后将if 去掉，再将谓语动词改为非谓语动词即可。


==========================
                            特殊词（上一期的遗留的问题得到了解答~）
==========================


1 stop doing/to do

stop to do停止，中断做某事后去做另一件事。
stop doing停止做某事。
They stop to smoke a cigarette. 他们停下来，抽了根烟。
I must stop smoking. 我必须戒烟了。
典型例题
She reached the top of the hill and stopped ___on a big rock by the side of the path.
A. to have restedB. resting C. to restD. rest
答案： C。由题意可知，她到了山顶，停下来在一个路边的大石头上休息。因此，应选择"stop to do sth. 停下来去做另一件事"。而不仅仅是爬山动作的终止，所以stop doing sth.不正确。

2 forget doing/to do

forget to do忘记要去做某事。(未做)
forget doing忘记做过某事。(已做)
The light in the office is stil on. He forgot to turn it off.
办公室的灯还在亮着，它忘记关了。(没有做关灯的动作)
He forgot turning the light off.
他忘记他已经关了灯了。 ( 已做过关灯的动作)
Don't forget to come tomorrow.
别忘了明天来。 (to come动作未做)
典型例题
---- The light in the office is still on.
---- Oh，I forgot___.

A. turning it off B. turn it off C. to turn it off D. having turned it off

答案：C。由the light is still on 可知灯亮着，即关灯的动作没有发生，因此用forget to do sth.
而forget doing sth表示灯已经关上了，而自己忘记了这一事实。此处不符合题意。

3 remember doing/to do

remember to do 记得去做某事 (未做)
remember doing记得做过某事 (已做)

Remember to go to the post office after school.
记着放学后去趟邮局。
Don't you remember seeing the man before?
你不记得以前见过那个人吗?

4 regret doing/to do

regret to do 对要做的事遗憾。(未做)
regret doing 对做过的事遗憾、后悔。(已做)
I regret to have to do this, but I have no choice.
我很遗憾必须这样去做，我实在没有办法。
I don't regret telling her what I thought.
我不为告诉她我的想法而后悔。
典型例题
---You were brave enough to raise objections at the meeting.
---Well, now I regret ___ that.
A. to do B. to be doing C.to have done D.having done
答案：D。regret having done sth. 对已发生的事感到遗憾。regret to do sth. 对将要做的事感到遗憾。本题为对已说的话感到后悔，因此选D。

5 cease doing/to do

cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事。
cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做。

That department has ceased to exist forever.
那个部门已不复存在。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
姑娘们在老师走过时，停了会聊天。

6 try doing/to do

try to do努力，企图做某事。
try doing 试验，试着做某事。

You must try to be more careful.
你可要多加小心。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
我试着种果木花卉，但未成功。

7 go on doing/to do

go on to do做了一件事后，接着做另一件事。
go on doing 继续做原来做的事。

After he had finished his maths，he went on to do his physics.

做完数学后，他接着去做物理。

Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one.

作完这个练习后，接着做其他的练习

8 be afraid doing/to do

be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。

She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬着，而不敢在草丛中再走一步。
She was afraid to wake her husband.
她不敢去叫醒她丈夫。
She was afraid of waking her husband.
她生怕吵醒她丈夫。

9 be interested doing/to do

interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 对某种想法感兴趣，doing 通常为想法。

I shall be interested to know what happens.
我很想知道发生了什么事。 (想了解)
I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you have any idea about that?
我对在瑞士工作感兴趣。你想过这事吗? (一种想法)

10 mean to doing/to do
mean to do 打算、想
mean doing意味着
I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to.
我想去，但是我父亲不肯让我去。
To raise wage means increasing purchasing power.
赠加工资意味着增加购买力。

11 begin(start) doing/to do

begin / start to do sth
begin / start doing sth.

1)谈及一项长期活动或开始一种习惯时，使用doing.

How old were you when you first started playing the piano?

你几岁时开始弹钢琴？
2)begin, start用进行时时，后面动词用不定式to do
I was beginning to get angry。
我开始生起气来。
3)在attempt, intend, begin, start 后接 know, understand, realize这类动词时，常用不定式to do。
I begin to understand the truth。
我开始明白真相。
4)物作主语时
It began to melt.

12 感官动词 + doing/to do

感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do 表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性

I saw him work in the garden yesterday.
昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调"我看见了"这个事实)
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.（强调"我见他正干活"这个动作）
昨天我见他正在花园里干活。
典型例题
1）They knew her very well. They had seen her ___ up from childhood.

A. grow B. grew C. was growing D. to grow

答案：A。因题意为，他们看着她长大，因此强调的是成长的过程，而非正在长的动作，因此用see sb do sth 的句型。

2）The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing B. to be playingC. play D. to play
答案A. 本题强调其动作，正在河边玩，应此用see sb. doing sth句型。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-15 19:05:18

一开电脑就看到草木的选人贴了，一排一排地看心都凉了
到最后一个才出现我的名字吓我一跳...
蹦蹦跳跳的心终于可以放回心窝窝里了
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-15 20:19:37

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-15 20:27 编辑

第十四期
Further Suggestions for Using Passive and Active Voices

1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.避免在一个句子里从主动态突然转到被动态



Unnecessary shift in voice
Revised
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.




2. Avoid dangling modifiers （垂悬修饰语，啥语法啊？貌似草木贴前面提过...)caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.



Dangling modifier with passive voice
Revised
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.




3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgment, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.(呵呵，我就没怎么信过WORD文档的语法修改，不过连WORD都查出来的语法问题，自己得好好琢磨琢磨)

Verbs- Voice and MoodActive and Passive voice:Verbs in the active voice show the subject acting. Verbs in the passive voice show something else acting on the subject. Most writers consider the active voice more forceful and tend to stay away from passives unless they really need them.

ACTIVE: Tim killed the chicken hawk.

PASSIVE: The chicken hawk was killed by Tim.

Indicative, Imperative, and Subjunctive Mood:Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood, which indicates a fact or opinion:

Examples:
·He was here.
·I am hungry.
·She will bring her books.

Some verbs are in the imperative mood（祈使式[语气]）, which expresses commands or requests. Though it is not stated, the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.

Examples:
·Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.)
·Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.)
·Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.)

When verbs show something contrary to fact, they are in the subjunctive mood.

When you express a wish or something that is not actually true, use the past tense or past perfect tense; when using the verb 'to be' in the subjunctive, always use were rather than was:



Examples:（前面一期的语法已讲过）
·If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.)
·I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.)
·It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you haven't brought them.)

INDICATIVE: I need some help.
IMPERATIVE:Help me!
SUBJUNCTIVE: If I were smart, I'd call for help.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-15 20:30:34

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-15 20:37 编辑

argument段落间的让步关系。

我是一个学计算机的人，从小学开始就接触程序设计，一直到现在。所以我非常崇尚的就是计算机的“绝对逻辑”，什么意思？就是说无论你从什么地方划一道线，上面的程序和下面的程序，必然是绝对的紧耦合关系，去掉任何一句话，都会导致最终结果的偏差。我想，在某些方面，尤其是逻辑方面来说，写议论文，和写程序，是相通的。

当谈到段落之间的逻辑结构的时候，不得不提到的八股是著名的“让步理论”。现在的AW市场（原谅我用市场一词来形容），放眼望去，铺天盖地的让步，甚至有的童鞋，除了让步以外什么都不会了，开头-第一段-让步第二段-让步第三段-结尾成了套路，我估计这种情况，已经泛滥到让ETS谈让步色变的地步了，是啊，无论是谁，看了一整天的even if/even though/even/granted that…都会觉得恶心想吐，更不用说你看上10年试试？

无用质疑，XDF的课堂和老师在给新一代的祖国栋梁的洗脑上，做出了不可磨灭的贡献。说到让步这个论证方式，我想最开始的源头应当是来自一篇ETS的官方Argument， 在The country Myria这篇6分范文里面，作者采用了大量的让步论证方式来完善自己的逻辑结构，进而让人们看到了一种希望的曙光：这样写，我也会！我也能拿6分！于是在XDF某些知名教授的推崇下，让步论证似乎变成了一种万能的钥匙，能够打开一切无法解决的问题。 某些名师干脆就大声疾呼：你就不停的让步就行了，让步是最有效，最快捷，最方便，最可以量产的逻辑，有人能够通过让步拿6，你也可以！而且，出于它的其他一些好处：几乎前半句就是原封不动的重复上面提到过的话，方便了很多以“字数至上”的考生在短时间内显著的凑出可观的字数，让步如今泛滥成灾也就不足为奇了。

但是，童鞋们啊，当被漫天的速成，捷径误导的同时，你们真的就静下心来，想过让步到底是个什么东西了么？我曾经问过某个同学：“什么是让步？”他的答案让我好笑：“就是even though之类的从句就行了”我想，很多考生的想法也就是如此。 功利！ Even though可以表现出让步，所以让步就是even though了么？ 我是人，人就是我么？ 根本就不知道让步的内涵，能够去合理的用它么？当ETS普遍打出3分，3.5分的成绩的时候，中国人的通病就是不但不从自己找原因，反而开始漫骂ETS，甚至有这种话语在其中：“我I写了700字，A写了550+，凭什么我只能拿3.5？”感情这个考试不是考逻辑，不是考思维，而是考抄录速度了？

什么是让步？按照我浅薄的个人理解，让步应该是一种：以对方的观点为基础，推导出深层的逻辑谬误，或者直接归谬否定原命题的辩证的论证方式。所以我们必须明确的两点就是：

1让步必须建立在你要批驳者的观点上，对于argument来说，就是作者的观点上。我见过有的文章，上来就让步接让步，当时我就很怀疑：作者真的有那么多话可以来给你让步么？结果果不其然，让步两次以后他就开始 even though + 自己以前的推论, 然后推到离题十万八千里的地方去了，偏偏本人还感觉良好，认为是神来之作。从这里我们可以看出：二次让步一般来说是不合逻辑的，因为第二次让步的东西，实际上是你第一次让步后得出的结论，而不是作者本来的意思。

2让步的作用是为了找出更加隐晦，更加深层的逻辑谬误，或者直接归谬否定。对于argument来说，就是从外表错误推断到本质错误的一个过程。有的童鞋不管三七二十一，不管这个逻辑到底有没有深层谬误（实际上，大部分的推论，是没有深层逻辑谬误的），先让步了再说。结果呢？自然是ETS杀你没商量。
可能光是理论上的东西感觉很深奥，那么我通过例子来说明：（随机选取，感谢janettaowei童鞋。）

61
The following appeared in a report by the School District of Eyleria.
"Nationally, the average ratio of computers to students in kindergarten through grade 12 (K-12) is 1:5. Educators indicate that this is very good ratio. This means that across the country, all students have access to and can use computers daily in their classrooms. In Eyleria's K-12 schools, the ratio of computers to students is 1:7. This number is sufficient to ensure that all of Eyleria's students, by the time they graduate from high school, will be fully proficient in the use of computer technology. Thus, there is no reason to spend any of the schools' budget on computers or other technology in the next few years."

Janettaowei童鞋的中间三段论证过程是这样的（ts已经取出）:
First, since the ratio of computers to students is 1:7 in Eyleria, which is lower than the national average level, it is possible that the computers there may be insufficient.（这段对我做例子没啥用，可以不用看这句ts）

Second, even if the number of computers is enough at present time, there is no guarantee it would be sufficient when they graduate from high school.

Last but not least, even Eyleria does not need to buy any computers, there still a lot of money need to be spent on computer.

好了，我们可以很清楚的看出他/她是用了两个让步来组织段落的内部结构的，接下来按照我一般的逻辑思维方式，我们把这个argument的逻辑联系理顺一下，恩，这是一篇相对比较难的逻辑连接了：

National average ratio(已给) à 所有学生日常都能够用电脑（推论1）

某个地区的 average ratio 1：7à number is sufficient(推论2，注意这个推论是三无：无调查，无证据，无理由) à 学生fully proficient in the use of computer(推论3)

推论3 à 1:7就足够（推论4，注意这里的循环论证，实际上，是1：7的ratio推出的推论3，然而作者继续把这个推论3作为推出1:7这个ratio的理由）+ 推论1（1：5也足够）à 1：7这个ratio是合理的（推论5）

最后由推论5 à 结论

从我给的这个逻辑图中可以明显的看出， jane童鞋的论证偏题了，原因是什么？我想，让步的滥用绝对是罪魁祸首之一，我们来看他的第二论证段的TS：Second, even if the number of computers is enough at present time, there is no guarantee it would be sufficient when they graduate from high school.

按照我所述的让步的两大最基本原则，分析一下这个让步为什么会导致偏题：

1 让步必须建立在你要批驳者的观点上。 在这篇argument里面，作者在什么地方提到过：the number of computers is enough at present time? 这个仅仅是第一个论证段，jane童鞋自己的推理而已，这个让步的错误性直接指向了一种后果：否定掉你自己前面写的东西，搬起石头砸了自己的脚，而不是作者的脚。

2 让步必须揭示更深层次的逻辑谬误。 蓝色字体的句子，是主句，也是由让步而衍生出来的逻辑问题，然而句话揭示的东西，不仅仅是一个虚幻的推论，更重要的是，它跟让步的从句的关系是并列关系，而不是递进关系！这才是当我们读到：“第二，即使电脑数量目前足够，也没有证据表明它们以后会足够。”感觉荒谬的真正原因所在！换言之，如果没有递进的逻辑深度关系，用让步就是一种可笑的举动。

至于jane童鞋的第三个让步，那就更不用说，一步步让下来，直接已经不知道离题多少万里去了，有兴趣的童鞋们可以自己用两大基本原则来分析一下这句话，我在这里托个大，当成课后作业了。

现在，让我们回过头来看看那篇被誉为经典让步的6分范文：

TEST 1: ARGUMENT TOPIC
The country Myria, which charges fees for the use of national parks, reports little evidence of environmental damage. This strongly suggests that for the country Illium, the best way to preserve public lands is to charge people more money when they are using national parks and wilderness areas for activities with heavy environmental impact. By collecting fees from people who overuse public lands, Illium will help preserve those lands for present and future generations.

它的让步过程：
Second, even if we concede that there is in fact negligible amounts of environmental damage, this does not necessarily mean that by collecting money from individuals who are using the parks one can use these funds to maintain the land for future generations.

Finally, even if we accept that the situation in Myria is successful in that country, we cannot assume that this same scenario will work in Illium.

从我标注的颜色上，童鞋们，你们看到了么，什么是真正的满足第一条让步原则？经典让步的所有的让步条件，都是从原文里面抓出来的，目的是为了深刻的批驳原文的其他错误。现在，大家回过头去想一想，你们的让步论证，到底是一个什么过程？有没有注意到这个原则，还是随便发挥自由发扬最后离题万里自尤不知？如果是，那就要赶紧改过来了！

然后我们retrospect第二个经典让步原则：但是在此之前，我希望能够把段落的逻辑理一下，这个逻辑链很简单，典型的地区性对比：

Myria 的 Charge fees这条措施（已给）à 钱都用在环境上了（推论1） à
little environmental damage(推论2) à 这种方法对任何环境下都有效（推论3）+Illium也面临相似的问题（已给）à Illium也应该采纳这种方法(结论)

接下来让我们回到第二条原则：递进式逻辑，或者直接归谬否定。
这篇范文的作者在某种层次上将这条原则运用的炉火纯青，很明显的，他的第一个让步是为了深入的驳斥上面的逻辑链的第二个箭头：这种方法有效。 而第二个让步则是为了直接把结论归谬，从而否定作者的推理，这里我不说太多，因为很多东西都已经在前面说的很清楚了，我希望童鞋们自己能够在这个地方去想一想，毕竟只有自己想明白的东西，才是自己的东西。

另外我还要从自己专业的角度来说一下这个让步的东西，实际上我一直认为，逻辑是相通的，不论你做什么工作。因此我认为，这种让步的论证方式，其实是很类似于算法当中的“回溯逻辑”。在计算机算法里面，回溯是一个很容易简化程序设计过程的一种方法，再长的东西，都能够简单成一个步奏以内的长度，因为不停的改变参数，重复调用它就行了。然而它的用途，非常非常的窄，除开纯理论以外，根本就没有地方用得到回溯这种东西。为什么？因为它的使用条件限制了一切：首先必须是链式逻辑，其次在链式逻辑当中，绝对不能够有其他的因素掺杂在里面。所以说当遇到我们生活当中常见的“剪枝，分叉，加权”等等逻辑的时候，它就是一个彻底的废物，如果强行的使用它，会出现很多的错误。

我想，让步作为一个类似的回溯机制，实际上也有着它自身能够使用的逻辑环境，绝不是像新东方类型的教导：什么万能的公式大家套就是了，如果这句话是真的，那么为什么没有见到杂志报刊论文辩论上张口就是“即使…”? 事实上，范文为什么能够用让步？因为它的逻辑，就是一个最典型的链式逻辑，每一步的推论，都是递进式的，这个时候，让步才有效的发挥了它的作用。但是如果不恰当的运用在其他的逻辑环境里，就会和计算机的计算结果一样，荒谬可笑！

退一步海阔天空，这句话，不仅仅能够真实的反映出让步的作用，借这个题目，我也希望能够提醒各位：当逻辑链无法使用让步的时候，往上面焦头烂额的硬套不是一个明智的决定，退一步，你会发现：海阔天空。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-15 21:08:12

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-15 21:22 编辑

在批改草木布置的30篇阿狗时，看到了2篇666的批改，在没看她的批改前，我是认为没啥好说了，但看了她的批语后再回头看看那篇文章，逻辑漏洞百出，再后来的文章慢慢地摸出点门路来了，这篇是关于常识在阿狗里面怎么用。很多时候，当阿狗感觉没话批了，可以尝试从常识部分入手，当然，是要符合大众的常识，而不是你个人的常识，像我前面有一篇是这样说的（谁的文章我不记得了...以下是改草木30篇阿狗的第5篇其中的某一段落）
Secondly, the author asserts different way of cooling the house causes the decrease of electricity consuming just because they happen together. （巧合因素，感觉不够充分）Obviously, the evidence for the casual relationship is too vague to believe. Furthermore, to satisfy the same requirement, common sense informs us air condition costs more electricity than fans. （应该在题目角度上反驳而不是就着这类无意义的细节讨论）Thus, there must be other reasons causing the decrease of the electric consumption. The most reasonable one is that the expense for air condition is so money-consuming that the citizens would like to tolerate the hot weather rather than pay for it.（此论点想反驳什么？空调耗电费导致人们宁愿忍受炎热所引导出来的结论是什么？）红字部分虽然看似合理，但这常识偏了点，类似于5分范文里面的那个批评家不可信的理由。


666出品
本文系寄托天下作者原创，转载请保持文章完整，并请务必注明真实作者和出处 --- 这篇是早就想写的东西了，主要是涉及到一些对argument论证的思考，出于某些原因拖到现在。

最近十来天一直在攻克A,虽然各项事务繁忙不敢说100%concentrating on,可能连50%都没有，不过前期的积累和最近的顿悟使得我对A的理解清楚了不少，也有了一些很新的想法来给大家分享，希望同样追求自我价值实现和真正愿意踏实地来研究一些AW里面关于逻辑和行文的同学们，如果真的还有这样的人，能够在我这条曲折的抛弃新东方和模板的道路上走的顺畅一些。

Argument，众所周知，是由前提开始，从一步步过程当中层层批驳作者的逻辑推理错误的驳论文。感谢XDF在入门的方面给予同志们的多种取巧办法，现在的考生对于A的大的批驳方向确定没有问题的，然而不幸的是，段落内部的结构却不是一个简单的模板就能够讲的清，辩的明。在几乎所有的argument段落论证当中，最为实在的内容，恐怕就是反例了，尤其是在版面上现在充斥着肤浅的：开头句模板+2个possibilities+结尾句模板=一个段落 的结构当中，反例，是唯一能够给考官展现论证能力的东西。

为了找到一堆反例来凑字数或者显示自己的强悍思辨实力，不少童鞋挖空心思，无所不用其极，找出的可能性千奇百怪，不但有的几乎没有发生的可能性，有的还更是自相矛盾，削弱了自己的主题句的立场，成为了文章的硬伤，自己还一无所知，感觉良好。

如何使你的文章更有说服力？实际上，作文版的各个前辈已经回答过这个问题，我想借使徒的一段论证来重新回答一次：


这个步骤中很重要的一步就是“常识”，符合常识的，即为合理推断，无关常识的，为一般推断，不符合常识的，为脑残推断。所谓的“论据不足”，根本上讲就是因为这些论据不足以填满我们常识中需要形成固定结果的条件，因此它才不足。写ARGUMENT的时候怎么说明这种不足就成了很重要的话题。


那么，这里又延伸出另一个关键的问题：怎样的论述才是“符合常识”的论述？这个问题，恐怕很难有固定的答案，但是我希望能通过这篇东西，给自己，也给童鞋们，一个思维的突破口。

按照惯例，首先搬出铁证，ETS的范文，题目如下:


The following is taken from a memo from the advertising director of the Silver Screen Movie Production Company.
"According to a recent report from our marketing department, fewer people attended movies produced by Silver Screen during the past year than in any other year.  And yet the percentage of generally favorable comments by movie reviewers about specific Silver Screen movies actually increased during this period.  Clearly, the contents of these reviews are not reaching enough of our prospective viewers; so the problem lies not with the quality of our movies but with the public's lack of awareness that movies of good quality are available.  Silver Screen should therefore spend more of its budget next year on reaching the public through advertising and less on producing new movies."


在这篇关于电影评论的5分和6分ETS范文里面，同样的批驳上色的那段逻辑推理，给出了两种不同方向的论述：

5分范文：批评家不可信。然后给出可能性：可能虽然涨了但批评家还是大多不喜欢电影。
6分范文：人们很少相信批评家。然后发展观点：电影要讨好大众。再解释下观点，说明人们与批评家的观点不一定一致。

从常识层面来讲，哪一个更有说服力？我想，6分的已经在这个方面明显高出一个档次。事实上，ETS给出的commentary也证实了这一点。

咱们再来看几篇板油的习作：

第一篇习作来自jlmjacky童鞋的Argument45。在论述关于猎人的report的可信度的时候，他的论证出发点是这样的


As all we know, the hunters could not have enough knowledge of the statistics, and this judgment must decide from their own experience, maybe with some mistakes in a huge probability.


他将猎人的报告不可信的原因归结为：猎人没有足够的相关知识。怎么样，是不是很熟悉，XXX没有足够的OOO方面的知识或者经验 这种论述，应该是经常出现在大家的文章里面吧？

然而这个论述有说服力么？据我浅薄的知识面来讲，猎人更应当被看作是experts of wild lives,长期和动物打交道的他们，如果都没有足够的知识来说明动物最近的情况，那么难道在校的大学生有这样的知识？因此这种论述明显是不足以让人信服的。

怎么样的论述更加合理？在我写过的同样的A45当中，我是这样来说明这个report不可信的（仅供参考）：


(however,) even hunters could be misled by the switch of the migration habit of Arctic deer.


把猎人的报告不可信的原因归咎于他们可能被动物可能的迁移路线改变所误导了。按照常识来讲，动物的迁移路线并非一成不变的。因此我相信这样的反例，就比前面提到的那个更加有说服力。

第二篇习作来自justdoit童鞋的Argument65, 在反驳关于“合并垃圾部门接到群众抱怨少，所以效果好”的论述中，他是这样写的：


Common sense tells that few complaints cannot be behalf of the satisfactory service, it is probable that the service of the new department did not improve, since the people in P and C maybe more shy or some other factors.


他将政府收到抱怨少的原因归咎于人们的腼腆，或者对政府的一种害怕情绪，实际上，在我们的生活中，有多少人是因为害羞而没有去投诉的？我想几乎没有。更加符合常理的可能性应该是这样：


People in P and C might not be willing to waste their time in phoning or trudging long to report an inconvenient trifle about garbage collecting to government.


政府部门接到的抱怨少是因为可能在市民们看来，垃圾收集的不便只是一件小事不足以劳动他们大驾专程向政府抱怨一次。

好了，我想从上面的三个例子当中，同学们应该能够很充分的认识到符合常识的论述的重要性了，那么下面就是解决这个关键的问题：如何使论述更加符合常识性？

事实上，任何一个论述，都是有一套完整的前提A，推论B和背景C的，正是这三个东西加上一些推理性的词语，构成了整个逻辑的链接，一般来讲就是：A à B(基于C的背景下)，无论ABC哪一个出了问题，都无法支持这个推理，现在我们所面临的最大问题就是：思维僵化，只会从A当中找突破口。其实如果是从B或C为基点出发，找到一些与A有关的可能性，同样能够推翻作者的推理。

我们重新分析一下范文题目里的这个错误的推理逻辑结构： And yet the percentage of generally favorable comments by movie reviewers about specific Silver Screen movies actually increased during this period（A）à the contents of these reviews are not reaching enough of our prospective viewers（B） （这里没有明显的背景C） 可以看出这个推理涉及到2个名词：reviewers和viewers.

在5分的范文中，作者就是从A当中寻找突破口，草率的提出：reviewers不可信这个论断。
而6分的范文里，则更加关注于从viewers(B)的角度来对reviewers(A)寻找突破口，找到更加符合常识的推论：viewers很少相信reviewers。

同样的我们来分析A45关于猎人报告的推论：According to reports from local hunters, the deer populations are declining（A） à the decline in arctic deer populations is the result of deer being unable to follow their age-old migration patterns across the frozen sea(B) (基于背景They search for food by moving over ice from island to island during the course of a year.（C）的前提下)

在justdoit童鞋的论证里面，就是典型的从（A）local hunters的角度来对report寻找突破反例，最终他找到的是：猎人知识面有限
而从我写的那一段论述中，是从背景C moving 这个词的角度来对 report寻找反例的：猎人可能被moving的路线改变所误导。

从上面两个例子我们可以看出，当各位焦头烂额的想不到合适的论证方式的时候，不妨从背景和结果的角度来重新审核你所要批驳的内容，从而启发灵感，使文章更加有说服力。在熟练的分析题目的段落逻辑结构以后，可以很快的明确A,B,C的关键词从而综合的考虑辩证角度。当然，对于投机的同学来讲，很不幸，这个是需要专门训练之后才能达到熟练的一个东西，短时间内是无法速成了。

另外需要补充的一点就是：由于对某个关键词入手角度的不同，即使是同样的突破口，也会有不一样的结论。上面讲到的关于argument65投诉少的2个论证角度就是一个典型的都从A来突破，但是最终考虑的方向决定了论述合理性的例子。这里，就需要平时更多的积累和观察，从而方便在考场上第一时间想到最合理的方向。
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-17 23:59:59

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-18 00:02 编辑

这几天一直在做6级卷子，非常丧气...
阅读大致看懂了题目却错了很多
大概总结了下
主要集中在推测题（把握作者思想总是不太好）
然后就是细节题，原文与题目中个别单词替换型严重暴露出我词汇量的不足
最最最可怕的是
阅读速度太慢了....
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-18 00:32:17

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-18 00:33 编辑

做六级翻译时，关于倒装句
2, 有个别其他副词放在句首时，又是也会有这个现象：
Often would she(she would) weep when alone.
Bitterly did he repent that decision. 他深深地悔恨那个决定。
Gladly would I give my life to save the child.（草木贴）
副词部分还有
only
当“only＋状语”位于句首时，其后习惯上要用部分倒装。其中，only后的状语可以是副词、介词短语、从句等。

Only in this way can we learn English. 只有这样才能学会英语。

Only then did I understand what she meant. 只有到那时我才明白她的意思。

Only by shouting was he able to make himself heard.  他只有叫喊才能让别人听到他。

注意，在only后作状语的是从句时，从句不要用倒装，要部分倒装的是主句。如：

Only when it rains do you feel cool. 只有下雨时才觉得凉爽一点。

Only when he returned home did he realize what had happened. 当他回到家里时，才知道出了什么事。

Only when we landed did we see how badly the plane had been damaged. 我们只是在着陆之后才看到飞机损坏的严重程度。
转载至http://www.yygrammar.com/Article/200811/794.html
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-18 23:48:56

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-19 00:54 编辑

·add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car
James's hat (James' hat is also acceptable. For plural, proper nouns that are possessive, use an apostrophe after the 's': "The Eggles' presentation was good." The Eggles are a husband and wife consultant team.)

·add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game
the geese's honking

·add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses' roofs
three friends' letters

·add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money

·add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment

Showing omission of letters

Apostrophes are used in contractions. A contraction is a word (or set of numbers) in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been omitted. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:
don't = do not
I'm = I am
he'll = he will
who's = who is
shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not
could've= could have (NOT "could of"!)
'60 = 1960


Forming plurals of lowercase letters

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical, e.g. "three ps" versus "three p's." To form the plural of a lowercase letter, place 's after the letter. There is no need for apostrophes indicating a plural on capitalized letters, numbers, and symbols (though keep in mind that some editors, teachers, and professors still prefer them). Here are some examples:

p's and q's = a phrase taken from the early days of the printing press when letters were set in presses backwards so they would appear on the printed page correctly. The expression was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thankyous."

Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4
There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.
many & s = many ampersands
That printed page has too many & s on it.
the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969
The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.


Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.

Apostrophes should not be used with possessive pronouns because possessive pronouns already show possession — they don't need an apostrophe. His, her, its, my, yours, ours are all possessive pronouns. Here are some examples:

wrong: his' book
correct: his book
wrong: The group made it's decision.
correct: The group made its decision.
(Note: Its and it's are not the same thing. It's is a contraction for "it is" and its is a possessive pronoun meaning "belonging to it." It's raining out= it is raining out. A simple way to remember this rule is the fact that you don't use an apostrophe for the possessive his or hers, so don't do it with its!)

wrong: a friend of yours'
correct: a friend of yours
wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.



Proofreading for apostrophes

A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper. Try the following strategies to proofread for apostrophes:
·If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it needs an apostrophe.
·If you put in too many apostrophes, check every apostrophe to see if you can justify it with a rule for using apostrophes.






Hyphens

This resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by Sean M. Conrey.
Last edited by Karl Stolley on February 1st 2006 at 2:49PM
Summary: A comprehensive rundown on the proper use of the hyphen.

Hyphen Use

Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:
hair stylist
hairsplitter
hair-raiser

Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Compounding is obviously in a state of flux, and authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon.

1.Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.

2.Use a hyphen with compound numbers:
forty-six
sixty-three
Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.

3.Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:
re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)

4.Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband
self-assured
mid-September
all-inclusive
mayor-elect
anti-American
T-shirt
pre-Civil War
mid-1980s

5.Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables:
pref-er-ence
sell-ing
in-di-vid-u-al-ist

6.For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
mass-
produced
self-
conscious

7.For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:
plan-ning
run-ning
driv-ing
call-ing

8.Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:
lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-19 22:41:42

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-19 22:56 编辑

Parallel Structure（平行结构）

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."

Words and Phrases With the -ing form (gerund) of words:

Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.

With infinitive phrases:

Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.

(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

Do not mix forms.

Example 1

Not Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Example 2

Not Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurate ly, and in a detailed manner.

Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

Example 3

Not Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.

Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

Clauses

A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.

Example 1

Not Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
（为啥这里to do 不能用do？晕，问了C，to do 连接的是前面的told而不是should）
Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.

— or —

Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.

Example 2

Not Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)

Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.

Lists After a Colon

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.

Example 1

Not Parallel:

The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.

Parallel:

The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.

Proofreading Strategies to Try:

·Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.

·If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.

·Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.
作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-20 01:52:01

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-21 02:42 编辑

A special report on climate change and the carbon economy

Getting warmer

Dec 3rd 2009 From The Economist print edition

So far the effort to tackle global warming has achieved little. Copenhagen offers the chance to do better, says Emma Duncan (interviewed here)
Illustration by M. Morgenstern

THE mountain bark beetle is a familiar pest in the forests of British Columbia. Its population rises and falls unpredictably, destroying clumps of pinewood(成片的针叶林) as it peaks which then regenerate as the bug recedes. But Scott Green, who studies forest ecology at the University of Northern British Columbia, says the current outbreak is “unprecedented in recorded history: a natural background-noise disturbance has become a major outbreak. We’re looking at the loss of 80% of our pine forest cover.”* Other parts of North America have also been affected, but the damage in British Columbia is particularly severe, and particularly troubling in a province whose economy is dominated by timber.

Three main explanations for this disastrous outbreak suggest themselves. It could be chance. Populations do fluctuate dramatically and unexpectedly. It could be the result of management practices. British Columbia’s woodland is less varied than it used to be, which helps a beetle that prefers pine. Or it could be caused by the higher temperatures that now prevail in northern areas, allowing beetles to breed more often in summer and survive in greater numbers through the winter.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which the United Nations adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, is now 17 years old. Its aim was “to achieve stabilisation of greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic（a.人为的，人类活动产生的） interference （n.冲突，干涉）with the climate system”. The Kyoto protocol, which set about realising those aims, was signed in 1997 and came into force（开始实施，开始有效） in 2005. Its first commitment period runs out（V.跑出, 离开, 完成, 被用完, 伸向, 流逝, 逐出, 放出去） in 2012, and implementing（v贯彻，实施） a new one is expected to take at least three years, which is why the 15th conference of the parties to the UNFCCC that starts in Copenhagen on December 7th is such a big deal. Without a new global agreement, there is not much chance of averting serious climate change.

Since the UNFCCC was signed, much has changed, though more in the biosphere than the human sphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the body set up to establish a scientific consensus on what is happening, heat waves, droughts, floods and serious hurricanes have increased in frequency over the past few decades; it reckons （vt.计算, 总计, 估计, 猜想）those trends are all likely or very likely to have been caused by human activity and will probably continue. Temperatures by the end of the century might be up by anything（？？？）
from 1.1&ordm;C to 6.4&ordm;C.

In most of the world the climate changes to date are barely perceptible （adj.可察觉的, 显而易见的, 感觉得到的）or hard to pin on warming. In British Columbia and farther north the effects of climate change are clearer. Air temperatures in the Arctic are rising about twice as fast as in the rest of the world. The summer sea ice is thinning and shrinking. The past three years have seen the biggest losses since proper record-keeping started in 1979. Ten years ago scientists reckoned that summer sea-ice would be gone by the end of this century. Now they expect it to disappear within a decade or so.

Since sea-ice is already in the water, its melting（融化） has little effect on sea levels. Those are determined by temperature (warmer water takes up more room) and the size of the Greenland and Antarctic ice caps. The glaciers（冰河） in south-eastern Greenland have picked up speed（加速）. Jakobshavn Isbrae, the largest of them, which drains 6% of Greenland’s ice, is now moving at 12km a year—twice as fast as it was when the UNFCCC was signed—and its “calving front”, where it breaks down into icebergs, has retreated by 20km in six years. That is part of the reason why the sea level is now rising at 3-3.5mm a year, twice the average annual rate in the 20th century.


As with the mountain bark beetle, it is not entirely clear why this is happening. The glaciers could be retreating because of one of the countless natural oscillations（n摆动，振动） in the climate that scientists do not properly understand. If so, the glacial retreat could well stop, as it did in the middle of the 20th century after a 100-year retreat. But the usual causes of natural variability do not seem to explain the current trend, so scientists incline to the view that it is man-made. It is therefore likely to persist unless mankind starts to behave differently—and there is not much sign of that happening.

Carbon-dioxide emissions are now 30% higher than they were when the UNFCCC was signed 17 years ago. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 equivalent (carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases) reached 430 parts per million last year, compared with 280ppm before the industrial revolution. At the current rate of increase they could more than treble（a,三倍的v.成三倍） by the end of the century, which would mean a 50% risk of a global temperature increase of 5&ordm;C. To put that in context, the current average global temperature is only 5&ordm;C warmer than the last ice age. Such a rise would probably lead to fast-melting ice sheets, rising sea levels, drought, disease and collapsing（崩塌） agriculture in poor countries, and mass migration. But nobody really knows, and nobody wants to know.（人的惰性啊惰性...）

Some scientists think that the planet is already on an irreversible （adj.不能撤回的, 不能取消的）journey to dangerous warming. A few climate-change sceptics think the problem will right itself. Either may be correct. Predictions about a mechanism as complex as the climate cannot be made with any certainty. But the broad scientific consensus is that serious climate change is a danger, and this newspaper believes that, as an insurance policy against a catastrophe that may never happen, the world needs to adjust its behaviour to try to avert that threat.

The problem is not a technological one. The human race has almost all the tools it needs to continue leading much the sort of life it has been enjoying without causing a net increase in greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Industrial and agricultural processes can be changed. Electricity can be produced by wind, sunlight, biomass or nuclear reactors, and cars can be powered by biofuels and electricity. Biofuel engines for aircraft still need some work before they are suitable for long-haul flights, but should be available soon.

Nor is it a question of economics. Economists argue over the sums (see article), but broadly agree that greenhouse-gas emissions（n.散发） can be curbed without flattening the world economy.
以上两段话的下划线首句用nor联系起来了，写aw可借鉴（但是说实话，联系全文就没看懂了...）
A hard sell

It is all about politics. Climate change is the hardest political problem the world has ever had to deal with. It is a prisoner’s dilemma, a free-rider
免费搭车者(享受其他国家最惠国待遇而不进行相应减让的国家)
problem and the tragedy of the commons all rolled into one. At issue is the difficulty of allocating the cost of collective action and trusting other parties to bear their share of the burden. At a city, state and national level, institutions that can resolve such problems have been built up over the centuries. But climate change has been a worldwide worry for only a couple of decades. Mankind has no framework for it. The UN is a useful talking shop, but it does not get much done.

The closest parallel is the world trading system. This has many achievements to its name, but it is not an encouraging model. Not only is the latest round of negotiations （n.商议, 谈判, 流通）mired in difficulty, but the World Trade Organisation’s task is child’s play compared with climate change. The benefits of concluding trade deals are certain and accrue in the short term. The benefits of mitigating climate change are uncertain, since scientists are unsure of the scale and consequences of global warming, and will mostly accrue many years hence. The need for action, by contrast, is urgent.

The problem will be solved only if the world economy moves from carbon-intensive to low-carbon—and, in the long term, to zero-carbon—products and processes. That requires businesses to change their investment patterns. And they will do so only if governments give them clear, consistent signals. This special report will argue that so far this has not happened. The policies adopted to avoid dangerous climate change have been partly misconceived（v.误解） and largely inadequate. They have sent too many wrong signals and not enough of the right ones.

That is partly because of the way the Kyoto protocol was designed. By trying to include all the greenhouse gases in a single agreement, it has been less successful than the less ambitious Montreal protocol, which cut ozone-depleting gases fast and cheaply. By including too many countries in detailed negotiations, it has reduced the chances of agreement. And by dividing the world into developed and developing countries, it has deepened a rift that is proving hard to close. Ultimately, though, the international agreement has fallen victim to domestic （adj.家庭的, 国内的, 与人共处的, 驯服的）politics. Voters do not want to bear the cost of their elected leaders’ aspirations, and those leaders have not been brave enough to push them.

Copenhagen represents a second chance to make a difference. The aspirations are high, but so are the hurdles （n.篱笆, 栏, 障碍, 跨栏, 活动篱笆.） The gap between the parties on the two crucial questions—emissions levels and money—remains large. America’s failure so far to pass climate-change legislation means that a legally binding agreement will not be reached at the conference. The talk is of one in Bonn, in six months’ time, or in Mexico City in a year.

To suggest that much has gone wrong is not to denigrate（v.毁誉） the efforts of the many people who have dedicated（devote） two decades to this problem. For mankind to get even to the threshold （n.开始, 开端, 极限）of a global agreement is a marvel. But any global climate deal will work only if the domestic policies（国内政策） through which it is implemented are both efficient and effective. If they are ineffective, nothing will change. If they are inefficient, they will waste money. And if taxpayers decide that green policies are packed with pork, they will turn against them.
http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14994872

看此文花了两个多小时...
comment还没写...
明天一下午赶三篇...
comment:
The article is begined with a phenomenon of a familiar pest called the mountain bark beetle in the forests of British Columbia, and extends other example such as sea-ice's melting. Even though they partly are resulted from the natural element, the man-made reason should be not ignored.
confronted with the recent problem that Carbon-dioxide emissions are higher year by year, such a rise would probably lead to fast-melting ice sheets, rising sea levels, drought, disease and collapsing agriculture in poor countries, and mass migration. But the climate change such laggardly that few people focus on it unless it leads a series of catastrophe. The higher Carbon-dioxide emission is a global problem, since there is much chance of averting serious climate change after the agreement of counties all over the world. But when the emissions levels connected the economy, the means to solve the problem are be more complex. So the new words called "prisoner’s dilemma" and "a free-rider" have been born to describe the phenomena that some countries do not want to toe the mark.

作者: 中原527    时间: 2009-12-20 23:10:15

本帖最后由 中原527 于 2009-12-20 23:11 编辑

Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences

A group of words containing a subject and a verb and expressing a complete thought is called a sentence or an independent clause. Sometimes, an independent clause stands alone as a sentence, and sometimes two independent clauses are linked together into what is called a compound sentence. Depending on the circumstances, one of two different punctuation marks can be used between the independent clauses in a compound sentence: a comma or a semicolon. The choice is yours.

Comma (,)

Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:
I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.

Semicolon (;)

Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:

I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the night.
For more information about compound sentence patterns, see the Purdue OWL handout on Sentence Punctuation Patterns.

Commas with Nonessential Elements

Some modifying elements of a sentence are essential, restricting the meaning of a modified term, while others are nonessential and don't restrict the modified term's meaning. These nonessential elements, which can be words, phrases, or clauses, are set off with commas.

Rule: Use commas before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements embedded in the sentence that interrupt it without changing the essential meaning.
If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.

Nonessential: The average world temperature, however, has continued to rise significantly. (word)
Essential: The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death. (word)

Nonessential: Company managers, seeking higher profits, hired temporary workers to replace full-time staff. (phrase)
Essential: The person checking tickets at the counter asked for a form of identification. (phrase)

Nonessential: My uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three miles every day. (clause)
Essential: The woman who interviewed you is my sister. (clause)
Deciding whether an element is essential or nonessential can sometimes be tricky. For help identifying two common types of phrases that can be either essential or nonessential, see the OWL handouts on verbals which includes information on participial phrases, as well as the handout on appositives which covers appositive phrases. Both of these documents address the essential/nonessential distinction for these kinds of phrases.
You can try three different interactive exercises that allow you to practice these rules, each with its own answer key.



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