1006G备考日记 by pluka——Pursuit of simplicity（谢幕）

plukaUID: 2721764

52# 番茄斗斗  
我每周14大节，有一半是研究生的课。。。我现在复习GRE，复习着复习着就想骂人。
偶想看数学。。。数学家年轻不干活，将来就废物了。。。什么大器晚成在信息密集的今天就是扯。。。
算了，冷静。 ...
QuincySM 发表于 2009-11-26 21:40

专业重要，GRE紧迫，大家的痛苦来源都是相似的。

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第十八期——Dangling Modifiers  垂悬修饰语
Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Dangling——垂悬：属于或是修饰词的，尤指分词或分词词组，其在语法上修饰句子的主语，但语意上是修饰句子的另一个部分或未说明的指示对象。
非垂悬修饰语的要点是：修饰语的主语可以从逻辑上（语意上）推断出其实是主句的主语。如：

Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.没有垂悬成分。

The following sentence has an incorrect usage:
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.从逻辑上也推不出主语是谁，就是垂悬的。这是一种错误用法。


Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:分析修饰语与主句的主语是否相同。
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:提出修饰语的主语，补完句子
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:
He improved his results by doing the experiment again. 
从几个例子都可以看出，其实这种垂悬修饰语的主要原因是修饰语部分遵循的是主动语态的规则，而主句则用的是被动，这样就让两句的主语合不上了。因此要注意修饰语与主语保持语态一致！

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第十九期——Capital Letters 首字母

Use capital letters in the following ways:

The first words of a sentence
The pronoun "I"
Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)

Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving应该是个组织

Family relationships (when used as proper names)

I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.看出区别了吧，一个是特指，一个是泛指。
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?

The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

God the Father
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
the Greek gods 这个gods没有大写
Moses
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus

Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville. 前面的人名和后面的职位都是讲同一个人的，所以只大写第一个？

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions) 
The Patels have moved to the Southwest. 本身可以作为一个名词用的就大写，只表示方向的就不用大写。
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally) 季节一般是不用大写的~
Halloween
October
Friday
winter
spring
fall

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title. 
The Fall 1999 semester

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages 
Costa Rica
Spanish
French
English

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title) 
One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups 
Green Bay Packers
African-Americans
Anti-Semitic
Democrats
Friends of the Wilderness
Chinese

Periods and events (but not century numbers) 
Victorian Era
Great Depression
Constitutional Convention
sixteenth century

Trademarks 
Pepsi
Honda
IBM
Microsoft Word

Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types) 
Freudian 
NBC
pasteurize
UN
french fries
italics

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十期——Spelling

Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike

Forms to Remember

•effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: 常用它的名词形式，但要记住也有动词~
Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.
A memory-help for affect and effect is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.

I/E Rule

Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight

Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species, sufficient 

-ible, -able Rule
-ible        -able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible.
aud + ible = audible
If the root is a complete word, add -able.
accept + able = acceptable
If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e and add -able.
excuse - e+ able = excusable

Some exceptions:
•contemptible 
•digestible 
•flexible 
•responsible 
•irritable 
•inevitable

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十一期——HOCs\LOCs
Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)

The most important parts of your paper, often called "Higher Order Concerns (HOCs)," are the "big picture" elements such as thesis or focus, audience and purpose, organization, and development. After you have addressed these important elements, you can then turn your attention to the "Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)," such as sentence structure and grammar.

Keep in mind, however, that moving between HOCs and LOCs might be a natural process for you. Experienced writers may begin with HOCs and dip into the LOCs as they revise. Inexperienced writers may revise systematically through the HOCs and then the LOCs. In addition, LOCs, such as punctuation and spelling, may affect HOCs. For example, if the first sentence of your introductory paragraph is riddled with punctuation and spelling errors, readers may not move far enough into your work to get to your thesis statement. In these cases, you should address LOCs first.

Some HOCs
再熟悉一下基本写作课~
Thesis or focus:

•Does the paper have a central thesis? 
•Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about? 
•Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss. 开头和TS的重要性

Audience and purpose:

•Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them? AW都是学术读者~
•Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish? 
•Why would someone want to read this paper? 
•Does the purpose match the assignment? 切题

Organization:

•Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way? 
•Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization. 让各段的关键点相互联系
•Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part? 
•Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there? 

Development:

•Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed? 
•Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? (For more help, see our handout on paragraphing.) 
•Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support. 

Some LOCs

Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling

•Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those. 这种东西只能靠实际多写才能发现
•Read the paper aloud watching and listening for anything that sounds incorrect. 
•Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in certain places. Do you need to check any punctuation rules? (For more help see our handouts on punctuation.) 
•For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.

plukaUID: 2721764

欠的始终要补，逃避是不行的~~~~~~~~~~
感谢番茄的提醒!

今天，单词第12天，精读~
摘取Franklin的一句共勉：
At twenty years of age, the will reigns; at thirty, the wit; and at forty, the judgment.

11.26

plukaUID: 2721764

单词13天~
然而一天的课，晚上做完作业已经到现在了……正赶着预习明天的课，呜呼。今日精读什么的都还没有做……还好明早可以睡懒觉~
11.27

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十二期——Sentence Clarity
Improving Sentence Clarity

Go from old to new information
即先提出较熟悉的事物，再引出相关的新事物——先后顺序要注意，且各句间善用代词
Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.

Transitional words

There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the handout on Transitional Devices (Connecting Words). There you'll find lists of words such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses
前面的几讲说过，重要成分如强调部分、主谓之间是不能用逗号、插入语、从句隔开的。Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:
not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):
Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is increasing rapidly.

Use active voice
主动式更简洁易懂。
Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In addition, changing from passive voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use active voice unless you have good reason to use the passive. For example, the passive is useful when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is obvious, unimportant, or unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.

Use parallel constructions
上一节提及了如何使用并列结构，这里指出何时使用：当意思对应、并列更有益于理解时。并列也有修辞作用。
When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.

Avoid noun strings
名词太多堆在一起不好理解，改成有故事性的动词+名词混合结构
Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
unclear (string of nouns):
This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects.
clearer:
This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
不要滥用动词的名词形式。这个在FW里面也有讲过！冗赘一节。用动词的名词形式显然要耗费更多单词才能解释同一个意思。
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."

Avoid multiple negatives
避免否定的堆积，免得把人绕糊涂
Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.
unclear (multiple negatives, passive):
Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
clearer:
People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.

Choose action verbs over forms of be
与动词的名词化相连。也要控制there be句型的数量，尽量用动作性的动词。
When possible,avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs.
Unclear (overuse of be verbs):
One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.
Clearer:
Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.用be different的动词形式differ from，用unlike完成了二者对比，简洁清晰，赞。

Avoid unclear pronoun references
这是很容易不小心就犯的一点！一定要自己清楚地知道代词指的是前文的什么成分。
Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.若指代之物在前文有暗示但没有清楚的说出来过，就用它的名词而不用代词。
This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):
With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Clearer:
With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.

Sentence Fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence. 
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the main clause. 
Fragment: The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why we believe the proposed amendments should be passed. 
Possible此为新闻习惯，即，当后面的句子片段与前面的主句之间的关系十分明确时，用该片段做为一个独立句子以强调。在学术写作中不应采用此习惯。
Revision: Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we believe the proposed ammendments should be passed. 

You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as above. This is a conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences. 


辨别句子碎片：
No main verb 

•Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired. 
Possible Revisions: 
oDirect object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired 
oMain verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired. 

No Subject 

•Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product. 
Possible Revisions: 
oRemove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product. 
These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.保持句子结构的一致。

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十三期——Relative Pronouns 关系代词

Introduction and General Usage in Defining Clauses

Relative pronouns in defining clauses

Defining relative clauses (also known as restrictive relative clauses) provide some essential information that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause. 限定性从句的关系代词不可省略，要小心选择，且从句与主句不可用逗号分隔。该代词可作为主语、宾语（作宾语时代词可能会省去；whom比who在宾格位置更正式）或所有格（whose人、物均可用）

2) whom:
In American English, whom is not used very often. Whom is more formal than who and is very often omitted in speech。
However, whom may not be omitted if preceded by a preposition:
I have found you the tutor for whom you were looking.

General remarks: That, Who, Which compared
The relative pronoun that can only be used in defining clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things). That is often used in speech; who and which are more common in written English. 书面语中要用who或which等明确指出主从句之间的关系
the sentence with which is more formal than the one with that: Note that since it is the defining clause, there is NO comma used preceding which。 

Some special uses of relative pronouns in defining clauses

that / who 一般而言可互换。However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred:
The old lady who lives next door is a teacher. 

that / which
There several cases when that is more appropriate than and is preferred to which: 
After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing):这些不定代词后用that比which好。
Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants. - that used as the object 
After verbs that answer the question WHAT? For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write, etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the object of the main clause: 回答what问句，从句做宾语时用that
Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and ninety-nine percent of hard work. 
After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree: 在被形容词最高级修饰的名词后面。
This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that used as the object 
After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.:序数词后。
The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. - that used as the object 
If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE: BE结构后。
This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that used as the subject 

Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses
被逗号分开，关系代词不能省略，不能用that引导。从句代词可做主语、宾语、所有格。

b.of whom, of which
Use of whom for persons and of which for things or concepts after numbers and words such as most, many, some, both, none: 
I saw a lot of new people at the party, some of whom seemed familiar.

Defining vs. Non-Defining and ESL Tips

Defining vs Non-Defining Clauses: Difference in Meaning

There is a difference in meaning between defining and non-defining clauses that depends on the presence or absence of the comma. For example:
They have two sons who are doctors. 
Defining clause; the meaning is that there are more sons in the family, e.g.: 
They have two sons who are doctors and one who is an architect. 
Compare: 
They have two sons, who are doctors. 
non-defining clause; the meaning is that there are no more sons in the family. 

Although there is no one single rule to cover all the cases, the following summary may be helpful if you need to make a quick decision:
1.Use that if the main clause poses the question WHAT? answered by the relative clause; 
2.Do not use that presenting non-essential, additional information (that is, in non-defining relative clauses); use who or which instead; 
3.Use who to refer to people; 
4.Use which to refer to things or to refer to the previous clause as a whole; 
5.If you choose between who or that, use who in writing; 
6.If you choose between which and that, use which in writing; 
7.Do not put a comma before that.
即：书写中能用which、who就不用that，用了that前面必不可加逗号（即不能是非限定性）；特例是回答WHAT问句用that（还有上文提到的几个点）。

Sentence Punctuation Patterns

Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.有连词用comma，没有用semicolon，可参考前几节comma和连词部分的讲解
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ] 
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.这些之前可以用;
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern Eight
This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phrase
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]
An essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be removed without changing the overall meaning of the sentence. 
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes. 

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十四期——Punctuation

Brief Overview of Punctuation

Comma

Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. 在并列成分的最后一项前习惯加逗号（虽然有了and）
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.

Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible). 
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.

Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition) 
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."

Use a comma in a date. 
October 25, 1999数字写在一起，用逗号分开
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999

Use a comma in a personal title. 
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings.
Semicolon


Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so). 不止连接副词，transition也可以加semicolon
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas. 

Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.

Colon

Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause. 冒号强调的是后半句
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.

Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause. 用于解释、名单、引语等前
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.

Parenthesis


Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence. 括号内部的成分对主句无影响，括号强调其内部成分
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."

Dash

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses. 

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it. 
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation. 逗号在引号内，句号和分号在引号外，感叹号和问号视情况而定。

Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows. 诗、歌、文章、节目等的标题可用引号
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson有逗号
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations. 

Italics 斜体字
斜体与下划线可互换表示强调，现在更倾向用斜体，但注意保持文章中只能采用二者中的一种。
Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships. 

Italicize foreign words. 

Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis. 

Italicize a word when referring to that word. 

Punctuation in Types of SentencesCompound: composed of 2 or more independent clauses.Join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).

Join 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.后句是前句的重述时也用分号隔开。
Join 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.

Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 1 or more independent clauses.Join an introductory dependent clause with the independent clause by a comma. 
Because road construction has hindered travel around town, many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work.
Many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work because road construction has hindered travel around town.

Compound-Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 2 or more independent clauses.Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
When it is filtered, 逗号连接引导作用的限定性和非限定性water is cleaner, and 逗号和连词连接两个非限定性it tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Whenever it is possible, you should filter your water:连接两个非限定，要强调后一个时用冒号 filtered water is cleaner and tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis. 
When it is filtered, water is cleaner and tastes better; 两个非限定，后句重述前句或两句同等重要时用分号all things considered, it is better for you.

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十五期——A versus An

Articles: A versus An

With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h.按发音而非字母选择a和an
•an honorable peace 
•an honest error 

With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.
•a union 
•a united front 
•a unicorn 
•a used napkin 
•a U.S. ship 
•a one-legged man 

Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. 

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十六期——Use Articles 冠词
How to Use Articles (a/an/the)

Indefinite Articles: a and an 泛指

Remember, using a or an depends on the sound that begins the next word. So...
•In some cases where "h" is pronounced, such as "historical," us an:
An historical event is worth recording.
In writing, "a historical event" is more commonly used.
Remember that this rule also applies when you use acronyms:缩写也是按读音来确定a和an的！
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.
Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data. An SPCC plan (Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures plan) will help us prepare for the worst.

If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article:
•an unusual problem 
•a European country (sounds like 'yer-o-pi-an,' i.e. begins with consonant 'y' sound) 

Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate membership in a group:
•I am a teacher. (I am a member of a large group known as teachers.) 
•Seiko is a practicing Buddhist. (Seiko is a member of the group of people known as Buddhists.)

Definite Article: the


Count and Noncount Nouns
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.不可数名词前面可以不加冠词表泛指——记住啊记住，不要再困惑了
•"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water). 
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a bottle of water.

Geographical use of the
There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.

Do not use the before:
•names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States 
•names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami 
•names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St. 
•names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes 
•names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn 
•names of continents (Asia, Europe) 
•names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands 

Do use the before:
•names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific 
•points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole 
•geographical areas: the Middle East, the West 
•deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
•Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian 
•Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball 
•Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十七期—— Non&Count Nouns
Count and Noncount Nouns: Basic Rules

Count and Noncount Nouns with Adjectives
Most of the time, this doesn't matter with adjectives. For example, you can say, "The cat was gray" or "The air was gray." However, the difference between a countable and uncountable noun does matter with certain adjectives, such as "some/any," "much/many," and "little/few."

Some/Any: Some and any countable and uncountable nouns. 
Much/Many: Much modifies only uncountable nouns. Many modifies only countable nouns. 
Little/Few: Little modifies only uncountable nouns. Few modifies only countable nouns. 

Other basic rules

A lot of/lots of:A lot of/lots of are informal substitutes for much and many. 啊原来much和many是正式而lots是非正式的，那么正式文体中用前者。They are used with uncountable nouns when they mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many.
A little bit of:A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

Plenty of: Plenty of modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.plenty是二者都可修饰的，记住！
No: No modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

Count and Non-Count Nouns (with Plurals, Articles, and Quantity Words)

Section 1: Definition of Count and Noncount nouns

Noncount nouns refer to things that can't be counted because they are thought of as wholes that can't be cut into parts. They often refer to abstractions and occasionally have a collective meaning (for example, furniture).

Note: Since the issue is complicated and almost no rule is absolute, there will be exceptions to the above definitions; however, we can show some general patterns. Bear in mind that what is countable in another language may not be countable in English, and vice versa.

Section 2: Uses of Count and Noncount Nouns
Pluralizing
An Exception to the Rule

For a number of nouns, the rule needs slight revision. Certain nouns in English belong to both classes: they have both a noncount and a count meaning. Normally the noncount meaning is abstract and general and the count meaning concrete and specific. Compare:

Count
•I've had some difficulties finding a job. (refers to a number of specific problems) 
•The talks will take place in the Krannert building. (refers to a number of specific lectures) 
•The city was filled with bright lights and harsh sounds. (refers to a number of specific lights and noises) 

Noncount
•She succeeded in school with little difficulty. (refers to the general idea of school being difficult) 
•I dislike idle talk. (refers to talking in general) 
•Light travels faster than sound. (refers to the way light and sound behave in general) 

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on. Examples:作为种属时不可数变得可数
•There are several French wines to choose from. (= kinds of wine) 
•We use a variety of different batters in our bakery. (= kinds of batter) 
A Revision of the Rule

These exceptions require that the rule for pluralizing be revised: count nouns and nouns used in a count sense pluralize; noncount nouns and nouns used in a noncount sense（对既可做可数也可做不可数的名词而言） do not.

Articles
Nouns and Articles
Choosing which article to use (if any) with a noun is a complex matter because the range of choices depends on whether the noun in question is 1) count or noncount and 2) singular or plural. Both count nouns (whether singular or plural) and noncount nouns take articles.

Combinations of Nouns and Articles
The following chart shows which articles go with which kinds of nouns. Notice that this, that, these, and those have been included because, like the, they mark the noun that they modify as definite, which means that the noun refers 1) to a unique individual or 2) to some person, event, or object known to both the writer and reader from their general knowledge or from what has been previously mentioned in a piece of writing.
Count singular 
a, an        the        this, that
Count plural         

the these, those        no article
Noncount         
the that no article
Quantity Terms

The following chart shows which quantity words go with which kinds of nouns. Note that quantity words can be used in combinations such as many more, many fewer, much more, and much less, any of which can be preceded by how to form questions or relative clauses. Negatives like not and no can also be applied to many of these terms.
 much, less, little, a little, very little        some, any, most, more, all, a lot of, no, none of the        many, both, several, few/fewer/fewest, a few, one of the, a couple of        each, every, any, one
Count singular                         
every, one
Count plural         
some, a lot of,  many, few/fewer/fewest, a few
Noncount 
much, less, little, a little, very little        some, a lot of

Count and NonCount Nouns (with Articles and Adjectives)
Using Articles with Countable and Uncountable Nouns
A countable noun always takes either the indefinite (a, an) or definite (the) article when it is singular. When plural, it takes the definite article if it refers to a definite, specific group and no article if it is used in a general sense.

Uncountable nouns never take the indefinite article (a or an), but they do take singular verbs. The is sometimes used with uncountable nouns in the same way it is used with plural countable nouns, that is, to refer to a specific object, group, or idea.不可数名词可以零冠词
Information is a precious commodity in our computerized world.

The information in your files is correct.
Sugar has become more expensive recently.
Please pass me the sugar.

Categories of Uncountable Nouns
Abstract
trouble
enjoyment
recreation
Material
ice cream

grass
hair       
Generic
wildlife

Non-Plurals
mail
luggage
jewelry
clothing
        with -s
civics

mumps
measles
tennis
(other games)
Quantity Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns


Some, Any
Both words modify either countable or uncountable nouns.

Little, Quite a little, Few, Quite a few
Little and quite a little modify only uncountable nouns.
Few and quite a few modify only countable nouns.

A little bit of, Quite a bit of用于不可数！以前误解了
These informal phrases usually precede uncountable nouns. Quite a bit of has the same meaning as quite a little and is used more commonly.
There's a little bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a small amount")
There's quite a bit of pepper in the soup. (meaning "a large amount")

Plenty of可数不可数均可
This term modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.

plukaUID: 2721764

周末往往反而是最忙的时候，sigh，精读把昨天的进度赶上了，单词新进度完成，复习还没做，下线去做~
11.28

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十八期——In/Dependent Clauses

Connecting dependent and independent clauses
1. Coordinating Conjunction

2. Independent Marker Word
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.
Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

Some Common Errors to Avoid

Comma Splices
即，两个非限定句若用逗号连接，必须要连词。
Fused Sentences
即，两个非限定句一定要隔开。

Sentence Fragments
即，要认真辨认限定句，避免成分残缺的句子出现。

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第二十九期——Adjective or Adverb 形容词与副词
What is the Difference between Adjectives and Adverbs?
The Basic Rules: Adjectives
So, generally speaking, adjectives answer the following questions:
•Which? 
•What kind of? 
•How many?

The Basic Rules: Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.副词可修饰其他副词 The most common question that adverbs answer is how.
So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.)

Avoiding Common Errors

1.Bad or Badly? 形容词修饰名词，副词修饰动词
o"The dog smells badly." Here, badly means that the dog does not do a good job of smelling. 
o"The dog smells bad." Here, "bad" means that dog needs a bath. 
N.B. Sometimes people say "I feel badly" when they feel that they have done something wrong. 做错事也用badlyLet's say you dropped your friend's favorite dish, and it broke into a million pieces. You might say, "I feel really badly about what happened."

2.Good or Well? 
Good is an adjective, so you do not do good or live good, but you do well and live well. Remember, though, that an adjective follows sense-verbs and be-verbs, so you also feel good, look good, smell good, are good, have been good, etc.
N.B. Many people confuse this distinction in conversation, and that's okay. You will hear people say, "I feel well" when they mean that they feel good. However, if you're taking about action verbs, you'd say "well." "I did well on my exam." "She plays tennis well."

3.Sure or Surely? 
Sure is an adjective, and surely is an adverb.
N.B. Surely can also be used as a sentence-adverb. For example, "Surely, you're joking." Here, surely describes the entire sentence "you're joking." The sentence more or less means, "You must be joking."

4.Near or Nearly? 
Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition. Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite." Here are some examples that demonstrate the differences between various uses of near and nearly.
o"The cat crept near." Near is an adverb that describes where the cat crept. 
o"Don't worry; we're nearly there." Here, nearly describes how close we are. 
o"My graduation neared." Here, neared is the verb of the sentence. near也可以做动词，表示接近、走近
o"I want the couch near the window." Near is a preposition at the head of the phrase "near the window."

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十期——Adjectives and Adverbs
与上节内容有重复
Adjectives with Countable and Uncountable Nouns
The Basic Rules: Adjectives

Rule #2: An adjective always follows a form of the verb to be when it modifies the noun before the verb. Here are some examples that show this rule.be和to be结构后面接的形容词修饰的是其前方的名词
•I was nervous.
•They tried to be helpful.
Rule #3: Likewise an adjective always follows a sense verb or a verb of appearance — feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, and seem — when it modifies the noun before the verb.

Avoiding Common Errors

•Good or Well?
•Confusion can occur because well can function either as an adverb or an adjective. When well is used as an adjective, it means "not sick" or "in good health." For this specific sense of well, it's OK to say you feel well or are well — for example, after recovering from an illness. When not used in this health-related sense, however, well functions as an adverb; for example, "I did well on my exam."当与健康相关的感觉相连时，well做形容词，否则作副词。
•Double-negatives
•Scarcely and hardly are already negative adverbs. To add another negative term is redundant, because in English only one negative is ever used at a time
•Sure or Surely?
•Sure is an adjective, and surely is an adverb. Sure is also used in the idiomatic expression sure to be.习语，sure to be  Surely can be used as a sentence-adverb. Here are some examples that show different uses of sure and surely.
•She is sure to be a great leader.
•Here sure to be is an idiomatic phrase that functions as an adjective that modifies the pronoun she.
•Surely, environmental destruction has been one of the worst catastrophes brought about by industrial production.
•Here surely is an adverb that modifies the verb has been.

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十一期——Appositives 同位语

Appositives
同位语用于解释或定义名词，位置可在名词前或后
An appositive is a noun or pronoun — often with modifiers — set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.

Punctuation of appositives

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.首先确定哪部份是名词，哪部份是同位语，随后确定如果没有了该同位语，句意是否仍然清晰，若是，可加括号，若不是，不可。
Here are some examples.

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
Here we do not put commas around the appositive, because it is essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "The popular US president was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We wouldn't know which president was being referred to.

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We still know who the subject of the sentence is without the appositive.

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.
Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without the appositive.

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十二期——Irregular Verbs
List of Irregular Verbs in English

blow        blew        blown
deal        dealt        dealt
fly        flew        flown
forbid        forbade        forbidden
hide        hid        hidden
lie        lay        lain
quit        quit        quit
ride        rode        ridden
shake        shook        shaken
shine        shone        shone
sing        sang        sung
spring        sprang        sprung
swim        swam        swum
swing        swung        swung

Commonly Confused Verbs
Lie vs. Lay usage

lie, lying (to tell a falsehood)        I lied to my mother.        I have lied under oath.lie的过去分词lied表说谎，lain表放置
lie, lying (to recline)        I lay on the bed because I was tired.        He has lain in the grass.
lay, laying (to put, place)        I laid the baby in her cradle.        We have laid the dishes on the table.
Example sentences:
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep. 
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?
SIT versus SET 
sit (to be seated or come to resting position)        I sat in my favorite chair.        You have sat there for three hours.
set (to put or place)        I set my glass on the table.        She has set her books on my desk again.
RISE versus RAISE 

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十三期——Numbers
Writing Numbers

Here are some examples of specific situations.

Days and Years总算找到日期的确切表达法了
December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965
A.D. 1066
in 1900
in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972没有定冠词，除非特指
the eighties, the twentieth century
the 1980's or the 1980s带不带单撇号皆可
Time of Day
8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning
4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon
Addresses道路名称及号码不用逗号隔开，见逗号一节。
16 Tenth Street
350 West 114 Street
Identification Numbers
Room 8
Channel 18
Interstate 65
Henry VIII人名一般用罗马数字
Page and Division of Books and Plays
page 30
chapter 6
in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii
Decimals and Percentages
a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton
Large Round Numbers
four billion dollars (or) $4 billion
16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Notes on Usage

Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.
The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.又是句内一致的问题，要么都用阿拉伯数字要么都拼写，但正式文体中多用拼写。
two apples, six oranges, and three bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed

Write out numbers beginning sentences. 句首的数字要用拼写形式
Six percent of the group failed.
NOT: 6% of the group failed.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear. 
Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who were born in the city. (may cause the reader to read '690' as one number.)
Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who were born in the city.额……原来可以这样用，此前没有见过。不过弄不清楚还是别用了吧。

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十四期——Prepositions 介词
Prepositions for Time, Place, and Introducing Objects

One point in time
On is used with days:
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:

Extended time 
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from—to, from-until, during,(with)in

Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at.
•        She was waiting at the corner. 

To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below. 

To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs. 
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare smile+at sb
•        We rejoiced at his safe rescue. 
•        That pretty girl smiled at you. 
Of: approve, consist, smell
•        I don't approve of his speech. 
•        My contribution to the article consists of many pages. 
•        He came home smelling of alcohol. 

Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to)

To the extent that these pairs do differ, the compound preposition conveys the completion of an action, while the simple preposition points to the position of the subject as a result of that action. 复合介词有动作完成之意。This distinction helps us understand how directional and locational prepositions are related: they stand in the relationship of cause and effect. 
The paper went into the garbage can.
Position of subject: the paper is in the garbage can.
The crab washed up onto the shore.
Position of subject: the crab is on the shore. 

See the sections below for some exceptions to this rule.
Uses of "to"
To occurs with several classes of verbs.
Verb + to + infinitive
Verbs in this group express willingness, desire, intention, or obligation.

In other cases "to" is used as an ordinary preposition. 
Verbs of communication: listen, speak (but not tell), relate, appeal (in the sense of 'plead,' not 'be attractive')
Verbs of movement: move, go, transfer, walk/run/swim/ride/drive/ fly, travel
Except for transfer, all the verbs in listed here can take toward as well as to. However, "to" suggests movement toward a specific destination, while "toward" suggests movement in a general direction, without necessarily arriving at a destination:to是具体方向而toward是泛泛的方向并且可能还没到目的地。查了一下，toward还有形容词性，towards是toward的变体，仅作介词。
 
Uses of "onto"可用on代替，但有些动词只能用on不能用onto
"Onto" can generally be replaced by "on" with verbs of motion.
Some verbs of motion express the idea that the subject causes itself or some physical object to be situated in a certain place。Of these verbs, some take only "on". Others take both on and onto, with the latter being preferred by some speakers.省事起见，干脆都用on
Verbs taking only "on" are rare: set may be another one, and so perhaps is put. Other verbs taking both prepositions are raise, scatter (when it takes a direct object), pour, and add.

The farmer scattered seed on(to) the fertile ground. We're adding on a wing at the back of the building. We're adding a porch onto the house. 
In "We're adding on a wing at the back of the building" on is really part of the verb, while in "We're adding a porch onto the house" onto is a simple preposition. This contrast points to a fairly important and general rule:
Simple prepositions can combine with verbs, but compound prepositions cannot. 当与动词合成时，组成动词短语，该介词的意义可能改变

Uses of "into"
With verbs of motion, "into" and "in" are interchangeable except when the preposition is the last word or occurs directly before an adverbial of time, manner, or frequency。In this case only in (or inside) can be used.介词位于句尾，或直接加在时间、方式、频率状语前时，只能用in不能用into
Spike is lying in his house. (Not into.)
Our new neighbors moved into the house next door yesterday. ('to take up residence in a new home')
In "Our new neighbors move in yesterday", the last word is the time adverbial yesterday, so the object of the preposition in can be omitted. Of course, in an information question, "into" also can be last word except for an adverbial when its object is questioned by a wh- word: 
Now what kind of trouble has she gotten herself into?
Now what sort of trouble is she in? 

Verbs expressing stationary position take only "on" or "in" with the ordinary meanings of those prepositions.静态动词不加带to的复合介词
If a verb allows the object of the preposition to be omitted, the construction may have an idiomatic meaning. 有些习语省略了介词
The doctor is in his office. 
The doctor is in. ('available for consultation') 

In(to) has two special uses with move.
When "move in" is followed by a purpose clause, it has the sense of "approach".跟目的从句，有接近义
In "The lion moved in for the kill." and "The Police moved in to rescue the hostages inside the building" "in" is part of the verb, so "into" cannot be used; We cannot say: "The lion moved into for the kill."
When "into" is used with move, it functions as an ordinary preposition to convey the idea of moving something from one place to another.
We'll move your brother's old bed into your room. 
 
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship

Against
She leans against the tree.
 
Ahead of
The girl is ahead of the boy.

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十五期——Pronouns 代词
Using Pronouns Clearly

Because a pronoun REFERS BACK to a noun or TAKES THE PLACE OF that noun, you have to use the correct pronoun so that your reader clearly understands which noun your pronoun is referring to.代词的关键就是要能够清晰地找到指代物，保持单复、人称一致
Therefore, pronouns should:

1. Agree in number
Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)
NOTE: Many people find the construction "his or her" wordy, so if it is possible to use a plural noun as your antecedent so that you can use "they" as your pronoun, it may be wise to do so. If you do use a singular noun and the context makes the gender clear, then it is permissible to use just "his" or "her" rather than "his or her." 

2. Agree in person第一、二、三人称不可混乱

3. Refer clearly to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.前文提过，若指代的名词是隐含的、没有直接说出来过的，那么最好就用此名词，而不要用代词。
NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)
NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)
NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)

Pronoun Case 可用做主语、宾语、所有格
The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do not change form.
Some problems of case:
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want. 检查主语对应动词的格：主格还是宾格。

Not: Us men like the coach.
(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:比较句中，把后半截的省略成分补完，以决定代词是主格或宾格
He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
3. In formal and semiformal writing:


Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
Formal: It is I.原来正式文体是这么写的
Informal: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: Who am I talking to?

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十六期——Subject/Verb Agreement 主谓一致
Making Subjects and Verbs Agree

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
She and her friends are at the fair.用and连接的多个名词作主语，用复数谓语

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
The book or the pen is in the drawer.用or或nor链接的多个单数名词作主语，用单数谓语

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.用or或nor链接的多个单数与复数名词作主语，谓语就近
The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.

4. Doesn't适用单数主语，Don't 适用复数，但 I and you用don't.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.辨别句子的真正主语
One of the boxes is open。

6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.单数

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.因为它们是以s结尾的单数名词，但dollars例外
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)复数意义的名词，用复数谓语，但若被量词修饰，就跟数量词。

9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.集合名词看当时的意义来决定单数或复数谓语
In some cases, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using a collective noun.

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十七期——Verb Tenses

Sequence of Tenses
严格说来，英语中只有现在时和过去时，其余诸时态皆为衍生物。嗯时态相对来说是比较熟悉的。

The future perfect tense designates action that will have been completed at a specified time in the future.亦即将来完成时的句子中要出现明确的时间成分。（To express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future）
1. Saturday I will finish my housework. (simple future)
2. By Saturday noon, I will have finished my housework. (future perfect)
Notice: There can be only one "would have" action group in a sentence.即不能二次虚拟

Active Verb Tenses

Simple Present
1，Present or Action Condition        General Truths。 2，Non-action; Habitual Action        Future Time 用一般现在时态

Future
With will/won't — Activity or event that will or won't exist or happen in the future。        With going to — future in relation to circumstances in the present be going to是有计划的将来时

Verb Tense Consistency

Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense

General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or state is the same.不要轻易转换时态，会把人弄糊涂的。
Examples:
1. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers and streams.
Contains is present tense, referring to a current state; washed down is past, but should be present (wash down) because the minerals are currently continuing to wash down.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.


General guideline: Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or state to another.要表示动作或状态的时间变换时才转换时态。
Examples:
1. The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves.
Love is present tense, referring to a current state (they still love it now;) built is past, referring to an action completed before the current time frame (they are not still building it.)

Controlling Shifts in a Paragraph or Essay

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.
先确定全局时态，再用细节的时态变换协助文章表达。
Hints:
•Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).引用他人的观点用过去时。若描述的是人所共知的历史事实，好像也可以用一般现在时吧，比如拿破仑战败。
•Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to describe action in a literary work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic effect, you may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were happening now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative, making shifts only where appropriate. 小说戏剧等非现实的故事都用现在时，若意欲修辞，也可用现在时叙述过去的事件。
•Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

Using Other Tenses in Conjunction with Simple Tenses
采用何种时态需要结合上下文来确定。


It is possible to imagine a narrative based on a future time frame as well, for example, the predictions of a psychic or futurist. If the example narrative above were spoken by a psychic。若采用一般将来时作为全段的基调，要注意每句话都是将来时态的，如：
By the time Tom notices the doorbell, it will have already rung three times. As usual, he will have been listening to loud music on his stereo. He will turn the stereo down and will stand up to answer the door. An old man will be standing on the steps. The man will begin to speak slowly, asking for directions.

General Guidelines for Use of Perfect Tenses

The present perfect is also used to narrate action that began in real life in the past but is not completed, that is, may continue or may be repeated in the present or future.现在完成时表示完成，但并没有说不会再做——这个动作可能将来还会发生
For example: "I have run in four marathons" (implication: "so far... I may run in others").
This usage is distinct from the simple past, which is used for action that was completed in the past without possible continuation or repetition in the present or future.一般过去时的动作则不会再重复或继续了
For example: "Before injuring my leg, I ran in four marathons" (implication: "My injury prevents me from running in any more marathons").

Verbs with Helpers

3. Present Continuous Action (Present Progressive)
Is + [VERB+ing] shows action that is in progress now or is going to happen in the future.be doing式的一般进行时表将来


5. Other helping verbs (Modals)
[HELPER] + [VERB], such as CAN, WILL, SHALL, MAY, COULD, WOULD, SHOULD, MIGHT, MUST keep the same form. They do not change to agree with the subject.could, would, should不表示过去时态，而是情态动词

plukaUID: 2721764

谢谢bela支持~
继续继续~

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十八期——Parts of Speech Overview


对句中组成如名词介词代词等的简单介绍，无甚新要点。

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together.连词前后都是完整的句子结构And, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet can all act as conjunctions.

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0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第三十九期——Quotation Marks
Using Quotation Marks引号在puctuation一节讲过，这里拿出来单独论述。内容不少，也了解得更多了

The primary function of quotation marks is to set off and represent exact language (either spoken or written) that has come from somebody else. 引号内部的引语一定是完全、绝对符合“原著”的，所以如果记性不好的话，还是用间接引语吧~The quotation mark is also used to designate speech acts in fiction and sometimes poetry. Since you will most often use them when working with outside sources, successful use of quotation marks is a practical defense against accidental plagiarism and an excellent practice in academic honesty. 加上引号，远离剽窃。

Direct Quotations


2.Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence. 当直接引语是完整的句子时，大写其首字母。不是完整的句子就不用；若一个完整引语句子被分开，后半句句首不要大写。
Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, "The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes."
"I didn't see an actual alien being," Mr. Johnson said, "but I sure wish I had."

5. In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to also realize that when you are using MLA or some other form of documentation, this punctuation rule may change. 引语（无论完整与否）都在后引号之内有逗号或句号——该规则可能随不同地区的习惯而改变，不过这么用肯定是没错啦

When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to "thus," "so," or "just as that." The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.如果引语内容包含错误，照原样引过来，用括号和斜体sic表示这是原话。
Mr. Johnson says of the experience, "it's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic]." 

6. Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. 引语最好短小且分散于文章各处，免得让人觉得你除了照抄外没干啥事

Indirect Quotations

Indirect quotations are not exact wordings but rather rephrasings or summaries of another person's words. In this case, it is not necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect quotations still require proper citations, and you will be commiting plagiarism if you fail to do so.间接引语也要注明出处，以防被控剽窃。

when to use direct quotations versus indirect quotations
选择引语形式之前要搞清楚自己的目的
Use direct quotations when the source material uses language that is particularly striking or notable. Do not rob such language of its power by altering it.
Use an indirect quotation (or paraphrase) when you merely need to summarize key incidents or details of the text. 
Use direct quotations when the author you are quoting has coined a term unique to their research and relevant within your own paper. 

Extended Rules for Using Quotation Marks
approved methods for altering quotes for either clarity or succinctness

Quote length
If the original quote is too long and you feel not all the words are necessary in your own paper, you may omit part of the quote. Replace the missing words with an ellipsis. 用省略号代替不想引用的部分，但注意省略后句子语法结构完整、句意不变。

Quote context
If the context of your quote might be unclear, you may add a few words to provide clarity. Enclose the added material in brackets.用括号注明自己的解释部分，让引语意思清晰。

Quotations within a Quotation
Use single quotation marks to enclose quotes within another quotation.引语嵌套，内层用单引号外层用双引号：注意引号后半截可能是’”。

Quotation Marks Beyond Quoting
Quotation marks may additionally be used to indicate words used ironically or with some reservation.引号也可以用来表修辞等

Additional Punctuation Rules when Using Quotation Marks 

Put commas and periods within quotation marks, except when a parenthetical reference follows.若没有附加说明，逗号和句号放在引号内。
He said, "I may forget your name, but I never forget a face."
Mullen, criticizing the apparent inaction, writes, "Donahue's policy was to do nothing" (24).有附加说明，放在引号外。

Place colons and semicolons outside closed quotation marks.分号和冒号在引号外。

Place a question mark or exclamation point within closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the quotation itself. Place the punctuation outside the closing quotation marks if the punctuation applies to the whole sentence.问号和叹号若是引语自带的，置于引号内；是针对整个句子的，置于引号外。
Does Dr. Lim always say to her students, "You must work harder"?

Quotation Marks with Fiction, Poetry, and Titles 

Block Quotations
引语长度超过四行时，用block quotation. 该情况最可能发生于引语小说之类，但其实什么内容都能这么用。block quotation与正文主体分离，用不着引号但格式有要求。Indent one inch from the main margin (the equivalent of two half-inch paragraph indentations) and begin your quote. Maintain double spacing throughout, but you do not need to use quotation marks. AW和科技论文一般用不上（也就是说，看来俺用不上了~）

Quoting Poetry 
引用单句没啥特别的，引用多句的时候不用引格式，只需在断行处以斜杠标记（注意原有的标点如逗号仍保留），若长于三行，就用block quotation吧。
Some writers prefer to set off two-line verse quotations for emphasis. Quote the poem line by line as it appears on the original page. Do not use quotation marks, and indent one inch from the left margin.有些人喜欢用block，能强调。
In his poem, "Mending Wall," Robert Frost writes: "Something there is that doesn't love a wall,/ that send the frozen-ground-swell under it."

Writing Dialogue
用逗号，而不是冒号，提示对话。如果话语内容长达几段，在每段的开头用半个引号，末段的结尾用上另外半个，中间段结尾不加。

Quotation Marks with Titles
参考punctuation一期

Underlining or italics are used for the titles of long pieces or works that contain smaller sections.

1."Mary is trying hard in school this semester," her father said. 不在句尾，用了逗号而非句号
6.Flannery O'Connor probably got the title of one of her stories from the words of the old popular song, "A Good Man Is Hard to Find."句号在引号内，引号外不需要再加句号。

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呼，总算快做完了~
0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第四十期——Transitions 过渡
Writing Transitions

By referencing in one paragraph the relevant material from previous ones, writers can develop important points for their readers. 关键是突出内容的关系，明了脉络，显示背景和重点。
It is a good idea to continue one paragraph where another leaves off (instances where this is especially challenging may suggest that the paragraphs don't belong together at all.) Picking up key phrases from the previous paragraph and highlighting them in the next can create an obvious progression for readers. Many times, it only takes a few words to draw these connections. Instead of writing transitions that could connect any paragraph to any other paragraph, write a transition that could only connect one specific paragraph to another specific paragraph.
要点就是后段首句里要出现前段的关键词。

Transitional Devices

用于使内容连贯意思条理清晰，让读者能理解或预计文章内容。There are several types of transitional devices, and each category leads readers to make certain connections or assumptions. Some lead readers forward and imply the building of an idea or thought, while others make readers compare ideas or draw conclusions from the preceding thoughts.

Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue readers in a given way.嗯，草草收集的transitions大全里很全的。

To Add:and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.)
To Compare:whereas,一直想用，一直不会用，囧，要学会啊 but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless,这个用得还不顺手 on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true
To Prove:because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides,这几个也是prove啊 indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is
To Show Exception:yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
To Show Time:immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and then
To Repeat:in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted
To Emphasize:definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,断然地、肯定地 naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, 永久地eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation
To Show Sequence:first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
To Give an Example:for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration
To Summarize or Conclude:in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole

plukaUID: 2721764

0910AW SPECTACULAR 之【SU & SY SO】第四十一期——Phrasal& idioms 习语
Overview of Two-Part (Phrasal) Verbs (idioms)

•drop off - decline gradually 
•drop off(2) - fall asleep While doing his homework, he dropped off. 

•drop off(3) - stop and give something to someone 
Would you drop this off at the post office? 
•drop out - cease to participate 
After two laps, the runner dropped out. 

•Inseparable 动词和介词不可分开
get around (meaning: to evade) 
Correct: She always gets around the rules.

•Intransitive 不及物
catch on (meaning: to understand) 
Correct: After I explained the math problem, she began to catch on.
Incorrect: She began to catch on the math problem. (catch on cannot take a direct object in this meaning.)
Correct: She began to catch on to the math problem. (the word to makes the math problem an indirect object, which is acceptable in this meaning.) 


习语讨厌之处在于没有规律，呜呼。

但一个动词接两个介词的结构一般为inseparable的。清洗、整理类动词+off一般指清理表面，out指清理内部。
剩下的那堆习语表自己过一遍，不贴了。

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于是，啊总算把作业给赶完了！