1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by kulewy531（为了未来，为了永恒）（新）

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【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（16）Metaphors

本帖最后由 草木也知愁 于 2009-4-16 17:14 编辑 适量的比喻对于行文的明晰很有帮助 同时，还能增加文章的亮点 ETS在对官方范文的comments中也多次指出这点 大家学习一下这些 争取能在自己的文章中应用一些 但是，注意，一定要适量 always remembering that: from GRE reading passage Under the force of this view，it was perhaps inevitable that the art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being regarded as of questionable worth （because although it might be both a source of pleasure and a means to urge people to right action，it might also be a means to distort truth and a source of misguided action）to the status of being wholly condemned. Using Metaphors in Creative Writing What is a metaphor? The term metaphor meant in Greek "carry something across" or "transfer," which suggests many of the more elaborate definitions below: · a comparison between two things, based on resemblance or similarity, without using "like" or "as" most dictionaries and textbooks · the act of giving a thing a name that belongs to something else Aristotle · the transferring of things and words from their proper signification to an improper similitude for the sake of beauty, necessity, polish, or emphasis Diomedes（[希神]狄俄墨得斯） · a device for seeing something in terms of something else Kenneth Burke（ (May 5, 1897 – November 19, 1993) was a major American literary theorist and philosopher. Burke's primary interests were in rhetoric and aesthetics. ） · understanding and experiencing one thing in terms of another John Searle（John Rogers Searle (born July 31, 1932 in Denver, Colorado) is an American philosopher and presently the Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. ） · a simile contracted to its smallest dimensions Joseph Priestly（Joseph Priestley (13 March 1733 (Old Style) – 6 February 1804) was an 18th-century English theologian, Dissenting clergyman, natural philosopher, educator, and political theorist who published over 150 works. ） duo Related terms extended or telescoping metaphor: A sustained metaphor. The teacher descended upon the exams, sank his talons（手, 爪） into their pages, ripped（撕,） the answers to shreds（碎片, 破布）, and then, perching in his chair, began to digest. implied metaphor: A less direct metaphor. John swelled and ruffled （滋扰）his plumage (versus John was a peacock（孔雀) mixed metaphor: The awkward, often silly use of more than one metaphor at a time. To be avoided! The movie struck a spark that massaged the audience's conscience. dead metaphor: A commonly used metaphor that has become over time part of ordinary language. tying up loose ends, a submarine sandwich, a branch of government, and most clichés simile: A comparison using "like" or "as" Her face was pale as the moon. Metonym（换喻词）: The substitution of one term for another with which it is commonly associated or closely related. the pen is mightier than the sword, the crown (referring to a Queen or King), hands (referring to workers who use their hands), Synecdoche（提喻法：一种修辞方法，以局部代表整体（如用手 代表 水手 ），以整体代表局部（如用 法律 代表 警官 ），以特殊代表一般）: The substitution of a part for the whole or vice versa (a kind of metonym). give us this day our daily bread dead metaphor 用起来比较保险，适合GRE考试，还可以show下自己的英文水平。其他的感觉还是不要乱用，意思表达如果不准确，很影响文章的客观性 Why use metaphors? · They enliven ordinary language. People get so accustomed to using the same words and phrases over and over, and always in the same ways, that they no longer know what they mean. Creative writers have the power to make the ordinary strange and the strange ordinary, making life interesting again. · They are generous to readers and listeners; they encourage interpretation. When readers or listeners encounter a phrase or word that cannot be interpreted literally, they have to think--or rather, they are given the pleasure of interpretation. If you write "I am frustrated" or "The air was cold" you give your readers nothing to do--they say "so what?" On the other hand, if you say, "My ambition was Hiroshima, after the bombing," your readers can think about and choose from many possible meanings. · They are more efficient and economical than ordinary language; they give maximum meaning with a minimum of words. By writing "my dorm is a prison," you suggest to your readers that you feel as though you were placed in solitary, you are fed lousy food, you are deprived of all of life's great pleasures, your room is poorly lit and cramped--and a hundred other things, that, if you tried to say them all, would probably take several pages. · They create new meanings; they allow you to write about feelings, thoughts, things, experiences, etc. for which there are no easy words; they are necessary. There are many gaps in language. When a child looks at the sky and sees a star but does not know the word "star," she is forced to say, "Mommy, look at the lamp in the sky!" Similarly, when computer software developers created boxes on the screen as a user interface, they needed a new language; the result was windows. In your poems, you will often be trying to write about subjects, feelings, etc. so complex that you have no choice but to use metaphors. · They are a sign of genius. Or so says Aristotle in Poetics: "[T]he greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor." It is "a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars." Creative ways to use metaphors Most books give rather boring examples of metaphors such as my father is a bear or the librarian was a beast. However, in your poetry (and fiction for that matter) you can do much more than say X is Y, like an algebraic formula. Definitely play with extended metaphors (see above) and experiment with some of the following, using metaphors... as verbs The news that ignited his face snuffed out her smile. as adjectives and adverbs Her carnivorous pencil carved up Susan's devotion. as prepositional phrases The doctor inspected the rash with a vulture's eye. as appositives or modifiers On the sidewalk was yesterday's paper, an ink-stained sponge. 在小处（个别用词）用比喻比较适合GRE作文，这样可以给文章增加一点灵动，又不破坏整体的严肃性。 Examples Scratching at the window with claws of pine, the wind wants in. Imogene Bolls, "Coyote Wind" What a thrill--my thumb instead of an onion. The top quite gone except for a sort of hinge of skin....A celebration this is. Out of a gap a million soldiers run, redcoats every one. Sylvia Plath, "Cut" The clouds were low and hairy in the skies, like locks blown forward in the gleam of eyes. Robert Frost, "Once by the Pacific" Little boys lie still, awake wondering, wondering delicate little boxes of dust. James Wright, "The Undermining of the Defense Economy"

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不知道为什么旧帖还是有问题！只好重开一个，斑竹们不要见怪啊！

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修改后的ISSUE13
ISSUE13

Many of the world's lesser-known languages are being lost as fewer and fewer people speak them. The governments of countries in which these languages are spoken should act to prevent such languages from becoming extinct.

Issue 13
        In this era of extensive commercialization and rapid globalization, languages which are lesser-known and have decreasing speakers are being irretrievably lost, as common official languages such as English, French, and German become more widespread and dominant. But, for the best interest of the development of the whole world, a great diversity of languages is inevitably needed. The world should work together to prevent those minorities from going extinct.
        To explain the topic more clearly, one should first give a precise definition of the phrase “the extinction of a language”. Strictly speaking, “extinction” means the language has disappeared completely to such an extent that all its native speakers have died and its written records can no longer be decoded by others. But, in a more broad sense, we can describe a language as extinct if it has no more use in everyday life. The most prominent example of the former case is the ancient Maya language, and Latin obviously belongs to the latter. At present, the condition is that most lesser-known languages are disappearing to the same degree as Maya which sends out an alerting signal of loss of culture embedded in these languages.
        Although lesser-known languages seem to be out of use in major social activities, yet, for those native speakers, they give them their own cultural background. If a nation wants to preserve its independence, it must preserve its traditional culture at the very first. Otherwise, it will lose itself in the waves of globalization.
On a larger scale, other nations benefit from one nations’ unique culture. Exotic ideas always tend to broaden one’s eyes and give him important inspirations. This is particularly true for artists. Kublai Khan, one of the most famous poems written by Coleridge who is a European, is based on a dream of a Mongolia King. In this way, cultural diversity provides serves as an inexhaustible fountain for new ideas.
Furthermore, diversity, in the aspect of the globe, keeps the whole system function well. One can easily recognize its importance by inspecting the natural eco-system, the structure of which is similar. In eco-biology there is a fundamental principle that the more species an eco-system holds, the more stability it has when confronted impacts from outside. As an example, the farm eco-system，which needs human beings to take care of, is much feebler than the rain forest eco-system, which can evolve  automatically. Therefore, diversity is always needed to keep a harmonious world, and the human society runs in the same way.
        In the light of this concept, it is the whole world, not certain countries, which is responsible for protecting lesser-known languages from extinction. In reality, countries which have endangered languages are probably those which have a very small population and limited financial support such as countries in the Pacific Ocean or in the Africa. However, protecting disappearing language demands so much input of resources and offers so little return in short term, thereby, relying solely on those countries which have lesser-known languages are not practical. Probably, an international language-protecting organization is necessary which is entirely not uncommon in this globalizing world.
        In conclusion, protection of a losing language is not only protecting the language itself but also protecting a unique culture, which is concerning the future of the world. It is a task that needs to be taken seriously.

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【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）-（11）

第11讲 如何写结论
Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！） and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
A conclusion should
•        stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
•        give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
•        leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
总而言之，就是要升华主体（不能简单重复，也不能另起炉灶）
Suggestions
•        Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.
Play the "So What" Game. If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:
You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.
Friend: So what?
You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.
Friend: Why should anybody care?
You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.
You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.
升华的方法：在个体和集体的层面上追问文章结论的意义

•        Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
o        Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
•        Redirect your readers
o        Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.
•        Create a new meaning
o        You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
与第一点有重复之嫌
•        Point to broader implications.
For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.
可与第二点整合为，即从另一个（一般更加广阔或更贴近实践的）层面审视文章的主体
升华的方式：1.整合原文，塑造一个整体形象 2.从另一个层面审视文章的主体
Strategies
•        Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
Example
Introduction
From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.
Conclusion
I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）
为了呼应而不重复，一般在游记等顺序感强的文章中使用。
•        Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.
Example
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.
•        Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
Example
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）
•        Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
Posing questions:（提出问题）（改换到作者自己看问题的角度），Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）（改换到读者角度）和Looking to the future:（展望未来）（改换到未来的角度）可归为改变角度一类
Example
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?
Strategies to Avoid
•        Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
•        Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
•        Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
•        Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
•        Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
•        Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.        The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
2.        The "Sherlock Holmes: Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" her with your main idea, much like a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.
3.        The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero. （避免喊话，这是中国人的写作习惯之一）
4.        The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

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第10讲学习体会
1．        如何使用论据论证？
（１）        Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, and then add to it with ideas of your own.
（２）        Present evidence that contradicts your stance（position） in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
（３）        Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel（专门讨论小组） discussing your proposition
（４）        Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim

联想：evidence有三类1.Something you feel right(日常经验所得) 2.something experts say（有权威性的） 3.somthing logical（逻辑上正确的）



举例：
Weak Use of Evidence
1)        Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content
缺陷：论证和题目结合不紧密，不是论据无关，而是作者没有表现这种合理的关系在哪里，其实就是却一句话或者是一个逻辑连接词的问题．

Stronger Use of Evidence
2)        Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim
大家其实可以看出来这段的论证好在哪里：划线的部分首先是首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子，让你知道你在读什么，然后就是后边的几乎每个句子都有逻辑的连接词汇连接了起来．
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence

Strong use 的本质在于补充例子与论点的逻辑关系（陈述例子成立的前提和对例子的主观解读），好处是加长和扩展篇幅

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1)        Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
重要！例证的弱点就在与一般性不强
2)        Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
不一定！有些显而易见的论断不需要例子，还有一些可以通过逻辑论证得出
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
关乎文章的流畅
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
容易做到，例子本身就有很强的直观性
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
难做到，需要水平，尤其是在模板化的文章中
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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第九讲体会
段落内部的关系

一、段落的基本概念：
１．        段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
        一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
        一个合理的逻辑顺序
        没有无关细节
             文章的从上到下三层结构
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.

２．        段落的长短问题：
首先原因一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
        但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
        过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
           感觉这个要看经验了，做好不容易，做差也不容易
一、        段落的组成结构：
１．        The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２．        Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３．        The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。

段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before.  Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors.  Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,划双线的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.

二、        段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：

•        Orient your reader to the subject.
•        Tie your ideas together.
•        Take it easy through technically dense passages.
•        Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
１．        为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them, not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.
２．怎么做？
Whenever you introduce a new idea, your readers will appreciate definitions, examples and comparisons with things they already know. They will feel more comfortable with your new information if they have a familiar reference to hang on to. Three ways to do this are with orienting words and phrases, by letting the old amplify the new, and by adding explanatory words and phrases, where necessary.
（１）        USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
•        of course
•        as you know
•        until now
•        obviously
•        normally
•        previously
•        everyone is familiar with
•        remember that

（２）        LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：

As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
Isn't this version much more informative than one that would begin by listing the undesirable characteristics of the old machines, then told you what the latest ones are like? How often do you begin your news with a long historical background? Such background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.

（３）        ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：

Often, when you are introducing new ideas, you will have to expand and clarify them with definitions and explanatory material. Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
To decide how much explanatory material you need, you have to form a clear picture of your audience and how familiar they are with what you're saying. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
文章如同做证明题要从已知条件出发，推出未知结论，更进一步，还要讨论已知结果与原来条件的关系才算把问题完全说清楚

三、        段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
        Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
        Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
        Connection－适当的连接句子

（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Even though the connections between your sentences may be clear to you, you can't count on your readers to supply those links. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit. If it doesn't create a single idea in your readers' minds, it's not doing its job.

English supplies us with useful linking words called connectives, （逻辑连接词）which form the logical bridges between ideas. If you keep these verbal guideposts in mind and use them as you write, you will almost automatically provide the interrelations among ideas that every reader looks for.
Here is a list of some connectives. Like the subordinating conjunctions, these are the good guys; use them liberally (but correctly and appropriately), and I guarantee that your writing will become more effective. They are hard to overuse.


Connective words that describe relationships:
ALSO         HOWEVER         ALTHOUGH
INCIDENTALLY        THEREFORE        BESIDES
LIKEWISE        THUS        MEANWHILE
MOREOVER        USUALLY        FURTHERMORE
NEXT        WHATEVER        GENERALLY
YET        ACCORDINGLY        NEVERTHELESS
INSTEAD        IN CONTRAST        FOR EXAMPLE




Connectives that give a sense of time:
FIRST         SECONDLY
FINALLY         NOW
ONCE         WHEN
ULTIMATELY         EVENTUALLY
LASTLY        LATER
MEANWHILE        PREVIOUSLY
THEN         SOON
FORMERLY        SOMETIMES
Other Connective phrases:
TO BEGIN WITH        ON THE OTHER HAND
IN BRIEF        IN GENERAL
IN SUMMARY        MORE SPECIFICALLY
INSTEAD OF        IN ADDITION TO
IN OTHER WORDS        ANOTHER WAY TO
FOR THE SAME REASON        NO MATTER WHAT
SUCH A        THAT'S WHAT (WHY)
IN FACT        WHAT'S MORE
IN THE SAME WAY        ON THE CONTRARY
CONVERSELY        AS A RESULT
SUMMING UP        IF SO / NOT
All of these words and phrases link ideas and assure continuity in your writing. (具体的这些连接词我在写作语言里边有更详细的总结)

都是些短小精悍的，客观性强的词语。最好不要用as far as I am concerned之类的又臭又长的词
（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:
TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.
这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:
THIS        THAT
THESE        WHICH
THEIR        HIS
ITS        HER
利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）
For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
If you try to use these connective devices in your own writing, but have difficulty, be suspicious that the ideas that you're trying to link together in a single paragraph are merely a sequence (that is, a catalog) of logically unrelated ideas. Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.

要做到这一点，需要熟练掌握各种抽象名词的使用
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
Another way to tie ideas together is with intensives. Intensives help you emphasize what's important and to set the important apart from the incidental -- a major goal of all scientific and technical writing. Compare the following two sentences, the first without intensives and the second with intensives added:
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives:
ESPECIALLY         AS MUCH AS         EVEN IF/THOUGH
INCREASINGLY        BY FAR        SO...THAT
MORE IMPORTANTLY        HIGHLY        ONLY
PARTICULARLY        IN FACT         VERY
SIGNIFICANTLY        QUITE         SUCH
MOST         UNIQUE        AT ALL
ABOVE ALL        INDEED        IN ANY CASE
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly. Eliminate intensives that are thrown in gratuitously or that don't make a definite contribution by emphasizing an important fact or idea. Littering your writing with intensives where they are not needed makes your writing sound trite and strains your credibility.
Here is an exercise to give you practice linking your ideas together. Add connectives, intensives (from the lists above, or make up your own) and repeated words to the following sentences to make a coherent paragraph:
•        Global Airlines carried three-million passengers last year.
•        They expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada.
•        The new DC-12 aircraft proved more fuel-efficient than the older 737's.
•        Older, unprofitable routes were dropped.
•        Passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing.
•        Only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago.
•        Their record has been accident-free since 1950.
•        Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year.
•        Profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.

强调词本身隐含了强调部分是对原有问题的进一步陈述这一逻辑关系
关于段间和段落的逻辑顺序问题和如何有效论证论点的问题请参见相关总结。

kulewy531UID: 2603031

段落间的关系

一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
说明：本人由于不小心在网站上看到了所谓的ascending order或者是climactic order,然后发现它和我们固有的一些思维由所冲突，我就几乎找遍了能搜到的类似的网站，我搜索到以下论据：
关于权重排序的资料：
        支持论据１：
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
A third common principle of organization is climactic order or order of importance. In this pattern, items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions(转折) would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, and description.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern or organization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention to what is in the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
psychological order的方法很有新意，将来习作一定要试一试，不管是中文还是英文
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include
general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly

        支持论据２：
In a historically-oriented paper (e.g. "The Early Conquests of Alexander the Great"), you might simply want to move the paper along chronologically.

In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…" Ascending or climactic order adds power to a paper by leading the reader into increasing tension, much like an action movie builds to a climax. Resist giving away the most exciting parts of your paper early on – if you use up the good stuff early, you’ll have little left to keep the reader interested in the rest of what you have to say.

不知道有没有这种写作顺序的范文

If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing?
Your outline might look like this:
Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion

You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science   before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation,   you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
Introduction
Is All Science Legitimate?
Yes
          Maybe not
Can We Trust The Scientists?
Yes
Not always
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Risks?
Yes
Maybe not
Conclusion
Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.
Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper (just like leading someone down a winding path creates more confusion than leading the same person down a short city block with sights to see on all sides).  How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings?  You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.  Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.  This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.  See the outlines above for examples of useful ways to do this.

这种使用对比的行文方式我们外教讲过！

        支持论据３：
After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order that is, ascending from least to most important. You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.

        支持论据４：
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.

Ascending order 文章的三种展开方式：Compare and contrast, cause and effect, problem and solution

        反例一：
DECREASING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: when you want to tell your readers that something new has happened and why they should be interested -- then fill them in on the details
INCREASING COMPLEXITY: a sequence that leads your readers gently into a complex subject
STEPS OF A PROCESS: when you want to focus on a process itself, not the end result
A SPATIAL SEQUENCE: when you want your reader to see the way different aspects of your subject are spatially interrelated or lie in contrast
A TEMPORAL SEQUENCE: for emphasizing the time relations among things or events

        反例２：


        反例３：
•        Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors
•        Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
•        There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors
•        A businesslike, courteous, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
•        The writing style flows smoothly
•        The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
        反例４：you have for each in a logical order and one that most effectively organizes your argument:
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect

        反例5：
A possible outline template for an analytical paper
This is for an essay that happens to have three main answers, again listed in ascending order as in our argumentative paper template. How you order them will entirely depend on which ones you feel, given all the evidence, are the most or least convincing. If we take our research question example from before, perhaps the first answer would be from researchers who believe music has no effect on studying, the second about studies that show how detrimental it is, and the third one pointing out the positive aspects. In your conclusion, you might point out how certain conditions (e.g., absence of lyrics, tempo, volume, type of studying student is engaged in etc.) appear to be incredibly important.
  
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
•        What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
•        Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")
•  _________________________
•        (You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
• Answer #3 = _________________________
•        one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
•        strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
•        another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
•        best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
•        why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
•        sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
•        critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
•        look at the implications

通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１．        并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２．        实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -        Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions:  The Parts of an Essay

A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.  

It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim.)

"What?"  The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.  If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.

"How?"  A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.

"Why?"  Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular

站在读者的角度看问题，使文章更有说服力


.
一、        文章地图法：
Mapping an Essay

Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in understanding your idea.

Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:

*   State your thesis in a sentence or two, and then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.

*   Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)

*   Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . .” Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.  

Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what, how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.

Essay maps 与 3W法相符相成，核心都是把握读者心理。
与模板式写作相比，ascending order更合乎人的心理活动规律，但是也更难把握

注意不要写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").

kulewy531UID: 2603031

【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（7）段落TS和逻辑顺序标志词

Topic Sentences and Signposting


        Topic sentences and signposts make an essay's claims clear to a reader. Good essays contain both. Topic sentences  reveal the main point of a paragraph. They show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay's thesis, telegraph the point of a paragraph, and tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows. Topic sentences also establish their relevance right away, making clear why the points they're making are important to the essay's main ideas. They argue rather than report. Signposts, as their name suggests, prepare the reader for a change in the argument's direction. They show how far the essay's argument has progressed vis-ˆ-vis the claims of the thesis.  

        Topic sentences and signposts occupy a middle ground in the writing process. They are neither the first thing a writer needs to address (thesis and the broad strokes of an essay's structure are); nor are they the last (that's when you attend to sentence-level editing and polishing). Topic sentences and signposts deliver an essay's structure and meaning to a reader, so they are useful diagnostic tools to the writer—they let you know if your thesis is arguable—and essential guides to the reader.

Forms of Topic Sentences

Sometimes topic sentences are actually two or even three sentences long. If the first makes a claim, the second might reflect on that claim, explaining it further. Think of these sentences as asking and answering two critical questions: How do the phenomenons you're discussing operate? Why does it operate as it does?

There's no set formula for writing a topic sentence. Rather, you should work to vary the form your topic sentences take. Repeated too often, any method grows wearisome. Here are a few approaches.

１．Complex sentences.  Topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph frequently combine with a transition from the previous paragraph. This might be done by writing a sentence that contains both subordinate and independent clauses, as in the example below.（利用复合句，联系上下文的作用）

     Although Young Woman with a Water Pitcher depicts an unknown, middle-class woman at an ordinary task, the image is more than "realistic"; the painter [Vermeer] has imposed his own order upon it to strengthen it.  
Jan Vermeer：巴洛克时期的荷兰画家，由于当时奢华风的风靡。维梅尔的朴素之风不被认可，以致大多数的画都是在死后卖出的，但他善于利用光影的色彩细微变化作画，可谓与现在的光学照相机相比，代表作有《倒牛奶的女人》，《戴珍珠耳环的少女》等等，可惜英年早逝，还欠下了一大笔债留给了妻儿，直到很久以后才被人发觉他的画的艺术价值。
This sentence employs a useful principle of transitions: always move from old to new information.  The subordinate clause (from "although" to "task") recaps（翻新） information from previous paragraphs; The independent clauses (starting with "the image" and "the painter") introduce the new information—a claim about how the image works ("more than Realistic'") and why it works as it does (Vermeer "strengthens" the image by "imposing order").  

２．Questions.  （提问）Questions, sometimes in pairs, also make good topic sentences (and signposts).  Consider the following: "Does the promise of stability justify this unchanging hierarchy?" We may fairly assume that the paragraph or section that follows will answer the question. Questions are by definition a form of inquiry, and thus demand an answer. Good essays strive for this forward momentum.

３．Bridge sentences.  Like questions, "bridge sentences" (the term is John Trimble's) make an excellent substitute for more formal topic sentences. Bridge sentences indicate both what came before and what comes next (they "bridge" paragraphs) without the formal trappings of multiple clauses: "But there is a clue to this puzzle."  

４．Pivots.  Topic sentences don't always appear at the beginning of a paragraph. When they come in the middle, they indicate that the paragraph will change direction, or "pivot." This strategy is particularly useful for dealing with counter-evidence: a paragraph starts out conceding a point or stating a fact ("Psychologist Sharon Hymer uses the term Narcissistic friendship' to describe the early stage of a friendship like the one between Celie and Shug（the color purple中的两个主人公）"); After following up on this initial statement with evidence, it then reverses direction and establishes a claim ("Yet ... this narcissistic stage of Celie and Shug's relationship is merely a transitory one. Hymer herself concedes . . . "). The pivot always needs a signal, a word like "but," "yet," or "however," or a longer phrase or sentence that indicates an about-face. It often needs more than one sentence to make its point.

Questions和pivots的方法还没有试过，下次争取试试

Signposts

Signposts（路标、点题） operate as topic sentences for whole sections in an essay. (In longer essays, sections often contain more than a single paragraph.) They inform a reader that the essay is taking a turn in its argument: delving into a related topic such as a counter-argument, stepping up its claims with a complication, or pausing to give essential historical or scholarly background. Because they reveal the architecture of the essay itself, signposts remind readers of what the essay's stakes are: what it's about, and why it's being written.  

Signposting can be accomplished in a sentence or two at the beginning of a paragraph or in whole paragraphs that serve as transitions between one part of the argument and the next. The following example comes from an essay examining how a painting by Monet, The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train, challenges Zola's declarations about Impressionist art. The student writer wonders whether Monet's Impressionism is really as devoted to avoiding "ideas" in favor of（支持） direct sense impressions as Zola's claims would seem to suggest. This is the start of the essay's third section:
Zola 法国作家和批评家，他在小说中是自然主义的主要倡议者，作品包括二十本的系列小说《鲁贡玛卡家族》 （1871-1893年），还有一封为阿尔弗列德•德雷福斯辩护的公开信“我控诉”(1898年）
     It is evident in this painting that Monet found his Gare Saint-Lazare motif（主题） fascinating at the most fundamental level of the play of light as well as the loftiest level of social relevance. Arrival of a Train explores both extremes of expression. At the fundamental extreme, Monet satisfies the Impressionist objective of capturing the full-spectrum effects of light on a scene.

The writer signposts this section in the first sentence, reminding readers of the stakes of the essay itself with the simultaneous references to sense impression ("play of light") and intellectual content ("social relevance"). The second sentence follows up on this idea, while the third serves as a topic sentence for the paragraph. The paragraph after that starts off with a topic sentence about the "cultural message" of the painting, something that the signposting sentence predicts by not only reminding readers of the essay's stakes but also, and quite clearly, indicating what the section itself will contain.  （最后这一句真是长啊，看了半天才似懂非懂）

体会：段落的TS要时刻注意“点题”的使用，以使文章更紧凑

kulewy531UID: 2603031

文章的主题－Thesis：
一、什么是主题句？
注意全文所说的主题就是开头段中的全文主题句，不是各个分论点段的段TS.
要区分Thesis statement和Topic sentence！前面简称T,后面简称TS.
What is a thesis?
A thesis statement declares what you believe and what you intend to prove. （主题句说明你的观点和要论证的论点）A good thesis statement makes the difference between a thoughtful research project and a simple retelling of facts.（事实和论据不是主题句！）
A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a writer are setting out to tell them. The kind of thesis that your paper will have will depend on the purpose of your writing.
A good tentative thesis will help you focus your search for information. But don't rush! You must do a lot of background reading before you know enough about a subject to identify key or essential questions. You may not know how you stand on an issue until you have examined the evidence. You will likely begin your research with a working, preliminary or tentative thesis which you will continue to refine until you are certain of where the evidence leads.
The thesis statement is typically located at the end of your opening paragraph. (The opening paragraph serves to set the context for the thesis.) 注意，这里明确的指出了，主题句（thesis statement）必须出现在开头段（opening paragraph）的最后！
主题句一般出现在开头的最后一两句．这个规定我搜索了不下２０个网站，都是这样要求的，可见，这个规定大家最后遵守，我想，阅卷人一定会在你的Introduction里边的最后一两句找你的Thesis，你就是要确保他在这里找到！
Remember, your reader will be looking for your thesis. Make it clear, strong, and easy to find.使主题句清晰！
对于AW，主题句属于：
Argumentative Thesis Statements
In an argumentative paper, you are making a claim about a topic and justifying this claim with reasons and evidence. This claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation（也就是说，写T的时候需要到考虑反对意见）. However, this claim must be a statement that people could possibly disagree with, because the goal of your paper is to convince your audience that your claim is true based on your presentation of your reasons and evidence. An argumentative thesis statement will tell your audience:
•        your claim or assertion
•        the reasons/evidence that support this claim
•        the order in which you will be presenting your reasons and evidence
Example: Barn owls'(仓鸮xiāo) nests should not be eliminated from barns because barn owls help farmers by eliminating insect and rodent pests.
A reader who encountered this thesis would expect to be presented with an argument and evidence that farmers should not get rid of barn owls when they find them nesting in their barns.
Questions to ask yourself when writing an argumentative thesis statement:
•        What is my claim or assertion?
•        What are the reasons I have to support my claim or assertion?
•        In what order should I present my reasons?

二、什么是好的主题句的属性？
Attributes of a good thesis:
•        It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree. A strong thesis is provocative; it takes a stand and justifies the discussion you will present.
•        It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
•        It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything about …” Instead of music, think "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about it. （注意，主题不要假，大，空，要具体针对问题！）
•        It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. （我记得是谁又曾经说过assert是个贬义？？所以说，有了根据，再发表意见！）Note: Be flexible. The evidence may lead you to a conclusion you didn't think you'd reach. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
•        It provides the reader with a map to guide him/her through your work.
•        It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments
•        It avoids vague language (like "it seems").
•        It avoids the first person. ("I believe," "In my opinion") （强烈注意，不要使用第一人称！！！！）
•        It should pass the So what? or Who cares? test (Would your most honest friend ask why he should care or respond with "but everyone knows that"?) For instance, "people should avoid driving under the influence of alcohol," would be unlikely to evoke any opposition. （不要说那些大家都知道的废话，要有可质疑性，可辩论性．）
•        附：什么是the So what? or Who cares? test：
The "So What?" Test（写T的时候，要考虑到全文的写作意义）
Whenever you plan on writing a research paper, there is an extremely important point that you must constantly keep in the forefront of your mind--even English teachers frequently mention it as something students fail to do time and time again. What is it? To be sure to choose a topic worth arguing about or exploring. This means to construct a thesis statement or research question about a problem that is still debated, controversial, up in the air.
So arguing that drinking and driving is dangerous-- while you could find a ton of evidence to support your view --would be pretty worthless nowadays. Who would want to read something they already knew? You wouldn't be persuading them of anything and all your work would be pretty meaningless.
What this means is that during the topic-formulating stage and again now, always keep asking "SO WHAT?", "WHO CARES?" or to paraphrase the famous Canadian journalist Barbara Frum: "Tell me something new about something I care about." That will automatically make your paper significant and interesting both for you to write and the reader to study.
总结一下：
主题句的dos and don’ts
Dos:
表明立场，具体，并且中心明确，表明自己的观点和结论，出现在开头段的末尾，同时提示读者作者的行文思路．
Don’ts:
不要说废话，说空话，说大话，不要出现第一人称，不要含糊不清．
公式：
Specific topic + Attitude/Angle/Argument = Thesis
What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis

三、如何检验自己写好的主题句是否合格？

Try these five tests:
•        Does the thesis  inspire a reasonable reader to ask, "How?" or Why?" 吸引读者思考
•        Would a reasonable reader NOT respond with "Duh!" or "So what?" or "Gee, no kidding!" or "Who cares?" 避免出现so what问题
•        Does the thesis  avoid general phrasing and/or sweeping words such as "all" or "none" or "every"? 避免绝对的论调
•        Does the thesis lead the reader toward the topic sentences (the subtopics needed to prove the thesis)? 主题句是否引导了下文的分论点或者段主题？
•        Can the thesis be adequately developed in the required length of the paper or project? 主题句是否可以适合被展开论述？
If you cannot answer "YES" to these questions, what changes must you make in order for your thesis to pass these tests?

下面是一些好的主题句的例子：
E-coli contamination should not happen.

The causes of the Civil War were economic, social, and political.

The Simpsons represents the greatest animated show in the history of television.

The Simpsons treats the issues of ethnicity, family dynamics, and social issues effectively.

Often dismissed because it is animated, The Simpsons treats the issue of ethnicity more powerfully than did the critically praised All In The Family.

Although many parents of teens struggling with body image may blame television models and other such stars, these body issues and their disorders stem back to their daughters' younger days of pigtails and Barbies.

Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s.
好的T要准确使用抽象名词，以达到在抽象（概括全文）与具体（易于辩驳，从而引出全文）间的协调
四、如何写出好的主题句？（思维的步骤）
１．Rank with justification　考虑重要性
•        Most important to least important
•        Least important to most important
2.Contrasts (of perspectives of sources) 对比，考虑流行和反对观点
•        Although newspapers at the time claimed ……, the most significant cause/explanation/reason, etc. is ……
•        While Sb. and Sb. maintains that  ................, more accurately/importantly, etc, # 2's position is the stronger one. (Substitute "most historians" for  So and So and the appropriate person or view or source for #2.)
3.Perception versus reality; 感觉与现实
        Although Turner himself may have believed X, the real causes were Y and Z.
4.Good versus bad reasons:
        Historians generally list six reasons as the cause for X, but among these are four that are valid and two that are not.
５． Cause and Effect: 因果关系
•        Certainly, X was the cause and Y was its effect, but between the two are two other factors of equal importance.
•        Separately the causes would have not necessarily led to a rampage; however, together their effect was inevitably murderous.  
•        Although the effects of the rampage were . . ., the causes were understandable/justifiable/inevitable.
•        The more important effects of Nat Turner's rebellion went beyond those of  the local rampage.
６．Challenge:质疑，否定
Nat Turner's rebellion not a righteous response to the injustice of slavery; it was motivated purely by disturbing psychological issues.   

７．提出系列问题：
•        What should the audience/reader do/feel/believe?  
•        Who are the major players on both/each side and how did they contribute to?  
•        Which are the most important?
•        What was the impact of?  
•        Can I compare? How is X like or unlike Y?  
•        What if?  Can I predict?  
•        How could we solve/improve/design/deal with?
•        Is there a better solution to?
•        How can you defend?
•        What changes would you recommend to?  
•        Was it effective, justified, defensible, warranted?
•        Why did this happen?   Why did it succeed?  Why did it fail?
•        What should be? What are/would be the possible outcomes of?  
•        What are the problems related to?
•        What were the motives behind?  
•        Why are the opponents protesting?  
•        What is my personal response to?
•        What case can I make for?  
•        What is the significance of?
•        Where will the next move(s) occur?  
•        How is this debate likely to affect?
•        What is the value or, what is/are the potential benefit(s) of?
•        What are three/four/five reasons for us to believe?

五、对于主题的头脑风暴：（积累全文的写作素材）
Thesis Brainstorming注意下面的三点：
As you read look for:
•        Interesting contrasts or comparisons or patterns emerging in the information
•        Is there something about the topic that surprises you?
•        Do you encounter ideas that make you wonder why?
•        Does something an "expert" says make you respond, "no way? That can be right!" or "Yes, absolutely. I agree!"
Example of brainstorming a thesis:
Select a topic: television violence and children
Ask an interesting question: What are the effects of television violence on children?
Revise the question into a thesis: Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in preschool children.
Remember this argument is your “preliminary” or “working” thesis. As you read you may discover evidence that may affect your stance. It is okay to revise your thesis!（可以修改自己原来设定的主题，就是说通过对题目的理解和论据的权衡，修改主题以利于论证）
论据：As you write and revise your paper, it's okay to change your thesis statement -- sometimes you don't discover what you really want to say about a topic until you've started (or finished) writing! Just make sure that your "final" thesis statement accurately shows what will happen in your paper.
议论文写作是一个不断分析的的过程，但是改换主题后要注意各个部分（之前和之后）的协调
Create a list of sample questions to guide your research:
•        How many hours of television does the average young child watch per week?
•        How do we identify a "violent" program?
•        Which types of programs are most violent?
•        Are there scientific research studies that have observed children before and after watching violent programs?
•        Are there experts you might contact?
•        Which major groups are involved in investigating this question?
对问题细化分析
六、主题示例：注意下面的例子中前一个不是Thesis而后一个是！
How to Tell a Strong Thesis Sentence from a Weak One.
1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.明确表明立场！
Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase “negative and positive aspects” is vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.留给大家质疑和讨论的余地．
Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguine marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.表达一个主要观点
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and “however.”
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.具体而不抽象
A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you write a paper on hunger, you might say:
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, “world hunger” can’t be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, "many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.
其他例子：
I would like to become a chef when I finish school
Although both chefs and cooks can prepare fine meals, chefs differ from cooks in education, professional commitment, and artistry.
________________________________________
I enjoy white water rafting.
A first water rafting experience can challenge the body and spirit and transform an adolescent into an adult
________________________________________
Men are chauvinists.
Our American family structure encourages men to repress their true feelings, leaving them open to physical, psychological, and relationship difficulties.
________________________________________
Steroid abuse
Steroids, even those legally available, are addictive and should be banned from sports.
________________________________________
Hip hop is the best thing that has happened to music in twenty years
Though many people dismiss hip hop as offensive, hip hop music offers urban youth an important opportunity for artistic expression, and allows them to articulate the poetry of the street.
________________________________________
Many people object to today's violent horror movies.
Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s.

联想：
一般开头段的写法：
1.        Background(用于铺垫背景，目的在于突出主题，兼说明主题的意义)
2.        Thesis（主题的陈述要依托背景,一方面进行具体化，一方面保留适当的概括性）

kulewy531UID: 2603031

第一次作业正式补完了！
心里踏实了不少！
剩下的还有awintro的一半翻译，争取一周之内完成“补完”！
还有，不知草木斑竹什么时候布置第八次作业？

kulewy531UID: 2603031

又是一点以后才睡觉！我困啊！
GRE考试真磨人啊！