【clover】ECO analysis by a08805436

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International

Spending on education

Investing in brains

Should the economic squeeze mean cuts, reform or more spending on education?

Jan 21st 2010 | From The Economist print edition

IN CALIFORNIA the students are revolting—not against their teachers, but in sympathy with them. The state’s governor, Arnold Schwarzenegger, has cut $1 billion, some 20% of the University of California’s budget, as he tries to balance the state’s books. Fees may rise by a fifth, to over $10,000. Support staff are being fired; academics must take unpaid leave.

That is part of a global picture in which cash-strapped governments in the rich world are scrutinizing the nearly 5% of GDP they devote to education. Those budgets may not be the top candidates for the chop, but they cannot fully escape it.

Just before Christmas the British government said it planned to reduce spending on higher education, science and research by £600m ($980m) by 2012-13, just as a chilly job market is sending students scurrying to do more and longer courses. The trade union that represents academic staff claims that up to 30 universities could close with the loss of 14,000 jobs. A House of Commons select committee is investigating the effects on British science.

Even where education spending has not been slashed, it may face a squeeze as short-term stimulus spending ends. America’s $787 billion Recovery Act passed by Congress nearly a year ago included $100 billion for education. More than half is to be spent this year, meaning that the budget will have to be cut in 2011. A study by the Centre for the Study of Education Policy at Illinois State University, published on January 18th, found that half of American states will have spent all of their stimulus money for education by the end of July. Cuts will follow. Privately funded schools and colleges have seen their endowments and donors’ enthusiasm wither.

Elsewhere, the cuts are less severe. Japan, for example, is reducing university spending by a flat 1% over each of the next five years. In France President Nicolas Sarkozy last month announced plans to borrow money to finance a

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貌似长了发不完， 拣重点的内容吧··
shake-up（好词：动摇，骚动，革新，权宜之计，剧变）
cope with
a stonking（夸张性的用词） $115 trillion in extra wealth for its member countries by 2090
think-tank(智囊团)
Even where education spending has not been slashed（大量削减、斜线）
Admittedly, the real picture is more complicated than some in the education lobby would concede.

a08805436UID：2725634

第二次作业~
1 IN THE ten years since hybrid electric vehicles first hit the highways and byways of America（这样压尾韵是头一次见到）, they have come to represent 2.5% of new car sales.
2.here well-heeled(富有的，穿着考究的) early adopters reside
3.wall socket（壁上插座）
4.off-peak（非尖端的，非高峰的）
5.medium-sized hatchback（有仓门式后背的汽车）
6.diesel-powered car（柴油车）
超喜欢这一段话：
Generally speaking, it takes 15-20 years for a new technology to capture 10% of an established market, and a further 10-15 years for it to own 90%. That was the case when steam ships replaced clippers in the mid-19th century, and when petrol-engined taxis took over from horse-drawn cabs in the early 20th century. The same sort of lag occurred with the introduction in the 1970s of emission controls on cars. It takes years for the benefits of volume production to work their way through to the market, and for the supply chain to catch up.

a08805436UID：2725634

Education

Reaching the poorest

Enrolling the world’s poorest children in school needs new thinking, not just more money from taxpayers

Jan 21st 2010 | From The Economist print edition

DAWN has just broken but classes have already started at the village school in Aqualaar, in the Garissa district of Kenya’s arid north-east. Around 30 children, mostly from families of Somali herders, sit listening as an enthusiastic 18-year-old teacher, Ibrahim Hussein, gives an arithmetic lesson. The school is really little more than a sandy patch of ground under an acacia tree. Mr Hussein’s blackboard hangs from its branches. There are no desks or chairs. Pupils follow the lesson by using sticks to scratch numbers in the sand.

The lack of basic kit is only too typical of schools in poor countries. What is unusual, sadly, is that Mr Hussein was actually present and teaching when his school was visited by Kevin Watkins, the lead author of “Reaching the Marginalised”, a new report on education in the developing world by UNESCO.

In India, for example, research by the World Bank reveals that 25% of teachers in government-run schools are away on any given day; of those present(在场的人), only half were actually teaching when the bank’s researchers made spot checks. That is dreadful but not unusual: teacher absenteeism rates are around 20% in rural Kenya, 27% in Uganda and 14% in Ecuador.

Despite the inspiring rhetoric（辞令,言语） that accompanied the adoption of the UN’s “Education For All” goals in 1999, progress has been patchy（分布不均的）.（尽管联合国1999年颁布了令人振奋的全民教育口号，教育的进展是分布不均的） The numbers of unenrolled school-age children dropped by 33m in 2007 compared with 1999. About 15m of that fall came in India alone (though UNESCO says statistics may understate the problem by up to 30%). In countries like Liberia and Nigeria the numbers have hardly budged since 1999.（在利比里亚和尼日利亚这样的国家学生辍学比率几乎没有变动）
Of the 72m still outside school, 45% are in sub-Saharan Africa.

Dig, and it grows still gloomier. Two-thirds of the fall in out-of-school numbers was in 2002-04. Since then, improvement has been scanty; though getting the final chunk of children into school is necessarily the trickiest task as the easy cases are already solved. The hardest job is enrolling children from remote areas, who speak minority languages（少数民族语言）; Or come from cultures that place little value on schooling or (in India) from castes that have been long excluded from it. In more than a third of the 63 countries for which such data were available, more than 30% of young adults have fewer than four years of schooling. Nineteen of these countries are in Africa; the remaining three are Guatemala, Pakistan and Nicaragua.

The UNESCO report shows stark differences（完全的不同） within the 80-plus countries it covers. In Nigeria about 10% of young Yoruba-speaking adults have under four years of schooling; for Hausa-speakers the figure is over 60%. Focusing on ethnicity or regional disparities can be controversial. The governments of Turkey and India are unhappy about the report’s mentions of, respectively, Kurdish girls and low-caste children.

Attending school is only the first step towards education. Even spending time in school does not guarantee good outcomes. In Ghana, for example, sixth-graders sitting a simple multiple-choice reading test scored on average the same mark that would be gained by random guessing. （举这个例子用来说明各地教育的分布不均，说明有些地方教育水平不行）

So what to do? More government spending—as suggested by the report—is unlikely to be a complete answer. Others, such as James Tooley, a British academic who advises a chain of low-cost for-profit schools in India, say private-sector（私营成分，私营部门） education in poor countries routinely outperforms（胜过） the free, taxpayer-subsidised version. Teachers turn up; parents complain if standards slip or pupils flounder.

Another answer may be performance-related pay for teachers.（这个可以在argument的举的其他可能性里面用） Two researchers, Karthik Muralidharan of the University of California at San Diego and Venkatesh Sundararaman of the World Bank, tested that idea in 300 state-run schools in Andhra Pradesh in India. The extra pay was three times more effective in boosting student test scores than spending the same money on teaching materials. When schools are poorly run, studying what is wrong is the most vital subject of all.

1 Despite the inspiring rhetoric（辞令,言语） that accompanied the adoption of the UN’s “Education For All” goals in 1999, progress has been patchy（分布不均的）.（尽管联合国1999年颁布了令人振奋的全民教育口号，教育的进展是分布不均的）
2
In countries like Liberia and Nigeria the numbers have hardly budged since 1999.（在利比里亚和尼日利亚这样的国家学生辍学比率几乎没有变动）
3
stark differences（完全的不同）
4
minority languages（少数民族语言）

5
Attending school is only the first step towards education. Even spending time in school does not guarantee good outcomes. In Ghana, for example, sixth-graders sitting a simple multiple-choice reading test scored on average the same mark that would be gained by random guessing. （举这个例子用来说明各地教育的分布不均，说明有些地方教育水平不行）

6 private-sector（私营成分，私营部门）

7 Another answer may be performance-related pay for teachers.（这个可以在argument的举的其他可能性里面用）

a08805436UID：2725634

Business.view
Swiss peaks and slippery slopes（灾难性的急剧下滑）Morality was on the menu at this year's Davos summitFeb 2nd 2010 | From The Economist online
BANKER-BASHING and worries about the inability of the world’s systems of governance to tackle increasingly pressing global problems（世界的统治阶层对于处理日益增长的全球问题的无能） were the underlying themes（根本主题） of the annual World Economic Forum (WEF), held last week in Davos. The best attempt at setting a more positive agenda for reform, albeit delivered in a speech that struck many in the audience as eccentric, came from Nicolas Sarkozy, the French president, who called for a more “moral” form of capitalism. While everybody seemed to agree with that broad goal, there was little agreement on how to get there.（虽然每个人好像都同意主要的目标，他们对于怎样达到目标却很难达到一致）
Moralising Sarkozy
Davos is usually a time for contrarian（反向的） thinking by the business leaders, politicians, academics and social entrepreneurs who gather there. This year seemed only to confirm pre-existing trends. The economic recovery will be slow in the rich world. Solving problems such as climate change and poverty remains fiendishly difficult.（副词用的很犀利：fiendishly difficult） The emerging economies are bouncing back（卷土重来） strongly. Technology is the most upbeat industry, banking the least. Here are the highlights from this year’s forum:
Capitalist of the week: Stephen Schwarzman, a private-equity tycoon and boss of Blackstone Group. He made little effort to contain his glee at the profit opportunities he has found during the economic crisis, and his hope that Barack Obama will press ahead with his latest banking reforms—which should help private equity by harming the public capital markets.
Absent friend: President Obama’s popularity may be plummeting at home, but Davos Man and Woman still love him, even though this year representatives of his administration were painfully thin on the ground. The only leading member to show up was Larry Summers, Mr Obama’s chief economic guru. Mr Summers struggled to convince his audience that the president’s sudden embrace of the “Volcker rule” to reduce systemic risk in banking was an “evolution” of policy rather than a panic-driven exhumation of his own rival as presidential adviser, Paul Volcker. Next year, when Mr Obama may need the love more than ever, perhaps he should do his State of the Union speech earlier, then take Air Force One to Switzerland.
Absent fiend: Everybody wanted to give a good kicking to Lloyd Blankfein, the boss of Goldman Sachs, but he sent his deputy instead. The bank bosses who did turn up, such as Josef Ackermann of Deutsche Bank and Stephen Green of HSBC, could not stop talking about the need for banks to rediscover their social mission—so there was not much fun to be had kicking them.
God is back: Is the moralisation of Davos a first step towards a more moral capitalism? Last year’s final session featured Archbishop Desmond Tutu. This year Rowan Williams, the archbishop of Canterbury, delivered the closing homily, urging the audience to “live responsibly in the present”.
Billanthropy still rules: Heeding the archbishop’s words, Bill Clinton and Bill Gates again set the do-gooding agenda. Mr Clinton announced a partnership between his Clinton Global Initiative, the WEF and the United Nations to rebuild Haiti better than it was before the recent earthquake. Mr Gates pledged a further $10 billion to provide vaccinations in poor countries. This was a generous way to mark the 10th anniversary of GAVI, a vaccination alliance created at Davos in 2000, which is now recognised as one of the most effective public-health initiatives yet seen. Given the general feeling of impotence in solving other big problems at this year’s Davos, Haiti offered an opportunity for people to feel there was at least something useful they could do.
Simon Cowell would be proud: Davos has got talent. There were plenty of stunning musical performances after hours. Among the biggest stars was Odiva, a South African singer-dancer who performed at the closing gala. Also notable were the band at the McKinsey party (which was much better than the Google party this year); and, in the early hours of Sunday morning in the Hotel Europe’s piano bar, Randi Zuckerberg, the “director of creative and buzz marketing” at Facebook (co-founded by her brother Mark). She belted out superb versions of “Son of a Preacher Man” and “Killing Me Softly”, with backing vocals by Wikipedia’s founder, Jimmy Wales.
Warning shot: The Chinese were out in force—with Chinese state television prominently located opposite the entrance to the forum’s main venue, the Congress Centre, making the Americans and Europeans nervous. But the clearest warning to the industrial nations from an emerging economy was delivered by an Indian. Azim Premji, the billionaire boss of Wipro, a business-process outsourcing firm based in Bangalore, said that if the rich world decided to start a trade war by interfering with trade in services, India and China were ready to respond with restrictions on manufacturing imports. Nobody can say they weren’t warned.
The voice of youth: This year’s Davos featured a smaller proportion than ever of elderly white men in suits. There was a debate on female genital mutilation because Julia Lalla-Maharaj, founder of End FGM Now, a lobby group, won a contest on YouTube. Along with the archbishop, the closing session featured six young “global changemakers” who are achieving significant impact through social activism. Although Davos is hearing a wider range of voices than before, Mousa Musa, a 17-year-old disability activist from Iraq, spoke for many when he questioned where all the fine words and sentiments heard at Davos were leading to.（这一句话颇为经典） Where is the action, he asked? “Will we be saying the same thing next WEF?”

1.slippery slopes（灾难性的急剧下滑）
2.bouncing back（卷土重来）
3.Solving problems such as climate change and poverty remains fiendishly difficult.（副词用的很犀利：fiendishly difficult
4。is usually a time for contrarian（反向的） thinking
5.Although Davos is hearing a wider range of voices than before, Mousa Musa, a 17-year-old disability activist from Iraq, spoke for many when he questioned where all the fine words and sentiments heard at Davos were leading to.（在灾难面前这些赞颂之词会将我们带向何方）

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Middle East & Africa
Polygamy in South Africa
A president who promotes traditionJacob Zuma is still the old-style marrying sortJan 7th 2010 | JOHANNESBURG | From The Economist print edition
AFPKnees up, Mr President!
DECKED out in a leopard-skin mantle and an animal-pelt loincloth together with white designer sneakers, South Africa’s 67-year-old president, Jacob Zuma, celebrated his marriage to his third concurrent wife (and fifth bride in all) in a grand Zulu ceremony attended by some 3,000 guests at his family home deep in rural KwaZulu-Natal. His latest wife, Thobeka Madiba, who calls herself a “socialite（社交名流）”, is the mother of three of his 19 officially acknowledged children by at least seven women. At least one other presidential fiancée is said to be waiting in the wings.
Some South Africans, three-quarters of whom profess to（表示） be Christian, are displeased. The Reverend Theunis Botha, the white leader of the tiny Christian Democratic Party（基督教社会主义党派）, has been quoted disparaging the event as “a giant step back into the dark ages（历史的巨大倒退）” of South Africa’s supposedly superstitious, ancestor-worshipping past. But most South Africans, while disapproving of multiple concurrent wives, enjoy their president’s unabashed embrace of his Zulu origins, beliefs and traditions, of which polygamy is an accepted part, though people practise it less and less, not least because it is so expensive.
Mike Siluma, a former editor of the Sowetan, a daily that is read mainly by blacks, points out that South Africa is not the Western country so many take it to be, but a “dynamic kaleidoscope of cultures, religions and traditions（关于文化，地域，传统的动态万花筒）”. Many black South African Christians still also worship their ancestors, he notes. Most weddings mix the traditional with the Christian. Many people practise customary law alongside the Western kind and take traditional as well as Western medicine. Mr Siluma thinks the elevation of a Zulu from a peasant background to the presidency of sub-Saharan Africa’s most sophisticated country may help revive some of the mores and cultures（风俗和文化） that had been sadly fading.
Before Mr Zuma’s inauguration eight months ago people had fun speculating as to who of his three wives would be the official First Lady. His shy first wife, known affectionately as MaKhumalo, whom Mr Zuma first met 50 years ago? Or one of the younger ones? All three, he determined, would be equal First Ladies. Each in turn has accompanied him on official visits. “There are plenty of politicians who have mistresses and children they hide so as to pretend to be monogamous”, says Mr Zuma. “I prefer to be open. I love my wives.”（经典经典 男同胞们要学学）
His various paramours（情妇） may not all be so easy-going. While MaKhumalo, whom Mr Zuma describes as “wife, friend, sister and mother”, seemed happy to attend his latest nuptials, Nompumelelo Ntuli, at 34 the youngest of his wives, apparently boycotted the festivities. And Mr Zuma’s third wife, Kate Mantsho, a former airline employee who bore him five children, committed suicide in 2000. His second wife, Nkosazana Dlamini, mother of four of his children, divorced him in 1998, citing “irreconcilable differences（无法协调的差异）”, but has remained a trusted political ally. After a decade as foreign minister, she now serves in his cabinet as minister for home affairs.
Meanwhile, the indefatigable Mr Zuma has just completed an exchange of premarital gifts with Gloria Bongi Ngema, who works for IBM in Johannesburg and has a young son by the president. Eight years ago he also paid lobolo (bride wealth), the first step towards a traditional marriage, to the family of Sebentile Dlamini, a Swazi princess. She is still waiting her turn.

socialite（社交名流）
profess to（表示）
a giant step back into the dark ages（历史的巨大倒退）
mores and cultures（风俗和文化）

irreconcilable differences（无法协调的差异）

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Geopolitics
Facing up to ChinaMaking room for a new superpower should not be confused with giving way to itFeb 4th 2010 | From The Economist print edition
AP/AFP
FOR six decades now, Taiwan has been where the simmering distrust between China and America most risks boiling over. In 1986 Deng Xiaoping called it the “one obstacle in Sino-US relations”. So there was something almost ritualistic about the Chinese government’s protestations（申明，抗议） this week that it was shocked, shocked and angered by America’s decision to sell Taiwan $6 billion-worth of weaponry. Under the Taiwan Relations Act, passed in 1979, all American administrations must help arm Taiwan so that it can defend itself. And China, which has never renounced what it says is its right to “reunify” Taiwan by force, feels just as bound to protest when arms deals go through. After a squall briefly roils the waters, relations revert to their usual choppy but unthreatening passage.
With luck, this will happen again. But the squalls（暴风，暴风雪） are increasing in number, and the world’s most important bilateral relationship is getting stormy. If it goes wrong, historians will no doubt heap much of the blame on China’s aggression; but they will also measure Barack Obama on this issue, perhaps more than any other.
The China ascendancy(优势，支配地位)As if to highlight the underlying dangers（潜在的威胁）, China has this time gone further than the usual blood-and-thunder warnings and suspension of military contacts (see article). It has threatened sanctions against American firms and the withdrawal of co-operation on international issues. Those threats, if carried out, would damage China’s interests seriously, so its use of them suggests that it hopes it can persuade Mr Obama to buckle—if not on this sale then perhaps on Taiwan’s mooted（未决定的，有争议的） future purchases of advanced jet-fighters. But the unusual ferocity of the Chinese regime’s response also points to three dangerous undercurrents（潜流）.
The first is the failure of China’s Taiwan policy. Under the presidency of Ma Ying-jeou, Taiwan’s relations with the mainland have been better than ever before. Travel, trade and tourist links have strengthened. A free-trade agreement is under negotiation. Yet there is little sign of progress towards China’s main goal of “peaceful reunification”. Most Taiwanese want both economic co-operation and de facto independence. A similar failure haunts policy in Tibet, where our correspondent, on a rarely permitted trip to the region, found the attempt to buy Tibetans’ loyalty through the fruits of development apparently futile (see article). As talks between China and the emissaries of the Dalai Lama ended in the usual stalemate this week, China warned Mr Obama against his planned meeting with Tibet’s exiled spiritual leader.（西藏的流浪精神领袖）
Again, nothing new in that. There is, however, a new self-confidence these days in China’s familiar harangues about anything it deems sovereign. That is the second trend: China, after its successful passage through the financial crisis of late 2008, is more assertive and less tolerant of being thwarted（中国更加地有自信也更加地难以忍受阻碍）—and not just over its “internal affairs”. From its perceived position of growing economic strength, China has been throwing its weight around. It played a central and largely unhelpful role at the climate-change talks in Copenhagen; it looks as if it will wreck a big-power consensus over Iran’s nuclear programme; it has picked fights in territorial disputes with India, Japan and Vietnam. At gatherings of all sorts, Chinese officials now want to have their say（有最后决定权）, and expect to be heeded.（注意，留意）
This suggests a dangerous third trend. As China has opened its economy since 1978, it has been frantically engaged in catching up with the rich West. That has led to the idea, even among many Chinese, that it would gradually become more “Western”. The slump in the West, however, has undermined that assumption. Many Chinese now feel they have little to learn from the rich world. On the contrary, a “Beijing consensus” has been gaining ground, extolling the virtues of decisive authoritarianism（独裁主义） over shilly-shallying democratic debate（犹豫不决的民主争议）. In the margins of international conferences such as the recent Davos forum, even American officials mutter despairingly about their own “dysfunctional” political system.
A swing not a seesawTwo dangers arise from this loss of Western self-confidence. One is of trying to placate（安抚） China. The delay in Mr Obama’s meeting with the Dalai Lama in order to smooth his visit to China in November gave too much ground, as well as turning an issue of principle into a bargaining chip. America needs to stand firmer. Beefing up the deterrent（威慑） capacity of Taiwan, which China continues to threaten with hundreds of missiles, is in the interests of peace. Mr Obama should therefore proceed with the arms sales and European governments should back him. If American companies, such as Boeing, lose Chinese custom for political reasons, European firms should not be allowed to supplant them.
On the other hand the West should not be panicked into unnecessary confrontation. Rather than ganging up on（联合反对） China in an effort to “contain” it, the West would do better to get China to take up its share of the burden of global governance. Too often China wants the power due a global giant while shrugging off the responsibilities, saying that it is still a poor country. It must be encouraged to play its part—for instance, on climate change, on Iran and by allowing its currency to appreciate. As the world’s largest exporter, China’s own self-interest（私利） lies in a harmonious world order and robust trading system.（和谐的世界秩序和健壮的贸易系统）
It is in the economic field that perhaps the biggest danger lies. Already the Obama administration has shown itself too ready to resort to trade sanctions against China. If China now does the same using a political pretext, while the cheapness of its currency keeps its trade surplus（贸易顺差） large, it is easy to imagine a clamour in Congress for retaliation met by a further Chinese nationalist backlash. That is why the administration and China’s government need to work together to pre-empt trouble.
Some see confrontation as inevitable when a rising power elbows its way to the top table. But America and China are not just rivals for global influence, they are also mutually dependent economies with everything to gain from co-operation. Nobody will prosper if disagreements become conflicts.

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为求保质保量从明天起ECO选做，多余时间全部用来写提纲，总结模板和写文章，时间真的不多了

a08805436UID：2725634

1：
Great comic art is never otherworldly, it does not seek to mystify us, and it does not deny ambiguity by branding as evil whatever differs from good. Great comic artists assume that truth may bear all lights, and thus they seek to accentuate contradictions in social action, not gloss over or transcend them by appeals to extrasocial symbols of divine ends, cosmic purpose, or laws of nature. The moment of transcendence in great comic art is a social moment, born out of the conviction that we are human, even though we try to be gods. The comic community to which artists address themselves is a community of reasoning, loving, joyful, compassionate beings, who are willing to assume the human risks of acting rationally. Without invoking gods or demons, great comic art arouses courage in reason, courage which grows out of trust in what human beings can do as humans.: Z6 |. h' y: U
伟大的幽默艺术从来都不是远离现实的，它不是企图迷惑世人，也并没有通过认定好坏截然对立这种方式而拒绝歧义（它承认好坏截然对立会导致的模棱两可的状态）。伟大的幽默艺术家认为真理拥有了所有的光芒，因此他们侧重于关注社会行为中的矛盾面，而不是通过研究未知的未来，宇宙的目的，或者自然的法则等这些超出社会行为得到的一种假象或者对于现实的超越。在伟大的幽默艺术中，如果有一个时刻具有超越的瞬间，那么这个瞬间也是社会行为的瞬间，这个瞬间出自于我们对自我认知的超越，甚至尝试认为自己是神。这种艺术家自诩的幽默界的团体，是一个充满思考，爱，欢乐和慈善的团体，他们喜欢去猜想人们理性行为的风险。伟大的幽默艺术并不崇拜天使或是恶魔，他们却唤起了一种思考的勇气，一种超出认为我们只能安于自我的信仰的勇气。" X  K/ `0 F* {; V* n6 o

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Great comic art is never otherwordly这种反话正过来理解就是realistic，反话要正着理解, it does not seek to mystify us, and it does not deny ambiguity by branding as evil倒装 whatever differs from good.对这种短小的文章，如果没读懂就不要读下去，静下心来读懂。就是说comic承认模糊性，并不是非好即坏的，这个意思从第一句就能知道 Great comic artists assume that truth may bear all lights, and thus they seek to accentuate contradictions in social action, not 这个词很关键 gloss over or transcend them by appeals to extrasocial symbols of divine ends, cosmic purpose, or laws of nature.读到这里要回忆第一句，第一句说comic是现实的，第二句说他们强调社会中的矛盾，而不求助于神性，是对第一句的延伸，或者说，什么是现实的？有矛盾才是现实的。 The moment of transcendence你们词没背好可能不并准略知道这个词的意思，但能猜出大概是超过、提升的意思 in great comic art is a social moment, born out of the conviction that we are human, even though we try to be gods. 这时候要想，某一过程，来自人类的什么？跟前面有什么关系。看不出先放一放，但至少记下这种过程不来自于上帝，那依赖什么？The comic community to which artists address themselves is a community of reasoning, loving, joyful, compassionate beings, who are willing to assume the human risks of acting rationally. 漫画群体怎么，假设人类又怎样，注意一方是有理性的，一方则可能无理性Without invoking gods or demons, great comic art arouses courage in reason, courage which grows out of trust in what human beings can do as humans.最后再回来第二句的意思，不需要神性，就能依靠理性的力量使人类回归理性。

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2：
The evolution of sex ratios has produced, in most plants and animals with separate sexes, approximately equal numbers of males and females. Why should this be so? Two main kinds of answers have been offered. One is couched (表达) in terms of advantage to population. It is argued that the sex ratio (sex ratio: n.男女人口比例) will evolve so as to maximize the number of meetings between individuals of the opposite sex. This is essentially a “group selection (group selection: 组选择, 群选择)” argument. The other, and in my view correct, type of answer was first put forward by Fisher in 1930. This “genetic” argument starts from the assumption that genes can influence the relative numbers of male and female offspring produced by an individual carrying the genes. That sex ratio will be favored which maximizes the number of descendants an individual will have and hence the number of gene copies transmitted. Suppose that the population consisted mostly of females: then an individual who produced sons only would have more grandchildren. In contrast, if the population consisted mostly of males, it would pay (对…有利) to have daughters. If, however, the population consisted of equal numbers of males and females, sons and daughters would be equally valuable. Thus a one-to-one sex ratio is the only stable ratio; it is an “evolutionarily stable strategy.” Although Fisher wrote before the mathematical theory of games had been developed, his theory incorporates the essential feature of a game-that the best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing.
Since Fisher’s time, it has been realized that genes can sometimes influence the chromosome or gamete in which they find themselves so that the gamete will be more likely to participate in fertilization. If such a gene occurs on a sex-determining (X or Y) chromosome, then highly aberrant sex ratios can occur. But more immediately relevant to game theory (game theory: 博弈论, 对策论) are the sex ratios in certain parasitic wasp species that have a large excess of females. In these species, fertilized eggs develop into females and unfertilized eggs into males. A female stores sperm and can determine the sex of each egg she lays by fertilizing it or leaving it unfertilized. By Fisher’s argument, it should still pay a female to produce equal numbers of sons and daughters. Hamilton, noting that the eggs develop within their host-the larva of another insect-and that the newly emerged adult wasps mate immediately and disperse, offered a remarkably cogent analysis. Since only one female usually lays eggs in a given larva, it would pay her to produce one male only, because this one male could fertilize all his sisters on emergence. Like Fisher, Hamilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy, but he went a step further in recognizing that he was looking for a strategy.

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21.   The author suggests that the work of Fisher and Hamilton was similar in that both scientists
(A) conducted their research at approximately the same time   错 明显时间不同 一前一后
(B) sought to manipulate the sex ratios of some of the animals they studied 错 控制基因···转到基因工程了···
(C) sought an explanation of why certain sex ratios exist and remain stable
(D) studied game theory, thereby providing important groundwork for the later development of strategy theory  文中无信息指出straregy theory 是受到 这两个科学家的影响， 相反， straregy theory 为很多生物学原理提供了依据。
(E) studied reproduction in the same animal species      Fisher哥研究的是泛指生物  Hamilton 研究寄生黄蜂
整篇文章都在讲Sex ratio的问题，所以这两个人也是在研究sex ratio的问题
B中的manipulate（to move, arrange, operate, or control by the hands or by mechanical means, especially in a skillful manner:）显然没有体现，两个研究者没有想要“控制”的意思。
C为正解     


22.   It can be inferred from the passage that the author considers Fisher’s work to be
(A) fallacious and unprofessional
(B) definitive and thorough
(C) inaccurate but popular, compared with Hamilton’s work
(D) admirable, but not as up-to-date as Hamilton’s work（D）
(E) accurate, but trivial compared with Hamilton’s work
作者对Fisher哥研究的态度，显然是正向的，The other, and in my view correct, type of answer was first put forward by Fisher in 1930.

送分题

23.   The passage contains information that would answer which of the following questions about wasps?
I.      How many eggs does the female wasp usually lay in a single host larva?
····这个问题谁能回答···？？？ 你晓得别人生几个？
II.     Can some species of wasp determine sex ratios among their offspring?
对应原文：A female stores sperm and can determine the sex of each egg she lays by fertilizing it or leaving it unfertilized. ——》2
III.   What is the approximate sex ratio among the offspring of parasitic wasps?
这是本题的考点，对于寄生蜂的sex ratio， 文中并没有给出明显的界定。
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) III only
(D) I and II only（B）
(E) II and III only

24.   It can be inferred that the author discusses the genetic theory in greater detail than the group selection theory primarily because he believes that the genetic theory is more
(A) complicated
(B) accurate
(C) popular
(D) comprehensive（B）
(E) accessible
ACE直接排了  认为论点在这里不存在全不全面的问题，故选B


25.   According to the passage, successful game strategy depends on
(A) the ability to adjust one’s behavior in light of the behavior of others
(B) one’s awareness that there is safety in numbers
(C) the degree of stability one can create in one’s immediate environment
(D) the accuracy with which one can predict future events（A）
(E) the success one achieves in conserving and storing one’s resources
game theory是什么？ his theory incorporates the essential feature of a game—that the best strategy to adopt depends on what others are doing.

这个句子比较好找，应该不难

26.   It can be inferred from the passage that the mathematical theory of games has been
(A) developed by scientists with an interest in genetics
博弈论的发展和生物没关系吧··

(B) adopted by Hamilton in his research

这两个科学家都没有采用博弈论的观点
(C) helpful in explaining how genes can sometimes influence gametes
基因影响配子···
1.文中没有句子支持这个选项
2.C和E相比较 E的范围更加广泛 更有说服力···
我就是这个选项错了···5555
(D) based on animals studies conducted prior to 1930（E）
博弈论的发展和生物没关系吧··
(E) useful in explaining some biological phenomena
文章后面都在讲game theory在生物学研究上的应用。


27.   Which of the following is NOT true of the species of parasitic wasps discussed in the passage?
(A) Adult female wasps are capable of storing sperm.
(B) Female wasps lay their eggs in the larvae of other insects.
(C) The adult female wasp can be fertilized by a male that was hatched in the same larva as herself.
(D) So few male wasps are produced that extinction is almost certain.（D）
这个明显是无中生有··
(E) Male wasps do not emerge from their hosts until they reach sexual maturity.
D是明显的错误。这个性别比例失衡的生物现象，作者显然是持正面态度的。A,C 和E比较好定位。

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黄皮书Ex3  （GT原创+my revise）
section A

By 1950, the results of attempts to relate brain processes to mental experience appeared rather discouraging. Such variations in size, shape, chemistry, conduction speed, excitation threshold, and the like as had been demonstrated in nerve cells remained negligible in significance for any possible correlation with the manifold dimensions of mental experience.
Near the turn of the century, it had been suggested by Hering that different modes of sensation, such as pain, taste, and color, might be correlated with the discharge of specific kinds of nervous energy. However, subsequently developed methods of recording and analyzing nerve potentials failed to reveal any such qualitative diversity. It was possible to demonstrate by other methods refined structural differences among neuron types; however, proof was lacking that the quality of the impulse or its condition was influenced by these differences, which seemed instead to influence the developmental patterning of the neural circuits. Although qualitative variance among nerve energies was never rigidly disproved, the doctrine was generally abandoned in favor of the opposing view, namely, that nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous in quality and are transmitted as “common currency” throughout the nervous system. According to this theory, it is not the quality of the sensory nerve (sensory nerve: 感觉神经) impulses that determines the diverse conscious sensations they produce, but rather the different areas of the brain into which they discharge, and there is some evidence for this view. In one experiment, when an electric stimulus was applied to a given sensory field of the cerebral cortex of a conscious human subject, it produced a sensation of the appropriate modality (modality: n.形式, 形态, 特征) for that particular locus, that is, a visual sensation from the visual cortex, an auditory sensation from the auditory cortex, and so on. Other experiments revealed slight variations in the size, number, arrangement, and interconnection of the nerve cells, but as far as psychoneural correlations were concerned, the obvious similarities of these sensory fields to each other seemed much more remarkable than any of the minute differences.
However, cortical locus, in itself, turned out to have little explanatory value. Studies showed that sensations as diverse as those of red, black, green, and white, or touch, cold, warmth, movement, pain, posture, and pressure apparently may arise through activation of the same cortical areas. What seemed to remain was some kind of differential patterning effects in the brain excitation: it is the difference in the central distribution of impulses that counts. In short, brain theory suggested a correlation between mental experience and the activity of relatively homogeneous nerve-cell units conducting essentially homogeneous impulses through homogeneous cerebral tissue. To match the multiple dimensions of mental experience psychologists could only point to a limitless variation in the spatiotemporal patterning of nerve impulses.

21.
The author suggests that, by 1950, attempts to correlate mental experience with brain processes would probably have been viewed with
(A) indignation
(B) impatience
(C) pessimism
(D) indifference（不关心）（C）
(E) defiance
第一段的态度词即可推断出是负评价 A E程度过份
discouraging->pessimism

22.
The author mentions “common currency” in line 26 (貌似应该改成16吧)primarily in order to emphasize the
(A) lack of differentiation among nerve impulses in human beings定位文章中有homogeneous in quality
(B) similarity of the sensations that all human beings experience
(C) similarities in the views of scientists who have studied the human nervous system
(D) continuous passage of nerve impulses through the nervous system（A）
(E) recurrent questioning by scientists of an accepted explanation about the nervous system
直接找文章定位的后面一句：According to this theory, it is not the quality of the sensory nerve (sensory nerve: 感觉神经) impulses that determines the diverse conscious sensations they produce, but rather the different areas of the brain into which they discharge
23.
The description in lines 32-38 of an experiment in which electric stimuli were applied to different sensory fields of the cerebral cortex tends to support the theory that
(A) the simple presence of different cortical areas cannot account for the diversity of mental experience
(B) variation in spatiotemporal patterning of nerve impulses correlates with variation in subjective experience
(C) nerve impulses are essentially homogeneous and are relatively unaffected as they travel through the nervous system
(D) the mental experiences produced by sensory nerve impulses are determined by the cortical area activated（D）
(E) variation in neuron types affects the quality of nerve impulses

这个题还是找22的对应句子：but rather the different areas of the brain into which they discharge  上体考前一分句，这题考后一分句
24.
According to the passage, some evidence exists that the area of the cortex activated by a sensory stimulus determines which of the following?
I. The nature of the nerve impulse   
II. The modality of the sensory experience
III. Qualitative differences within a modality（形式，形态）
(A) II only定位文章中的实验证明内容可知
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only（A）
(E) I, II and III
首先，文章是说激素释放的区域而不是激素的种类不同导致了不同的mental experience。故I排除
其次，III中Qualitative明显是干扰选项，这个信息在原文中没有出现。故选A
25.
The passage can most accurately be described as a discussion concerning historical views of the
(A) anatomy of the brain
(B) manner in which nerve impulses are conducted
(C) significance of different cortical areas in mental experience
(D) mechanics of sense perception（E）
(E) physiological correlates of mental experience全文大意题，关键词是correlate，因为全文重点在讲述大脑与神经传导
26.
Which of the following best summarizes the author’s opinion of the suggestion that different areas of the brain determine perceptions produced by sensory nerve impulses?
(A) It is a plausible负评价不对 explanation, but it has not been completely proved.
(B) It is the best正评价过头 explanation of brain processes currently available.
(C) It is disproved by the fact that the various areas of the brain are physiologically very similar.负评价不对
(D) There is some evidence to support it, but it fails to explain the diversity of mental experience.二段定位态度题（D）
(E) There is experimental evidence that confirms its correctness.
27.
It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following exhibit the LEAST qualitative variation?
(A) Nerve cells
(B) Nerve impulses
(C) Cortical areas
(D) Spatial patterns of nerve impulses（B）
(E) Temporal patterns of nerve impulses
DE选项来自文章末尾，属平行选项，同时排；A没说，是附加信息，排；
B<C  故选B

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Ex3.2

No. 5-1
SECTION A

原文

------------------------------------------------------------------------

A Marxist sociologist has argued that racism stems

from the class struggle that is unique to the capitalist

system—that racial prejudice is generated by capitalists as

a means of controlling workers. His thesis works relatively

well when applied to discrimination against Blacks in the

United States, but his definition of racial prejudice as

“racially-based negative prejudgments against a group

generally accepted as a race in any given region of ethnic

competition,” can be interpreted as also including hostility

toward such ethnic groups as the Chinese in California and

the Jews in medieval Europe. However, since prejudice

against these latter peoples was not inspired by capitalists,

he has to reason that such antagonisms were not really

based on race. He disposes thusly (albeit unconvincingly)

of both the intolerance faced by Jews before the rise of

capitalism and the early twentieth-century discrimination

against Oriental people in California, which,

inconveniently, was instigated by workers.

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17. The passage supplies information that would answer which of the following questions?
    (A) What accounts for the prejudice against the Jews in medieval Europe?
    (B) What conditions caused the discrimination against Oriental people in California in the early twentieth century?

AB 是同类信息， 很好排除
    (C) Which groups are not in ethnic competition with each other in the United States?
    (D) What explanation did the Marxist sociologist give for the existence of racial prejudice?（全文主题，最佳选项）
    (E) What evidence did the Marxist sociologist provide to support his thesis?

定位原文

" A Marxist sociologist has argued that racism stems

from the class struggle that is unique to the capitalist

system—that racial prejudice is generated by capitalists as

a means of controlling workers"
    18. The author considers the Marxist sociologist's thesis about the origins of racial prejudice to be
    (A) unoriginal  (B) unpersuasive
    (C) offensive (D) obscure (E) speculative

定位原文

" that racial prejudice is generated by capitalists as

a means of controlling workers...

However, since prejudice

against these latter peoples was not inspired by capitalists,

he has to reason that such antagonisms were not really

based on race."

即  关键是however
    19. It can be inferred from the passage that the Marxist sociologist would argue that in a noncapitalist society racial prejudice would be
    (A) pervasive (B) tolerated (C) ignored
    (D) forbidden (E) nonexistent

定位原文

" A Marxist sociologist has argued that racism stems

from the class struggle that is unique to the capitalist

system—that racial prejudice is generated by capitalists as

a means of controlling workers"

即

" (E) nonexistent"

    20. According to the passage, the Marxist sociologist's chain of reasoning required him to assert that prej- udice toward Oriental people in California was
    (A) directed primarily against the Chinese
    (B) similar in origin to prejudice against the Jews
    (C) understood by Oriental people as ethnic competition
    (D) provoked by workers
    (E) nonracial in character

However, since prejudice

against these latter peoples was not inspired by capitalists,

he has to reason that such antagonisms were not really

based on race."

" (E) nonracial in character"