【clover】106G 学习笔记 by 九天揽月

九天揽月UID: 2737667

1. 语法部分总帖
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-959505-1-1.html

总结：
主谓一致
1、

主谓一致中的就近原则
当there be 句型的主语是一系列事物时，谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。
There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk..
There are twenty boy-students and twenty-three girl-students in the class.
Either you or she is__(is/are)to go.
2、
当either… or… 与neither… nor，连接两个主语时，谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。

Either you or she is to go.
如果句子是由here, there引导，而主语又不止一个时，谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。
Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you.
Here __is(is/are)a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you.
3、
谓语动词与前面的主语一致
当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时，谓语动词与前面的主语一致。
The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory.
He as well as I wants to go boating.
4、
但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry等在任何情况下都用复数形式。
A number of books _have_(has/have)lent out.有些名词，如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数，有时看作复数
The majority of the students_like_(like/ likes) English.。
在一些短语，如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时，谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时，动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。
More than 60 percent of the students _are_(is/are)from the city.百分之六十多的学生都来自这个城市。
Many a person _has_(has/have) read the novel. 许多人都读过这本书
The twentieth lesson and last lesson is very easy for students.
5、
由and连接的并列主语
①The twentieth lesson and last lesson are very easy for students. (×）
②The twentieth lesson and last lesson is very easy for students. (√)
[解析] the twentieth lesson and last lesson是表示同一概念，译为“第20课即最后一课”，因此谓语动词应该用单数。同学们容易错误理解“第20课和最后一课”，如果表示两课，应该表达为“the twentieth lesson and the last lesson”。
特别提醒
由and连接的并列主语表示同一概念时，谓语动词用单数，表示不同的概念时谓语动词用复数。
======================
情态动词
6、
may/might as well，后面接不带to 的不定式，意为"不妨"。
7、
would like to have done sth 本打算做某事
8、
had better have done sth表示与事实相反的结果，意为"本来最好"。
9、
would rather表示"宁愿"
would rather do
would rather not do
would rather… than… 宁愿……而不愿。
还有would sooner, had rather, had sooner都表示"宁愿"、"宁可"的意思。
If I have a choice, I had sooner not continue my studies at this school.
I would rather stay here than go home. = I would stay here rather than go home.
典型例题
---- Shall we go skating or stay at home?
----Which ___ do?
A. do you ratherB. would you rather C. will you rather D. should you rather
答案B。本题考查情态动词rather的用法，would rather +do sth 意为"宁愿"，本题为疑问句， would 提前，所以选B。
10、
否定结构中用will，一般不用would, won't you是一种委婉语气。
Won't you sit down?
11、
need 的被动含义：need, want, require, worth（形容词）后面接doing也可以表示被动：
need doing = need to be done
12、
另外一个容易误用的词是should，多表示根据社会风俗习惯个人的责任，而在比较正式的议论文写作中，多数句子是以客观事物做主语的， 所以用should就有些不太恰当
13、
一般我们会用另外一个更客观性的短语be to do来代替， 或者是shall，但是这里的shall不是用于第一人称后的将来时符号，而表示的是一种情态。
至于must, 因为语气实在强硬，所以一般在社会性的问题的论述上我们要慎用，建议多换成need/ shall/ be to do 或者是be expected to do形式。
冠词及数词
14、
the用在序数词、形容词的最高级及only修饰的名词前。
15、
当名词被一短语或从句所修饰时，该名词前用冠词。
16、
在hundred，thousand，million，billion前有数词时为实数意义，它们的词尾不能加复数。前无数词时为虚数意义，hundred，thousand，million，billion可加复数，并可和of连用，构成短语。如：five hundred students；millions of people
17、
如果主语是many a，more than one+单数名词构成，尽管从意义上看是复数，但谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：
Many a student in this class has hoped a long break.
a+单数名词+or two做主语，谓语动词用单数形式。one or two+复数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。如：
A word or two is missed in the sentence.
One or two words are missed in the sentence.
18、
turn 后面的名词前一般都不加冠词。
19、
表示某人的职位时可用"零冠词"。
20、
2.Shakespeare was born in ______。
　　A.1660s        B.1660’s
　　C.the 1660s    D.the 1660’s
21、
Which is right?
　　A.2009, June 25
　　B.25th June, 2009
　　C.June 25, 2009
　　D.June 25st, 2009
22、
几个半的表示法有两种：
　　“基数词+单位名词(复数)+and a half”
　　“基数词+and a half+单位名词(复数)”
虚拟语气
23、
对现在事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + were /did等过去式…, …would /could /should /might + do
24、
对过去事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
25、
对将来事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do; 意思类似汉语中的“万一”
26、
If + were+ 不定式…, …would+ do;
Should+ 动词原形
27、
虚拟条件句的倒装
虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should, 或had, 可将if省略，再把were, should或had 移到从句句首，实行倒装。
28、
wish的用1）用于wish后面的从句，表示与事实相反的情况，或表示将来不太可能实现的愿望。其宾语从句的动词形式为2）Wish to do表达法。例句： Wish sb / sth to do
29、
比较if only与only if：
only if表示"只有"；if only则表示"如果……就好了"。If only也可用于陈述语气。
30、
It is (high) time that
It is (high) time that 后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形，但should不可省略。
31、
as, 或者whether…or…谓语多用be的原形，引导让步虚拟从句，这种用法通常采用倒装结构。例句：Church as we use the word refers to all religious institutions, be they Christian, Islamivc, Buddhist, Jewish, and so on.
The business of each day, be it selling goods or shipping them, went quite smoothly
32、
部分动词的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气，形式为should do, 其中should常被省略。

此类动词有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request, command等表示命令、建议、要求等.
33、
在一些惯用语之后经常需要用虚拟，来表示与事实相反或者难以实现的事情

这类习语有：as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only, for fear that, unless, in case, lest等
34、
在下列形容词引导的that从句中必须要用虚拟语气(should) do，但是由于 should经常被省略，所以实际上用的就是动词原形。

这类形容词有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that

九天揽月UID: 2737667

倒装
1、
由there , here, now, then 等副词引导的句子。
There comes the rest of the party.
2、
有些有If引导的条件状语从句（主要包含有were, had, should 的从句），可以把IF省略，把上述动词放到主语前面去：
Weren’t it for their assitance, we wouldn’t be able to do so well.
Had we got there earlier, we would have caught the train.
Should Mary call, say that I'll be back in an hour
3、
有些让步状语从句中又是也有倒装的情况，（主要把标语或部分谓语提前）：
Clever though he was, he couldn’t conceal his eagerness for praise.
Try as I would, I couldn’t make her change her mind.
Talented as he is, he is not yet ready to turn professional.
Search as they would, they could find no one in the wood
4、
有些有否定意义的副词，若放在句首，句子常用倒装。
Never would he know what she had suffered.
Never before has such a high standard been achieved.
Scarcely was she out of sight when he came
5、
有个别其他副词放在句首时，也会有这个现象：
Often would she(she would) weep when alone.
Bitterly did he repent that decision. 他深深地悔恨那个决定。
Gladly would I give my life to save the child.
6、
有些短语，（特别是介词短语）移到句首时也可能引导倒装语序：
On no account must we give up this attempt.
Under no circumstances could we agree to such a principle.
7、
一般这类的都是一些否定含义的短语，类似的还有：In vain, not until, at no point
还有表示唯一的，如：only in this way
So…that结构： So bright was the moon that the flowers were bright as by day.
8、
【一些谓语前移的情况】
<状语前置>有些句子没有宾语且主语又比较长。又是可把状语提前，而把主语放在谓语后面去。
Before him lay miles of undulating moorland: 他前面是一片高低起伏的荒原
After the banquet came a firework display in the garden. 宴会后花园里燃放了烟火。
From the distance came occasional shots. 从远处传来零星的枪声。
In the distance could be seen the purple mountains. 远处可以看见紫色的群山。
9、
为了描绘更生动，有些与介词同行的副词可以移到句首，把主语放在谓语后面。
Up went the arrow into the air. 嗖的一声箭射上了天。
She rang the bell. In came a girl she had not seen before. 她按铃，进来一个她从未见过的姑娘。
Down flew the eagle to seize the chicken 老鹰飞下来抓小鸡。
10、
【分词和表语移到句首的情况】
1、进行时态中的分词有时可移到句首，来对这个动作加以强调。
Lying on the floor was a boy aged about seventeen.
Standing beside the table was an interpreter
Watching the performances were mostly foreign tourists.
11、
2, 已过去分词做表语的句子，过去分词有时也可以提前，把主语放到后面去。
The most widely distributed is the Hui people
Seated on the ground are a group of young people.
Hidden underground is a wealth of gold, silver, lead and zinc.
12、
3, 作表语的介词短语有时也可以提前。
Among its products are farm machines and mining equipment.
Around the lake are a huge number of farms.
Near the sourthen end of the village was a large pear orchard.
13、
4, 其他表语也可提前
Worst of all is the humiliations he suffered. 最不堪的是他经受的许多屈辱。
Below is a restaurant.
Higher up were forests of white birches. 在往上去是一片白桦林。
从句
1、
名词性从句
主语从句可直接位于主语的位置，如果从句较长，谓语又较短，可用it作形式主语，而将从句放在句末。常见的句型有：
*It is a fact\a pity\a question\good news that...
*It seems\appears\happened\has turned out that...
*It is clear\important\likely\possible that...
*It is said\reported\estimated\has been proved that...
*It is said that comic books create a connection between people of the same generation.
*It seems that the performance is very useful. 2. what引导的主语从句表示“...的东西时”，一般不用it作形式主语。
What we lack is experience.
what, who, when, why, whether等词含有各自的疑问意义，但它们引导的主语从句，都用陈述语序。
How the plan is to be carried out should be discussed again.
I did know why I felt like crying.
2、
表语从句：如主句主语为reason,只能用that引导表语从句，不可用because.
3、
定语从句：当先行词是all, anything, everything, something, nothing等不定代词或先行词前有first, last, any, few, much, some, no, only以及形容词最高级修饰时，只能用关系代词that引导从句。
在从句中作宾语的关系代词常可省略。关系代词紧跟介词，作介词宾语时不可用that，只可用which或whom引导从句，并且不可省略，但当介词位于宾语从句句末时，作为介词宾语的关系代词仍可用that，也可省略。
This is one of those things with which we have to put up.
This is one of those things (which\that) we have to put up with.
4、
非限制性定语从句：非限制性定语从句既可修饰先行词，也可修饰整个主句，起补充说明作用，与主句之间有逗号隔开，若省去，原句意思不受影响。不可用that引导非限制性定语从句。关系词不可省略。
5、
as引导的定语从句主要用于“such...as”及“the same...as”的结构中，代替先行词是人或物的名词。as引导非限制性定语从句时，代替整个主句，从句可位于主句之前、之后或中间。
These are not such problems as can be easily solved.(as代替先行词problems)
As is mentioned above, no single company or group can control what happens on the Internet.(as代替主语)
6、
时间状语从句：as soon as, hardly(scarcely)...when, no sooner...than, each(every) time, the moment, immediately(that)等。
7、
原因状语从句：原因状语从句的从属连词有：because, as, since, now(that),seeing that, considering that, in that等。
because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或 since。由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。
8、
结果状语从句：结果状语从句的连词有：so...that, such...that, so that, that, so
9、
So与such:其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so 是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。 so 还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little连用，形成固定搭配。
10、
目的状语从句：引导目的状语从句的连词有：so that, in order that, for fear that, lest等，从句常使用may, might, can, could, would等情态动词。
11、
条件状语从句：引导条件状语从句的连词和词组有if, unless, as(so) long as, on condition that, in case, provided(providing) that, supposing等。
if 引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。unless = if not.
12、
让步状语从句：引导让步状语从句的连词和词组有though, although, whether, even though, even if, no matter what(when, how...),whatever(whenever, wherever, however....)等。though, even if等引导状语从句可转换成含有as的部分倒装结构，具有强调意义。其结构为“形容词（副词、动词、名词）+as+主语+谓语”。
当有though, although时，后面的从句不能有but，但是 though 和yet可连用as, though 引导的倒装句
as / though引导的让步从句必须表语或状语提前（形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前）。注意：a.　句首名词不能带任何冠词。
　　　b.　句首是实义动词，其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主语之前。even if, even though whether…or-　 不管……都"no matter +疑问词" 或"疑问词+后缀ever"注意：no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句。
（错）No matter what you say is of no use now.
（对）Whatever you say is of no use now.

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名词
1、
以o 结尾的名词，变复数时：
a. 加s，如： photo---photos piano---pianos


radio---radios　 zoo---zoos
b. 加es，如：potato--potatoes　tomato--tomatoes
c. 均可，如：zero---zeros / zeroes
以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时：
　　a. 加s，如： belief---beliefs　roof---roofs
　　　　　　　　
safe---safes　 gulf---gulfs；
　　b. 去f, fe 加ves，如：half---halves　　
　　　knife---knives　leaf---leaves　wolf---wolves
　　　wife---wives　life---lives　thief---thieves；
　　c. 均可,如：　handkerchief: handkerchiefs / handkerchieves
注意：与 man 和 woman构成的合成词，其复数形式也是 -men 和-women。
　  如： an Englishman, two Englishmen.但German不是合成词，故复数形式为


Germans；Bowman是姓，其复数是the Bowmans。
单复同形　如：
　　deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese
　　li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin　

   但除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。
   如: a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters
以复数形式出现的书名，剧名，报纸，杂志名，也可视为单数。
　　"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book.
　 <<一千零一夜>>是一本非常有趣的故事书。
   抽象名词有时也可数。
　　four freedoms 四大自由

　　the four modernizations四个现代化
　　物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。
　　如：a glass of water 一杯水　a piece of advice　一条建议
定语名词的复数
名词作定语一般用单数，但也有以下例外。
用复数作定语。

如：sports meeting 运动会students reading-room 学生阅览室
　　talks table 谈判桌　the foreign languages department 外语系
man, woman, gentleman等作定语时，其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。
如：men workers　　women teachers gentlemen officials
有些原有s结尾的名词，作定语时，s保留。
如：goods train (货车) arms produce　武器生产customs papers 海关文件
　
clothes brush衣刷
数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。
如：two-dozen eggs　两打/（二十四个鸡蛋)　 a ten-mile walk 十里路
　
two-hundred trees 两百棵树a five-year plan.　一个五年计划
个别的有用复数作定语的，如： a seven-years child
名词的格
在英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系，带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格，如：a teacher's book。名词所有格的规则如下：
1）单数名词词尾加"'s"，复数名词词尾没有s，也要加"'s"，
如the boy's bag 男孩的书包，men's room 男厕所。
2）若名词已有复数词尾-s ，只加"'"，
如：the workers'
struggle　工人的斗争。
3）凡不能加"'s"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系，
如：the title of the song 歌的名字。
4）在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，如：the barber's 理发店。
5）如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有"；只有一个's，则表示'共有'。
如：John's and Mary's room（两间）　　John and Mary's room（一间）
6）复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。
　 如：a month or two's absence
容易误用为复数的不可数名词：(这些名词一般不能用作复数，谓语动词用单数)
　　advice 建议，忠告 living 生活，生计
　　equipment 装备，设备 progress 前进，发展
　　furniture 家具，设备
scenery 风景，景色
　　information 通知；信息 machinery 机器，机械
　　knowledge 知识，学问 traffic 交通流量
　　baggage / luggage 行李，皮箱
trouble 烦恼，麻烦
　　cash 现金 thunder 雷声，轰隆声
　　apparatus 仪器 weather 天气，处境
　　clothing 衣服 work 工作，劳动
　　paper 纸，钞票 luck 运气，幸运
　　technology 工艺，技术 jewelry 珠宝

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与名词相关的主谓一致关系
　　1． 复数原则：两个或者两个以上的名词由and连接作主语时；主语由both … and … 连     接时，谓语动词用复数。
　　Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.
　　Both bread and butter are sold in that grocery. 那个杂货店既卖面包，也卖黄油。

2． 就近原则： 由 either … or … ; neither … nor …; not only…but also…; …or …； there be …等引导的主语， 谓语动词的单复数取决于最靠近动词的名词的单复数。
　　Not only the students but also their teacher is invited to attend the party.
　　3． 就远原则：主语，＋ as well as +另一个主语，谓语动词的单复数取决于第一个主语的名词的单复数。
　　My mother, as well as my two brothers, has a key to the office.
　　我母亲，还有我的两个哥哥都有一把办公室的钥匙。
　　同例：with…; together with…; along with…; including…; in addition to…; besides …; except…; as much as…; accompanied by …; rather than…等等
　　4． 表示时间、距离、价值、量度的复数名词作主语时谓语动词用单数。
　　One hundred dollars is a large sum for the poor .
　　Twenty days have passed since I met her last time.
　　自从我上次见到她到现在已经过去二十天。 ( twenty days 这里不作整体看待， 故谓语动词用复数。)
　　5．
and连接两个名词表示一个概念做主语时，谓语用单数; 若表示的是多个不同的概念时，谓语动词用复数。
　　War and peace is a constant theme in literature.
　　战争与和平是文学中永恒的主题。(War and peace是一对概念，看作一个主题)
　　The writer and translator is delivering a speech in our university tonight. (指同一个人)
　
The writer and the translator are delivering a speech in our university tonight. (指两个人)

A black and a white dog are playing in the yard. (指两只狗)
　　A black and white dog is playing in the yard. ( 指一只狗)
　　6．动词不定式、动名词、名词性从句做主语时+单数谓语
　　 Early to bed and early to rise makes one healthy, wealthy and wise.
　　( 指“早睡早起”一件事)
　　To work hard is necessary
　
What I said and did is of no concern to you.
　
Reading three classical novels and making some social investigations are assignments for the students during the holiday. ( 注意： 指不同性质的两件事，谓语用复数 )
　　7． many a, more than one + 单数可数名词，尽管表示复数意义， 谓语仍用单数。
　　Many a student has made such a mistake.
　
More than one stranger agrees with me.
　　在“more + 复数名词 + than one”结构作主语时，谓语动词用复数。
　　More persons than one have been involved. 卷入其中的远不止一人。
　　8． 由 every …and every …; each … and each…; no … and no…; many a …and many a … 等连接的并列主语，谓语动词用单数。
　　Every man and every woman working here is getting along well with me.
　　No difficulty and no hardship has discouraged him.
　　9. 由 all of, most of, half of , a lot of, part of 等加名词构成的主语，谓语动词的数取决于该名词的单复数。
　　 All of us are going to see the game.
　　 All of his time was spent on gambling
　　 Three-fourths of the people are illiterate.
　　 同例： plenty of…， one fourth of…， none of…， some of …， majority of …， …
percent of …， the rest of …， reminder of …。
　　10. a number of ( a total of , an average of ) +复数名词，谓语动词用复数。
　　the number of ( the total of, the average of ) + 复数名词， 谓语动词用单数。
　　A total of ten thousand dollars were donated last month.
　　The total of dollars donated last month was 100,000 dollars.
　　同例： a / the variety of；a / the group of
　　11. 定语从句的谓语动词注意与先行词保持一致，但注意the only one of… 的用法。
　　 One of those men likes to drive fast.
　　 One of those men who like to drive fast is her son.
　　 He is the only one of those men who likes to drive fast.
　　12. 由some，any, no，every 构成的复合词如somebody, nothing, nobody, anything, everybody等代词作主语，谓语动词用单数；由each, every one, no one, either, neither, another, the other作主语时，谓语动词用单数；由either, neither, each, every修饰名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。如：
　　More than one example is necessary to make the students understand this rule clearly.
　　Neither is satisfactory.
　　Is either of the singers reading now?
　　13. the + adj / v-ed 表示一类人时， 用复数谓语动词; 表示抽象概念时， 谓语动词用单数。
　　The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.
　　病人得到了医治，失踪的也找回来了。
　　同例： the poor / dumb / innocent / guilty / unemployed / aged / oppressed / exploited…
　　We can do the difficult first. The impossible takes a little longer.
　　我们先从难题开始，不会的可能花的时间长一些。
　　The best is yet to come. 好戏还在后头。
　　14. a pair of + 由两部分物体构成的名词(如：shoes, scissors, glasses, jeans, pants, trousers)作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
　　My new pair of pants is being altered. 我的一条短裤正在修改。
　　15. 当主语被one ( a ) and a half 修饰时，谓语动词用单数。
　　One and a half apples is left on the plate.
　　16. 当主语由 a series of…， a portion of …， a species of …， a kind of …， a sequence of …， a chain of…， a piece of … 加名词(单数或复数)构成时， 谓语用单数。
　　A series of lectures on psychology is said to be given by Mr. Li.
　　A large portion of her poems was published after her death.

1、

九天揽月UID: 2737667

1、
代词：人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、自身代词、相互代词、疑问代词、关系代词和不定代词八种
2、
常见的不定代词有a11，both，each，every等，以及含有some-，any-，no-等的合成代词，如anybody， something，no one。这些不定代词大都可以代替名词和形容词，在句中作主语、宾语、表语和定语，但none和由some，any，no等构成的复合不定代词只能作主语、宾语或表语；every和no只能作定语。
3、
说明：在复合句中，如果主句和从句主语相同，代词主语要用在从句中，名词主语用在主句中，例如：
When he arrived, John went straight to the bank.
4、
人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语，但在口语中也能作主语补语，第一人称在省略句中，还可以作主语，例如：
I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
我看到她和他们在一起，至少我认为是她。（her做宾 语，them做介词宾语，her做主语补语）
a. -- Who broke the vase? --谁打碎了花瓶？
b. -- Me.--我。（me做主语补语= It's me.）
说明：在上面两例句中，her和me分别作主语补语。现代英语中多用宾格，在正式文体中这里应为she和I。
5、
1) 宾格代替主格
a.在简短对话中，当人称代词单独使用或在not 后，多用宾语。
---- I like English.--我喜欢英语。
---- Me too.--我也喜欢。
---- Have more wine?--再来点酒喝吗?
---- Not me.--我可不要了。
b.在表示比较的非正式的文体中，常用宾格代替主格。 但如果比较状语的谓语保留，则主语只能用主格。
He is taller than I/me.
He is taller than I am.
6、
2) 主格代替宾格
a. 在介词 but，except 后，有时可用主格代替宾格。
b. 在电话用语中常用主格。
---- I wish to speak to Mary. -- 我想和玛丽通话。
---- This is she. --我就是玛丽。
注意：在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。
I thought it was she. 我以为是她。(主格----主格)
I thought it to be her.(宾格----宾格)
I was taken to be she.我被当成了她。(主格----主格)
They took me to be her.他们把我当成了她。 (宾格----宾格)
7、
不定代词 anybody，everybody，nobody，anyone， someone， everyone，no one，及whoever和person在正式场合使用时，可用 he, his, him代替
8、
并列人称代词的排列顺序
1)
单数人称代词并列作主语时，其顺序为：
第二人称 －> 第三人称 －> 第一人称
you －> he/she; it -> I
You, he and I should return on time.
2) 复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为：
第一人称 －> 第二人称 －> 第三人称
we－>you －>They
注意：在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。
a. 在承认错误，承担责任时，
It was I and John that made her angry.
b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称， 如：I and you try to finish it.
c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时，
d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
9、
双重所有格
物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置，修饰一个名词，而必须用双重所有格。
公式为：
a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。如：
a friend of mine.
each brother of his.
10、
在不强调的情况下，but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。但在and, or, nor 连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself 作主语。
Charles and myself saw it.
第二人称作宾语，要用反身代词。
You should be proud of yourself.你应为自己感到骄傲。
11、
指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人，但作其他句子成分时只能指物，不能指人
12、
That和those可作定语从句的先行词，但this和 these不能，同时，在作先行词时，只有those可指人
13、
疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前，没有性和数的变化，除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which, whose还可作限定词。试比较：
疑问代词：Whose are these books on the desk?
桌上的书是谁的？
What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion?
美国的领土扩张是朝哪个方向的？
限定词：Whose books are these on the desk?
桌上的书是谁的？
What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States?哪些事件使密西西比河以东的大部分土地归属于美国？
14、
Whom是who的宾格，在书面语中，它作动词宾语或介词宾语，在口语中作宾语时，可用who代替，但在介词后只能用whom, 例如：
Who(m) did you meet on the street?
你在街上遇到了谁？（作动词宾语）
Who(m) are you taking the book to?
你要把这书带给谁？（作介词宾语，置句首）
To whom did you speak on the campus?
15、
疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时，过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首，现代英语中，疑问代词在句首，介词在句末，例如：
For what do most people live and work?
大部分人生活和工作的目的是什么？（旧文体）
What are you looking for?
你在找什么？（现代英语）
16、
除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词，也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。
I have no idea about it.
all 通常不与可数名词单数连用，如：不说 all the book，而说 the whole book。但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用，如 all day，all night， all the year； 但习惯上不说 all hour，all century。
all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用，如 all China，all the city，all my life， all the way
17、
. both 与复数动词连用，但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。
b. both, all 都可作同位语，其位置在行为动词前， be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省去，则位于助动词或情态动词之前。
Who can speak Japanese? We both (all) can.
18、
neither 与nor
d.如前句是否定式从句，则主句用neither，而不用 nor。
If you don't do it，neither should I.如果你不干，我也不干。
e. 如后连续有几个否定句式，则用nor，不用neither。
He can't sing，nor dance，nor skate.
19、
none 无
1) none作主语，多与of 构成短语 none of。在答语中，none可单独使用。
Are there any pictures on the wall? None.
2) none作主语，谓语动词单复数均可。但如做表语，则其单复数与表语一致。
It is none of your business.
20、
当否定的是整体中的部分时，some可用于否定句。如：
I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
这些年我没有收到一些老朋友的信。
21、
ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前，则用some, any，而不
用 ones。
Have you bought any rulers? Yes，I 've bought some.
22、
anyone仅指人，any one既可指人，也可指物。
23、
a)none 后跟of短语，既可指人又可指物，而no one只单独使用，只指人。
b)none 作主语，谓语动词用单，复数均可，而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。
every 指三个以上的人或物(含三个)，each指两个以上的人或物 (含两个)。
every 只作形容词，不可单独使用。each可作代词或形容词。
Every student has to take one.
Each boy has to take one.
Each of the boys has to take one.
every不可以作状语，each可作状语。
every 有反复重复的意思，如 every two weeks等； each没有。
6)every 与not 连用，表示部分否定； each 和not连用表示全部否定。
Every man is not honest. 并非每个人都诚实。
Each man is not honest.这儿每个人都不诚实。

九天揽月UID: 2737667

动词的时态
1、
一般过去时的用法
1）在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或存在的状态。
时间状语有：yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982等。
Where did you go just now?

2）句型：
It is time for sb. to do sth"到……时间了""该……了"
It is time sb. did sth. "时间已迟了""早该……了"
It is time for you to go to bed.你该睡觉了。
It is time you went to bed.你早该睡觉了。
would (had) rather sb. did sth.表示'宁愿某人做某事'
I'd rather you came tomorrow.
3) wish, wonder, think, hope 等用过去时，作试探性的询问、请求、建议等。
注意： 用过去时表示现在，表示委婉语气。
动词 want, hope, wonder, think, intend 等。
Did you want anything else?
I wondered if you could help me.
情态动词 could, would.
Could you lend me your bike?
85、注意：be about to 不能与 tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。
be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事。
be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。
在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。
I hope they have a nice time next week.
Make sure that the windows are closed before you leave the room.
86、一般过去时的时间状语:
yesterday, last week，…ago, in1980, in October, just now, 具体的时间状语
共同的时间状语:
this morning, tonight, this April, now, once，before, already, recently，lately
现在完成时的时间状语
for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till / until, up to now, in past years, always,
不确定的时间状语
87、用于现在完成时的句型
1）It is the first / second time…. that…结构中的从句部分，用现在完成时。
It is the first time that I have visited the city.
It was the third time that the boy had been late.
2）This is the… that…结构，that 从句要用现在完成时.
This is the best film that I've (ever) seen.
这是我看过的最好的电影。
This is the first time (that) I've heard him sing.这是我第一次听他唱歌。
88、Since 用来说明动作起始时间，for用来说明动作延续时间长度。
    since的四种用法
1) since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。
I have been here since 1989.
2) since +一段时间+ ago
I have been here since five months ago.
3) since +从句
Great changes have taken place since you left.
Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.
4) It is +一段时间+ since从句
It is two years since I became a postgraduate student.
89、用于till / until从句的差异
延续动词用于肯定句，表示"做……直到……" 瞬间动词用于否定句，表示"到 ……，才……"
He didn't come back until ten o'clock.
他到10 点才回来。
He slept until ten o'clock.
他一直睡到10点。
90、过去完成时在told, said, knew, heard, thought等动词后的宾语从句。
She said (that) she had never been to Paris.
   表示意向的动词，如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等，用过去完成时表示"原本…，未能…"
We had hoped that you would come, but you didn't.
   过去完成时的时间状语before, by, until , when, after, once, as soon as。
   注意：had no … when还没等…… 就……
had no sooner… than刚…… 就……


叙述历史事实，可不用过去完成时，而只用一般过去时。
   不用进行时的动词
事实状态的动词
have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure, continue
   心理状态的动词
Know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need, forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate
瞬间动词
accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse.
系动词
seem, remain, lie, see, hear, smell, feel, taste, get, become, turn
91、过去进行时常用的时间状语
this morning, the whole morning, all day yesterday, from nine to ten last evening, when, while
92、注意：将来进行时不用于表示"意志"，不能说 I'll be having a talk with her.
    常用的时间状语
Soon, tomorrow, this evening，on Sunday, by this time，tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening
93、时间状语从句，条件句中，从句用一般现在时代替将来时
When, while, before, after, till, once, as soon as, so long as, by the time, if, in case (that), unless, even if, whether, the moment, the minute, the day, the year, immediately
94、一般现在时代替过去时
1 )"书上说"，"报纸上说"等。
The newspaper says that it's going to be cold tomorrow.
报纸上说明天会很冷的。
2) 叙述往事，使其生动。
Napoleon's army now advances and the great battle begins.
95、一般现在时代替完成时
1) 有些动词用一般现在时代替完成时：
hear, tell, learn, write , understand, forget, know, find , say, remember.
I hear (= have heard) he will go to London.
I forget (=have forgotten) how old he is.
2) 句型 " It is … since…"代替"It has been … since …"
3) It is (= has been) five years since we last met.
96、一般现在时代替进行时
1) 句型：Here comes… ； There goes…
Look, here comes Mr. Li.
97、时态与时间状语
时间状语
一般现在时every …, sometimes, at …, on Sunday,
一般过去时yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982, just now
一般将来时next…, tomorrow, in+时间,
现在完成时for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till/until, up to now, in past years, always, recently
过去完成时before, by, until, when, after, once, as soon as
过去进行时this morning, the whole morning, all day, yesterday, from nine to ten last evening… when, while
将来进行时soon, tomorrow, this evening, on Sunday, by this time, tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening
98、连词
连词是一种虚词， 它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词，短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类：并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等等。
99、not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且）
She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar.
注意： not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。
Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.
but表示转折，while表示对比。
not 和but 后面的用词要遵循一致原则。
for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。
两个并列连词不能连用，但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。
You can watch TV, and or you can go to bed.
He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in the game.
although… yet…，但although不与 but连用。

九天揽月UID: 2737667

100、动词
根据其在句中的功能，动词可分为四类，分别是：实义动词（Notional Verb）、系动词（Link Verb）、助动词（Auxiliary Verb）、情态动词（Modal Verb）。动词根据其后是否带有宾语，可分为两类，分别是：及物动词（Transitive Verb）、不及物动词（Intransitive Verb），缩写形式分别为vt. 和vi.。根据是否受主语的人称和数的限制，可分两类，分别是：限定动词（Finite Verb）、非限定动词（Non-finite Verb）
例如：
She sings very well.
她唱得很好。（sing受主语she的限制，故用第三人称单数形式sings。）
She wants to learn English well.
她想学好英语。（to learn不受主语she的限制，没有词形变化，是非限定动词。
说明：英语中总共有三种非限定动词，分别是：动词不定式（Infinitive）、动名词（Gerund）、分词（Participle）。根据动词的组成形式，可分为三类，分别是：单字词（One-Word Verb）、短语动词（Phrasal Verb）、动词短语（Verbal Phrase）
例如：Students should learn to look up new words in dictionaries.
学生们学会查字典。（look up是短语动词。）
The young ought to take care of the old.
年轻人应照料老人。（take care of是动词短语。）
动词有五种形态，分别是：原形（Original Form）、第三人称单数形式（Singular From in Third Personal）、过去式（Past Form）、过去分词（Past Participle）、现在分词（Present Participle）。
101、He seems (to be) very sad. 他看起来很伤心。
终止系动词表示主语已终止动作，主要有prove, trun out, 表达"证实"，"变成"之意。
在过去的语法中，语法学家说shall用于第一人称，will 只用于第二、第三人称。现在，尤其是在口语中，will常用于第一人称，但shall只用于第一人称，如用于第二、第三人称，就失去助动词的意义，已变为情态动词，试比较:
He shall come.他必须来。（shall有命令的意味。）
He will come.他要来。（will只与动词原形构成一般将来时。）
102、短语动词
动词加小品构成的起动词作用的短语叫短语动词（Phrasal Verb）。例如：
Turn off the radio.把收音机关上。（turn off是短语动词）
短语动词的构成基本有下列几种：
1） 动词+副词，如：black out；
2） 动词+介词，如：look into；
3） 动词+副词+介词，如：look forward to。构成短语动词的副词和介词都统称为小品词（Particle）。
103、若宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，变为被动语态时，该不定式前要加"to"。此类动词为感官动词。
feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch
The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
We saw him play football on the playground.
--> He was seen to play football on the playground.
104、当let后只有一个单音节动词，变被动语态时，可用不带to 的不定式。
They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.
若let 后宾补较长时，let 通常不用被动语态，而用allow或permit 代替。
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.
----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.
105、不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand
break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比较： rise, fall, happen是不及物动词；raise, seat是及物动词。
    不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语：
fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to
This key just fits the lock.
    带同源宾语的及物动词，反身代词，相互代词，不能用于被动语态：
die, death, dream, live, life
She dreamed a bad dream last night.
    当宾语是不定式时，很少用于被动语态。
106、被动形式表示主动意义
be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
    当 need, want, require, worth(形容词)后面接doing也可以表示被动。
动词不定式
107、不定式作宾语：疑问词带不定式在句中作成分时，谓语动词用单数
     不定式作补语：Find 的特殊用法：
Find 后可用分词做宾补，或先加形式宾语，再加形容词，最后加带to 的动词不定式。find后也可带一个从句。此类动词还有get，have。
I found him lying on the ground.
I found it important to learn.
I found that to learn English is important.
注意 ： 有些动词需用as 短语做补语，如regard, think believe, take, consider.
for sb. 常用于表示事物的特征特点，表示客观形式的形容词，如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等：
of sb的句型一般用表示人物的性格，品德，表示主观感情或态度的形容词，如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。
108、用作介词的to
to 有两种用法： 一为不定式+动词原形； 一为介词+名词/动名词, to 在下面的用法中是第二种，即to+ 名词/动名词：
admit to承认，confess to承认，be accustomed to 习惯于， be used to 习惯于， stick to 坚持， turn to开始，着手于， devote oneself to 献身于，be devoted to 致力于， look forward to 盼望，pay attention to 注意
109、help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth：
but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：
110、如在too前有否定词，则整个句子用否定词表达肯定， too 后那个词表达一种委婉含义，意 为"不太"。当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是：非常… 等于very。
111、不定式的特殊句型so as to
表示目的；它的否定式是so as not to do。so kind as to ---劳驾
112、动名词与不定式的区别：
动名词表达的是： 状态，性质，心境，抽象，经常性，已发生的
不定式表达的是： 目的，结果，原因，具体，一次性，将发生的
113、分词作状语
As I didn't receive any letter from him, I gave him a call.
-> Not receiving any letter from him, I gave him a call.
     有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚，可在分词前加连词。 连词有： when，while，if though，after, before, as.但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个。
分词作时间状语，如果先与主动词的动作，且强调先后， 要用having done。
分词的否定式的构成为not +分词
不及物动词的过去分词表示动作已经发生
gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned
114、词组后接doing
admit to　　 prefer…to be used to　lead to
devote oneself to　 object to　　　stick to　　
busy　look forward to(to为介词）
no good,　no use,　It's worth…,　 as well as,
can't help,　It's no use /good　 be tired of
be fond of　 be capable of　 be afraid of　
be proud of　 think of / about　 hold off
put off　 keep on　 insist on　　count on / upon
set about　 be successful in　 good at　　take up
give up　　burst out 　　prevent … from…　
worth，worthy，worth-while都为adj.　意为"值得"。
1. worth： be worth + n.　 当名词为金钱时，表示"…… 值得……"
be worth doing sth.　"……某事值得被做"
The question is not worth discussing again and again.
2. worthy： be worthy of +n.　当名词为抽象名词时表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
worth-while： be worth-while to do sth　 "值得做某事
115、独立主格结构的特点：
1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。
   
With的复合结构作独立主格
表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语
独立主格结构使用介词的问题：
当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.
( hand前不能加his)。
当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分 词，不及物动词用过去分词。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.
be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。
interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 对某种想法感兴趣，doing 通常为想法。
mean to do 打算、想
mean doing意味着
begin / start to do sth
begin / start doing sth.
谈及一项长期活动或开始一种习惯时，使用doing.
begin, start用进行时时，后面动词用不定式to do
在attempt, intend, begin, start 后接 know, understand, realize这类动词时，常用不定式to do。

九天揽月UID: 2737667

116、语态
Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently。
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.
Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.
117、撇号和连字符
The apostrophe
has three uses:
1.to form possessives of nouns
add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money
·add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment
2.to show the omission of letters
3.to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters
Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4
There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.
many & s = many ampersands
That printed page has too many & s on it.
the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969
The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.
118、平行结构

With infinitive phrases:
Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)

Not Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurate ly, and in a detailed manner.
Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
Not Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.
Not Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Not Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.
Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.
Example 1

Not Parallel:

The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel:

The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.
119. 逗号

1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
b. Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
5. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
6. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
7. Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
Incorrect: Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)
8. Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
9. John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"
10. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect: We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.
Incorrect: I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.
11. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject): The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.
Incorrect (compound object): Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.
12. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast): She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Incorrect: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.
120. 修饰语错位

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.

2.
Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

4. Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
121、字母大写

Family relationships (when used as proper names)
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?
Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.
Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.

The Fall 1999 semester
The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye
Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

Green Bay Packers
African-Americans
Anti-Semitic
Democrats
Friends of the Wilderness
Chinese
Periods and events (but not century numbers)

Victorian Era
Great Depression
Constitutional Convention
sixteenth century