1006G SPECTACULAR 备考日记 by tequilawine [无]--最初的梦想绝对会到达

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How to fix a broken heart?( r2 v3 b. a. I! F& @! ?2 K4 S# _; s
Clues about how human hearts form hint at routes to cell-based therapies.6 P$ C; k7 |4 O$ ?3 X  M! N
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Heart disease kills more people than any other condition, yet cell therapies for it remain frustratingly elusive令人困惑的; 油滑的; 难记忆的. On page 113 of this issue, Kenneth Chien of the Massachusetts General Hospital, in Boston, and his colleagues report a finding that could move this treatment closer to reality: human ‘progenitor’ cells that generate various types of heart tissue as they develop. Chien’s work remains a long way from the clinic, however, and clinical trials of other cell types for heart ailments have yielded mixed results. “Even the most ardent advocates are calling the long-term benefit modest,” says Christine Mummery, a stem-cell researcher at Leiden University in the Netherlands. That leaves open the question of what cell types, if any, could turn stem-cell research into reality for patients with heart disease. Chien’s team had previously identified, in mice, heart progenitor cells that expressed a transcription factor called Isl1 (A. Moretti et al. Cell 127, 1151–1165; 2006). Their latest paper finds that these cells also exist in humans.

After identifying cell populations in human fetal tissue, the researchers produced them from human embryonic stem cells胚胎干细胞. They also showed that the cells were multipotent — they could generate more progenitors as well as the major heart cell types of heart-muscle, smoothmuscle and blood-vessel cells. The work provides an explanation for how heart cells differentiate. Although the cells exist for just a couple of days in mice, they persist for weeks in human fetuses. This implies that cells do not immediately differentiate into the major types of heart tissue, but that the heart is built from a pool of multipotent cells that persists and differentiates as the heart grows. The findings suggest that an effective approach to cell therapy might be “to put heart progenitors in, because that’s the way the heart is built in the first place”, says Chien. Philippe Menasche, a cardiac surgeon at the Georges Pompidou European Hospital in Paris, has some doubts. He calls the work “a very interesting basic research paper”, but says that “when you are identifying progenitors like this, the first question is, ‘is it possible to isolate these cells selectively and use them [to treat patients]’?” And that isn’t possible, he says, because the telltale Isl1 is a protein that turns genes on and off and so must lie deep within the nucleus of the cell. Most robust technologies to purify cells do so through proteins that are found on the cell surface.

Early stages. At the moment, Chien has to use genetically engineered fluorescent荧光性的, 发荧光的 tags to identify cells that produce Isl1. Wariness over using genetically engineered cells, plus the fact that his cells are not genetically matched to patients’, make them less suitable for clinical trials. But for now, he says, they could be used to help screen potential heart drugs, and to help model childhood congenital diseases in which the heart is malformed. Chien hopes that researchers will eventually identify a set of surface markers that can isolate his cells reliably without genetic engineering. Raj Makkar, a cardiologist at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, adds that researchers should look at the effects of Isl1 on other cells, including damaged heart tissue in situn. 原地，就地，在原处. Adding or activating Isl1 could make some of the cells being tested in clinical trials more effective, he suggests. Current trials for heart-disease therapies use cells collected from bone-marrow, heart and skeletal-muscle biopsies (see ‘Selected heart cell-therapy trials’). Much of the focus has been on cells that are easy to collect — mainly bonemarrow cells taken from the patients who will ultimately receive them. These cells do not seem to be able to generate heart-muscle cells, called cardiomyocytes, but that doesn’t mean they aren’t helpful, argues Menasche. “It doesn’t imply they don’t have any effect,” he says. Several large-scale trials are under way to determine whether bone-marrow cells might instead benefit patients through the ‘paracrine’ effect: secreting growth factors that encourage hearts to grow new blood vessels and thereby preserve existing heart tissue. So far, says Mummery, the results have been ambiguous: the cells seem to be safe, but are not particularly effective. But others think that the efficacy of the cells has not yet been tested properly. Cells delivered too soon after a heart attack are unlikely to survive, for example, and their effects in very sick patients might be masked if healthier patients are also included in a trial, says Makkar.

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Approaches using skeletal-muscle cells have also been mixed. In 2002, Menasche led a large clinical trial studying whether injecting skeletal muscle into the heart could restore heart function. In 2006 that trial was stopped early because of a lack of efficacy, and Menasche has since decided to work on cells derived from embryonic stem cells. These readily generate beating cardiomyocytes in laboratory dishes, but are difficult to integrate productively into damaged heart tissues. Problems include purifying cells, getting enough of them, making sure they are not attacked by the immune system and controlling for the possibility of unwanted growth — to say nothing of更不必说 making sure that the introduced cells beat in time with the motion of the failing heart. Most bone-marrow trials focus on blood-forming stem cells, but another cell type found in bone marrow, called mesenchymal stem cells, is also being studied. Joshua Hare, of the University of Miami in Florida, says his team will soon report results from a phase II trial of mesenchymal stem cells, run by Osiris Therapeutics of Columbia, Maryland, showing that the cells both engraft as new cardiomyocytes and help through the paracrine effect. Indeed, Hare believes that doctors might eventually use a variety of cell therapies to treat heart disease. Mesenchymal stem cells could be used as a first-generation therapy, followed perhaps by cells derived from cardiac biopsies, followed by other cell types that have not yet entered clinical trials. He predicts that cardiac cell therapy will follow the same path as antibiotics. “Just because we have third-generation cephalosporins now,” he says, “doesn’t mean that penicillin
didn’t work.”

Monya Baker4 z/ w  H+ x. ~' i; j) T0 D
NEWS NATURE|ol 460|2 July 2009

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Abnormal psychology( G) u$ d6 {4 h' `! a5 s: w3 P
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abnormal- deviating from the normal or average
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The definition of the word abnormal is simple enough: deviatingv. 脱离, 出轨; 使脱轨 from the norm. However, applying this to psychology poses a complex problem: what is normal? Whose norm? For what age? For what culture? Some would simply classify what is "good" as normal and what is "bad" as abnormal, but this is a vague and narrow definition and brings up many of the same questions for the definition of "good" as does the definition for "normal". There are many more ways of determining a more objective reference point.  m2 E- y0 {7 s' {
One way of defining abnormality is statistical deviation. Most human characteristics are nicely distributed along a smooth bell-shaped 铃状的curve.
Those who stray too far from远离 the average on this curve are then considered abnormal. This definition, however, has its problems. It does not recognize valuable derivations, such as genius, nor does it recognize common but maladaptive behavior适应不良性行为 like smoking and drinking 3. Nonetheless, this method is both objective and scientific.* [+ H# ?+ p9 X8 c
A very simple idea that can be used to classify abnormal behavior is personal distress. Basically, if a person is content with their life, then they are of no concern to the mental health field 2a. However, if a person's thoughts or behaviors are causing them personal discomfort or unhappiness, then they will be considered abnormal.1 |8 ^: e" X/ ]0 B: X3 Y
The most common criterion准数, 指标, 尺度, 规模 for defining abnormality, however, is maladaptiveness. There are two aspects of maladaptive bahvior:
1. Maladaptive to one's self - inability to reach goals, to adapt to the demands of life and
2. Maladaptive to society - interferes, disrupts social group functioning. 2a
This type of definition allows much flexibility. It provides room for conforming behavior to society's norms as well as deviant behavior as long as it is not self-damaging. It makes abnormal the relative term it needs to be, dependent upon each individual's life and circumstances. There are certain catergories of behavior that suggest the presence of psychological disorders which are, in one way or another, maladaptive in that they threaten the well-being of the individual. These catergories include long periods of discomfort, impaired functioning, bizarre behavior, and disruptive behavior.1/ c. K, v# x6 @6 U/ P
Long Periods of Discomfort
Given, everyone experiences some kind of psychological discomfort during their life. This could be anything as simple as worrying about a calculus test to grieving the death of a loved one. This distress, however, is related to a real, related, or threatened events and passes away with time. When such distressing feelings, however, persist for an extended period of time and seem to be unrelated to events surrounding the person, they would be considered abnormal and could suggest a psychological disorder.1
Impaired受损的; 减弱的 Functioning( u. n& E" |' t: b
Here, again, there must be made a distinction between simply a passing period of inefficiency and prolonged inefficiency which seems unexplainable. For instance, a very brilliant person who consistently fails classes or someone constantly changing jobs for no reason.9 j4 U2 a; Y* I& S: ~6 N$ p2 V
Bizarre Behavior6 E$ V( V) |- {1 Q( Z
There are many things people do that others would find strange. The various piercings today's younger generation chooses to get and their style of dress may seem bizarre to adults, but their motivations are not hard to understand, which keeps them from being considered clinically abnormal. Bizarre behavior that has no rational basis, however, seems to indicate that the individual is confused. The psychoses frequently bring on hallucinations (baseless sensory perceptions) or delusions (beliefs which are patently false yet held as truth by the individual).1, ~: {- I. V* H$ l
Disruptive Behavior
Disruptive behavior means impulsive, apparently uncontrollable behavior that disrupts the lives of others or deprives them of their human rights on a regular basis. This type of behavior is characteristic of a severe psychological disorder. An example of this is the antisocial personality disorder.
All of these types of behavior are maladaptive because they directly affect the well-being of the individual and those around them, and block the growth and fulfillment of the individual's potential.1
The following disorder definitions are taken from Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.'s Introduction to Psychology
Anxiety disorders& R* j% P2 y4 o* @/ V6 R9 i. v
Includes disorders in which anxiety is the main symptom (generalized anxiety or panic disorders) or anxiety is experienced unless the individual avoids feared situations (phobic disorders) or tries to resist performing certain rituals or thinking persistent thoughts (obsessive-compulsive disorders). Also includes post-truamatic stress disorder.
Mood disorders
Disturbances of normal mood; the person may be extremely depressed, abnormally elatedadj. 兴高采烈的, or may alternate between periods of elation and depression. / n2 q9 q+ A9 q/ ?
Personality disorders
Long-standingadj. 长久的；经久不衰的 patterns of maladaptive behavior that constitutes immature and innappropriate ways of coping with stress or solving problems. Antisocial personality disorder and narcissistic personality disorder are two examples. . [+ f/ r; G2 ~7 c, o
Schiophrenia
A group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with reality, marked disturbances of thought and perception, and bizarre behavior. At some phase delusions or hallucinations almost always occur. % S. j$ A# b% Q6 h9 A2 w
Delusional (paranoid) disorders
Disorders characterized by excessive suspicions and hostility, accompanied by feelings of being persecuted; reality contact in other areas satisfactory.
QSexual disorders
Includes problems of sexual identity (for example, transsexualism), sexual performance (for example, impotence, premature ejaculation, and fridgity), and sexual aim (for example, sexual interest in children, sadism, and masochism). 7 {# s0 g+ [+ k+ j4 x/ ^4 m
Psychoactive substance abuse disorders. {% y: w$ [! x" n& B5 v, _( A
Includes excessive use of alcohol, barbituates, amphetamines, cocaine, and other drugs that alter behavior. Marijuana and tobacco are also included in this category, which is controversial ' \# d. b( Z7 J( i+ x0 a( o' y
Somatoform disorders
The symptoms are physical, but no organic basis can be found and psychological factors appear to play the major role. Included are conversion disorders (for example, a woman who resents having to care for her invalid mother suddenly develops a paralyzed arm) and hypochondriasis (excessive preoccupation with health and fear of diease when there is no basis for concern). Does not include psychososomatic disorders that have an organic basis. 7 l  B, {. m0 T3 E  I; ?
Dissociative disorders
Temporary alterations in the functions of conciousness, memory, or identity due to emotional problems. Included are amnesia (the individual cannot recall anything about his or her history following a traumatic experience) and mulitple personality (two or more independent personality systems existing within the same individual).

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Leaping into the Grand Unknown    (Freeman Dyson)

Frank Wilczek is one of the most brilliant practitioners of particle physics粒子物理学. Particle physics is the science that tries to understand the smallest building blocks of earth and sky, just as biology tries to understand living creatures. particle physics is running about two hundred years behind biology. In the eighteenth century, Carl Linaeus started systematic biology by giving Latin names to species of plants and animals, Homo sapiens for humans and Pan troglodytes for chimpanzees. In the nineteenth century, Darwin crated a unified theory for biology by explaining the origin of species. In the twentieth century, Ernest Rutherford laid the ground for particle physics by discovering that every atom has a nucleus that is vastly smaller than the atom itself, and that the nucleus is made of particles that are smaller still. In the twenty-first century, particle physicists are hoping for a new Darwin who will explain the origin of particles.
It is too soon to tell whether Wilczek will be the new Darwin. His book is not the new Origin of species. It is more like Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle, a popular account of a voyage of the Beagle, a popular account of a voyage of exploration, describing the landscape and the newly discovered creatures that still have to be explained. Wilczek is a theoretician and not an experimenter. His strength lies in leaps of the imagination rather than in heavy hardware or heavy calculations. He shared the 2004 Noble Prize in physics for inventing the concept that he called "Asymptotic Freedom."
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He writes as he thinks, with a lightness of touch that can come only to one who is absolute master of his subject. He borrowed his title from Milan Kundera, the Czech writer whose novel The unbearable Lightness of Being takes a gloomier view of lightness. For Wilczek, the lightness of being is not only bearable but exhilarating. He says:$ V1 }4 j$ R7 C2 B* |0 T; v( |
There's also a joke involved. A central theme of this book is that the ancient contrast between celestial light and earthy mater has been transcended. In modern physics, there's only one thing, and it's more like the traditional idea of light than the traditional idea of matter. Hence, The Lightness of Being." A  D7 {1 _1 F! |7 z
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Wilczek has undertaken a difficult task: to describe the central problems of particle physics to an audience ignorant of mathematics,using few equations and mostly colloquial口语的； 通俗语的 language. His idiosyncratic jargon words, such as Core, Grid, and Jesuit Credo, are explained in an extensive glossary at the end of the book. The glossary is fun to read, full of jokes and surprises. the words Core, Grid, and Jesuit Credo are not to be found in other books about physics. They are jargonn. 专门术语, 梦话, 行话 invented by Wilczek to express his personal view of the way nature works. Core is like the core curriculum undergraduates majoring in physics are supposed to learn. It is a solidly established theory, confirmed by experiments but still obviously incomplete. It is incomplete because it describes what nature does but does not explain why.The glossary says, " The Core theory contains esthetic flaws, so we hope it is not Nature's last word."8 a5 a0 z3 K+ C& ?+ b# \
Grid is Wilczek's word for the stuff that exists in apparently empty space. According to this view of the universe, empty space is not a featureless void. It is a highly structured, powerful medium whose activity molds the worlds. He says, " Where our eyes see nothing, our brains, pondering the revelations of sharply tuned调谐的, 已调谐的 experiments, discover the Grid that powers physical reality."4 ^# E$ V! L- h% k$ U, W# @
The Jesuit Credo refers not to a theory of the universe but to a way of approaching research:" It is more blessed to ask forgiveness than permission." This is a rule propounded提出(学说, 问题, 质问, 谜语等) by the Jesuits for saints and sinners trying to find the right way to live. If you ask for permission, the authorities will probably say no. If you ask for forgiveness, they are more likely to say yes. Wilczek was brought up in a Catholic family with a proper respect for Jesuits. The Jesuit Credo is particularly helpful for a scientist trying to find the right way to think. It is more blessed for a scientist to make a leap in the dark, and afterward be proved wrong, than to stay timidly within the limits of the known.
The main part of Wilczek's book, with the title " The Origin of Mass," describes the Core theory, the part of particle physics that is firmly based on the weak and strong forces that we observe in nature.Atoms and nuclei are held together by forces acting between all the pairs of particles that they contain. Each force acts between two particles and its strength depends on the distance between the two particles. Weak forces hold atoms together and trow weaker at large distances. Strong forces hold nuclei together and grow stronger at large distances. Large distances mean distances larger than the nucleus of an atom, and small distances mean distances smaller than an nucleus. The doctrine of Asymptotic Freedom, which Wilczek discovered, says that the behavior of these forces at short distances is the opposite of their behavior at large distances. At large distances, the strong force is strong and the weak force is weak, but at short distances the opposite occurs: the weak force grows stronger and the strong force grows weaker.

He called this doctrine Asymptotic Freedom because it implies that at high energies the strongly interacting particles become almost free. Strongly interacting particles are called hadrons强子, from the Greek word hadros, meaning fat. The higher the energy of a collision, the shorter the distance between the colliding particles. In collisions between hadrons with very high energy, the strong forces paradoxically become weak and the probabilities of collisions become small.
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Another consequence of Asymptotic Freedom is that we can calculate the masses of hadrons, starting from a knowledge of the strength of the strong force. Masses calculated in this way agree with the observed masses of known particles. This is what Wilczek means by " The Origin of Mass."The masses of familiar objects like atoms arise from the peculiar symmetry of the strong forces. Modern theories of particle physics have the marvelous property, first pointed out by the Chinese-American physicist Frank Yang, that the strength of particle interactions is dictated by the symmetry of the theory.Since Wilczek finds the masses depending on the strength of forces, and Yang finds the strength of forces dictated by symmetry, the final result is to make mass a consequence of symmetry alone. " P( J3 Q9 q- n. o
The last part of the book, with the title" Is Beauty Truth?," is brief and speculative思索的; 推理的; 纯理论的. It describes a Grand Unified Theory of particle physics going far beyond the Core, introducing a whole menagerie of hypothetical particles that are sisters to the known particles,and a symmetry principle known as Supersymmetry that interchanges each known particle with its sister. The word "interchange" here does not mean a physical replacement of one particle by another. It means the mathematical interchange of the entire assemblage of known particles with the assemblage of their hypothetical sisters. The hypothesis of Supersymmetry says that the equations describing the universe remain unchanged when all the known particles are interchanged with their unknown sisters. The interchange is a mathematical abstraction, not a physical action., O9 N8 m* q# Y8 E* K
The Grand Unified Theory is a bold venture冒险; 冒险事业[行动]; (商业)投机 into the unknown.It is a mathematical construction of spectacular beauty, unsupported by any experimental evidence. All that we can say for sure is that this theory is possibly true and certainly testable. Wilczek believes tat the basic laws of nature must be beautiful, and therefore a theory that is beautiful has a good change of being true. he believes that the Grand Unified Theory is true because it is aesthetically pleasing. He points to several famous examples from the history of physics, when theories designed to be beautiful turned out to be true. The best-known examples are the Dirac wave-equation for the electron and the Einstein theory of General Relativity for gravity. If the Grand Unified Theory turns out to be true, it will be another example of beauty lighting the way to truth.

At the end of the book, a chapter entitled"Anticipating a New Golden Age" describes Wilczek's hopes for the future of particle physics. He sees the Golden Age starting very soon. His hopes are based on the Large Hadron Collider (LHC0, the biggest and newest particle accelerator, build by the European Center for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva. the LHC is a splendid machine, accelerating two beams of particles in opposite directions around a circular vacuum pipe that has a circumference of twenty-seven kilometers. Particle detectors surround the beams where they collide, so that the products of the collisions are detected. The energy of each accelerated particle will be more than seven times the energy of a particle in any other accelerator. Wilczek confidently expects that supersymmetric sisters of known particle will be more than seven times the energy of a particle in any other accelerator. Wilczek confidently expects that supersymmetric sisters of known particles will be found among the debris from collisions in the LHC. By observing new particles and interactions in detail,he hopes to fill quickly the gaps in the Grand Unified Theory.5 x. R7 w- f) l, M0 d5 `% c$ c$ H

Incidentallyadv. 附带地，偶然地，顺便地, Wilczek expects the LHC to solve one of the central mysteries of astronomy by identifying the dark matter that pervades蔓延, 遍及, 弥漫, 充满, the universe. We know that the universe is full of dark matter, which weighs about five times as much as the visible matter that we observe in the form of galaxies and stars. We detect the dark matter by seeing its gravitational effect on visible matter, but we do not know what the dark matter is. If the supersymmetric sisters of known particles exist, they could be the dark matter.If all goes well, the LHC will kill two birds with one stone, observing the creation of dark matter in particle collisions, and at the same time testing the theory of Supersymmetry. Wilczek believes that all will go well. He sees the coming Golden Age as a culminating moment in the history of science:4 k  ]. A% D7 ]
Through patchy杂凑的; 不调和的 clouds, off in the distance, we seem to glimpse a mathematical Paradise, where the elements that build reality shed their dross. Correcting for the distortions of our everyday vision, we create in our minds a vision of what they might really be: pure and ideal, symmetric, equal,and perfect.

tequilawineUID: 2702008

As is well known and has often been described, the machine industry of recent times took its rise by a gradual emergence out of handicraft in England in the eighteenth century. 17题答案Since then the mechanical industry has progressively been getting the upper hand处于有利地位 in all the civilized nations, in much the same degree in which these nations have come to be counted as civilized. This mechanical industry now stands dominant at the apex of the industrial system.
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The state of the industrial arts, as it runs on the lines of the mechanical industry, is a technology of physics and chemistry. That is to say, it is governed by the same logic as the scientific laboratories. The procedure, the principles, habits of thought, preconceptions, units of measurement and of valuation, are the same in both cases.
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The technology of physics and chemistry is not derived from established law and custom, and it goes on its way with as nearly complete a disregard of the spiritual truths of law and custom as the circumstances will permit. The realities with which this technology is occupied are of another order of actuality, lying altogether within the three dimensions that contain the material universe, and running altogether on the logic of material fact. In effect it is the logic of inanimate facts.' @$ F! ~( p/ t" Y
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The mechanical industry makes use of the same range of facts handled in the same impersonal way and directed to the same manner of objective results. In both cases alike it is of the first importance to eliminate the “personal equation,” to let the work go forward and let the forces at work take effect quite objectively, without hindrance妨害, 障碍, 干扰, 延[停]滞
or deflection for any personal end, interest, or gain. It is the technician’s place in industry, as it is the scientist’s place in the laboratory, to serve as an intellectual embodiment of the forces at work, isolate the forces engaged from all extraneous disturbances, and let them take full effect along the lines of designed work. The technician is an active or creative factor in the case only in the sense that he is the keeper of the logic which governs the forces at work.

These forces that so are brought to bear in mechanical industry are of an objective, impersonal, unconventional nature, of course. They are of the nature of opaque不透明的，难懂的 fact. Pecuniary金钱(上)的, 应罚款的 gain is not one of these impersonal facts. Any consideration of pecuniary gain that may be injected into the technician’s working plans will come into the case as an intrusive and alien factor, whose sole effect is to deflect, retard, derange and curtail the work in hand. At the same time considerations of pecuniary gain are the only agency brought into the case by the businessmen, and the only ground on which they exercise a control of production.15题答案 t4 N, n; J6 F/ _& j+ J

14.The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing    D* O$ P5 V8 ]2 b. Z0 ~0 I5 ^- v5 ^
(A) industrial organization in the eighteenth century
(B) the motives for pecuniary gain
(C) the technician’s place in mechanical industry5 S0 I' b; F6 U, x# R, A2 C
(D) the impersonal organization of industry/ Z# U+ }9 ?( {+ k/ g+ X8 p% d
(E) the material contribution of physics in industrial society4 ]" W; R" A, k4 T

15.The author of the passage suggests that businessmen in the mechanical industry are responsible mainly for  A B
(A) keeping the logic governing the forces at work! k) B% y0 x% Z8 p0 n3 T) x
(B) managing the profits4 K; Z& o! |+ l) `& K/ t+ i
(C) directing the activities of the technicians+ f  p: I* M9 T5 m0 x6 G
(D) employing the technological procedures of physics and chemistry
(E) treating material gain as a spiritual truth

16.Which one of the following, if true, would contradict the author’s belief that the role of technician is to be “the keeper of the logic” (lines 45-46)?                   A            B
(A) All technicians are human beings with feelings and emotions.  H. \/ F$ w; o; o; Q7 U
(B) An interest in pecuniary gain is the technician’s sole motive for participation in industry.
(C) The technician’s working plans do not coincide with the technician’s pecuniary interests.
(D) Technicians are employed by businessmen to oversee the forces at work.4 H" Y8 b/ n. Z4 X/ X. z4 w
(E) Technicians refuse to carry out the instructions of the businessmen.
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17.The author would probably most strongly agree with which one of the following statements about the evolution of the industrial system?    E   B
(A) The handicraft system of industry emerged in eighteenth-century England and was subsequently replaced by the machine industry., G5 h, r+ |" U# ]" U" _
(B) The handicraft system of industrial production has gradually given rise to导致 a mechanistic technology that dominates contemporary industry.8 R; o; v& I- v6 r3 Z' t4 Y6 z
(C) The handicraft system emerged as the dominant factor of production in eighteenth-century England but was soon replaced by mechanical techniques of production.8 }# A# D7 L, \" X' \) ^7 S5 e6 c
(D) The mechanical system of production that preceded the handicraft system was the precursor of contemporary means of production., k0 s2 K8 S8 e+ P) x0 ]
(E) The industrial arts developed as a result of the growth of the mechanical industry that followed the decline of the handicraft system of production.

18.Which one of the following best describes the author’s attitude toward scientific techniques?    E, K) X/ F# s% p. h, I4 f; H
(A) critical
(B) hostile: F7 p6 f' w+ I1 G
(C) idealistic/ X, l/ ]7 x) ^1 _- l
(D) ironic
(E) neutral
(This passage was originally published in 1905)

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Beginnings of Western psychology* }: d7 Y3 V" C
Many of the Ancients' writings would have been lost had it not been for the efforts of the Arab and Islamic translators in the House of Wisdom, the House of Knowledge, and other such institutions, whose glosses and commentaries were later translated into Latin in the12th century. However, it is not clear how these sources first came to be used during the Renaissance文艺复兴时期; 文艺复兴时期的风格, and their influence on what would later emerge as the discipline of psychology is a topic of scholarly debate.


The word itself
The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the German scholastic philosopher Rudolf Göckel (1547-1628, often known under the Latin form Rudolph Goclenius), who published the Yucologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu in Marburg in 1590. However, the term seems to have been used more than six decades earlier by the Croatian humanist Marko Marulić (1450-1524) in the title of his Latin treatise, Psichiologiade ratione animae humanae. Although the treatise论文丛集 itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis"(Krstić, 1964). This, of course, may well not have been the very first usage,but it is the earliest documented use at present.6 k! U% V1 o/ r8 W" S) x9 o
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The term did not come into popular usage until the German idealist philosopher, Christian Wolff (1679-1754) used it in his Psychologia empirica and Psychologia rationalis (1732-1734). This distinction between empirical以经验为根据的, 经验主义的
and rational psychology was picked up in Denis Diderot's (1713–1780) Encyclopédie (1751–1784) and was popularized in France by Maine de Biran(1766-1824). In England, the term "psychology" overtook "mental philosophy" in the middle of the 19th century, especially in the work of William Hamilton (1788–1856) (see Danziger, 1997, chap. 3).

Enlightenment psychological thought% f; ?) }, O. _, L. o+ {
Early psychology was regarded as the study of the soul (in the Christian sense of the term). The modern philosophical form of psychology was heavily influenced by the works of René Descartes(1596–1650), and the debates that he generated, of which the most relevant were the objections to his Meditations on First Philosophy(1641), published with the text. Also important to the later development of psychology were his Passions of the Soul(1649) and Treatise on Man(completed in 1632 but, along with the rest of The World, withheld from publication after Descartes heard of the Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo; it was eventually published posthumously, in 1664).

Although not educated as a doctor, Descartes did extensive anatomical studies of bulls' hearts and was considered important enough for Harvey to respond to. Descartes was one of the first to endorse Harvey's model of the circulation of the blood,but disagreed with his metaphysical framework to explain it. Descartes dissected animals and human cadavers(人的)尸体
and as a result was familiar with there search on the flow of blood leading to the conclusion that the body is a complex device that is capable of moving without the soul, thus contradicting the "Doctrine of the Soul". The emergence of psychology as a medical discipline was given a major boost by Thomas Willis, not only in his reference to psychology (the"Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, but through his detailed 1672 anatomical work, and his treatise "De Anima Brutorum"("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). However, Willis acknowledged the influence of Descartes's rival, Pierre Gassendi, as an inspiration for his work.& r. g! j$ n8 w6 q1 Y
  o6 t5 R7 E- {7 a8 \
The philosophers of the British Empiricist and Associationist schools had a profound impact on the later course of experimental psychology. John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), George Berkeley's Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge(1710), and David Hume's A Treatise of Human Nature(1739–1740) were particularly influential, as were David Hartley's Observations on Man(1749) and John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic. (1843). Also notable was the work of some Continental Rationalist philosophers, especially Baruch Spinoza's (1632–1677) On the Improvement of the Understanding (1662) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's(1646–1716) New Essays on Human Understanding (completed 1705, published 1765).3 a2 s% b) ]. z0 O2 W
The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard also influenced the humanistic, existential, and modern psychological schools with his works The Concept of Anxiety(1844) and The Sickness Unto Death(1849).

Transition to contemporary psychology
Also influential on the emerging discipline of psychology were debates surrounding the efficacyn. 功效, 效力 of Mesmerism (hypnosis) and the value of phrenology. The former was developed in the 1770s by Austrian physician Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) who claimed to use the power of gravity, and later of "animal magnetism," to cure various physical and mental ills. As Mesmer and his treatment became increasingly fashionable in both Vienna and Paris, it also began to come under the scrutiny细看, 仔细检查 of suspicious officials. In 1784, an investigation was commissioned in Paris by King Louis which included American ambassador专使, 特使 Benjamin Franklin, chemistAntoine Lavoisier and physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin(later the popularizer of the guillotine). They concluded that Mesmer's method was useless.Abbé Faria, an Indo-Portuguese priest, revived public attention to animal magnetism. Unlike Mesmer, Faria claimed that it 'generated from within the mind’ by the power of expectancy and cooperation of the patient. Although disputed, the"magnetic" tradition continued among Mesmer's students and others,resurfacing in England in the 19th century in the work of physicians John Elliotson (1791–1868), James Esdaile (1808–1859), and James Braid (1795–1860), who renamed it "hypnotism."Mesmerism also continued to have a strong social (if not medical) following in England through the 19th century (see Winter, 1998).Faria's approach was significantly extended by the clinical and theoretical work of Ambroise-Auguste Liébeaultand Hippolyte Bernheim of the Nancy School. Faria's theoretical position, and the subsequent experiences of those in the Nancy School made significant contributions to the later autosuggestion techniques of Émile Coué. It was adopted for the treatment of hysteria by the director of Paris's Salpêtrière Hospital, Jean-Martin Charcot(1825–1893).; n0 c/ j2 x  ^* P
- t4 b! b1 o, }, I1 X% t
Phrenology began as "organology", a theory of brainstructure developed by the German physician, Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828). Gall argued that the brain is divided into a large number of functional "organs," each responsiblefor particular human mental abilities and dispositions – hope, love,spirituality, greed, language, the abilities to detect the size, form, and color of objects, etc. He argued that the larger each of these organs are, the greater the power of the corresponding mental trait. Further, he argued that one could detect the sizes of the organs in a given individual by feeling the surface of that person's skull. Gall's ultra-localizationist position with respect to the brain was soon attacked, most notably by French anatomist Pierre Flourens (1794–1867), who conducted ablation医】部分切除(术); 【医】脱落 studies(on chickens) which purported意味着, 有...的意义, 大意是...
to demonstrate little or no cerebral大脑的, 脑的
localizationof function. Although Gall had been a serious (if misguided) researcher, histheory was taken by his assistant, Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776–1832), and developed into the profitable, popular enterprise of phrenology, which soon spawned, especially in Britain, a thriving industry of independent practitioners. In the hands of Scottishreligious leader George Combe (1788–1858) (whose book The Constitution of Manwas one of the best-sellers of the century), phrenology became stronglyassociated with political reform movements and egalitarian principles (see,e.g., Shapin, 1975; but also see van Wyhe, 2004). Phrenology soon spread to America as well, where itinerant practical phrenologists assessed the mentalwell-being of willing customers (see Sokal, 2001).

tequilawineUID: 2702008

(This passage was originally published in 1905)9 ~( Y. N' ~& t# m! r2 I! R% `
The word democracy may stand for a natural social equality in the body politic (国家）or for a constitutional form of government in which power lies more or less directly in the people’s hand. The former may be called social democracy and the later democratic government. The two differ widely, both in origin and in moral principle. Genetically considered, social democracy社会主义 is something primitive, unintended, proper to communities where there is general competence and no marked personal eminence. There be no will aristocracy, no prestige, but instead an intelligent readiness to lend a hand 帮助and to do in unison和谐 whatever is done. In other words, there will be that most democratic of governments—no government at all. But when pressure of circumstances, danger, or inward strife makes recognized and prolonged guidance necessary to a social democracy, the form its government takes is that of a rudimentary基本的, 初步的; 发展未完全的 monarchy established by election or general consent. A natural leader emerges and is instinctively obeyed. That leader may indeed be freely criticized and will not be screened by any pomp or traditional mystery; he or she will be easy to replace and every citizen will feel essentially his or her equal. Yet such a state is at the beginnings of monarchy and aristocracy.& X' `2 `( V' A1 X
Political democracy, on the other hand, is a late and artificial product. It arises by a gradual extension of aristocratic adj. 贵族的; 仪态高贵的privileges, through rebellion against abuses, and in answer to restlessness on the people’s part. Its principle is not the absence of eminence, but the discovery that existing eminence is no longer genuine and representative. It may retain many vestiges of older and less democratic institutions. For under democratic governments the people have not created the state; they merely control it. Their suspicions and jealousies are quieted by assigning to them a voice, perhaps only a veto, in the administration. The people’s liberty consists not in 存在于their original responsibility for what exists, but merely in the faculty they have acquired of abolishing any detail that may distress or wound them, and of imposing any new measure, which, seen against the background of existing laws, may commend（commend to 交付给） itself from time to time to their instinct and mind.$ `5 Y& K) b/ I3 [8 _% W
If we turn from origins to ideals, the contrast between social and political democracy is no less marked. Social democracy is a general ethical ideal, looking to注意, 当心; 照料; 指望, 依赖; 朝...看 human equality and brotherhood, and inconsistent, in its radical form, with such institutions as the family and hereditary property. Democratic government, on the contrary, is merely a means to an end, an expedient for the better and smoother government of certain states at certain junctures. It involves no special ideals of life; it is a question of policy, namely, whether the general interest will be better served by granting all people an equal voice in elections. For political democracy must necessarily be a government by deputy, and the questions actually submitted to the people can be only very large rough matters of general policy or of confidence in party leaders.1 x7 @4 P" Z! v; z, l
19.The author suggests that the lack of “marked personal eminence” (line 11) is an important feature of a social democracy because     E
(A) such a society is also likely to contain the seeds of monarchy and aristocracy- X7 I% ?! Q  m# a
(B) the absence of visible social leaders in such a society will probably impede the development of a political democracy$ A" Y- w6 r& r2 q
(C) social democracy represents a more sophisticated form of government than political democracy3 L6 f( y3 W5 t: j1 i  M
(D) a society that lacks recognized leadership will be unable to accomplish its cultural objectives. A5 r) o+ S/ i
(E) the absence of visible social leaders in such a community is likely to be accompanied by a spirit of cooperation
20.Which one of the following forms of government does the author say is most likely to evolve from a social democracy?                    A i# r& [; X( R
(A) monarchy6 Z, m/ S) E  M9 _
(B) government by deputy
(C) political democracy
(D) representative democracy
(E) constitutional democracy
21.The author of the passage suggests that a political democracy is likely to have been immediately preceded 在前面, 领先, 居先by which one of the following forms of social organization?  AB

(A) a social democracy in which the spirit of participation has been diminished by the need to maintain internal security& w7 u+ {% h9 e9 a5 ~0 ?
(B) an aristocratic society in which government leaders have grown insensitive to people’s interests
(C) a primitive society that stresses the radical equality of all its members- j" V+ k5 D* G# I& ?
(D) a state of utopian brotherhood in which no government exists" q7 W+ I+ l' w( B  M* g! w1 {) (E) a government based on general ethical ideals
22.According to the passage, “the people’s liberty” (line 42) in a political democracy is best defined as  CD
(A) a willingness to accept responsibility for existing governmental forms
(B) a myth perpetrated by aristocratic leaders who refuse to grant political power to their subjects
(C) the ability to impose radically new measures when existing governmental forms are found to be inadequate$ A8 e1 b4 M3 k& q1 ]
(D) the ability to secure concessions from a government that may retain many aristocratic characteristics
(E) the ability to elect leaders whom the people consider socially equal to themselves
23.According to the author of this passage, a social democracy would most likely adopt a formal system of government when   A
(A) recognized leadership becomes necessary to deal with social problems
(B) people lose the instinctive ability to cooperate in solving social problems
(C) a ruling monarch decides that it is necessary to grant political concessions to the people1 M$ x$ g0 w  \7 `) o
(D) citizens no longer consider their social leaders essentially equal to themselves
(E) the human instinct to obey social leaders has been weakened by suspicion and jealousy3 n, y- d, M! t
24.According to the passage, which one of the following is likely to occur as a result of the discovery that “existing eminence is no longer genuine and representative” (lines 35-36)? E  D- O, `5 M* W7 S& A
(A) Aristocratic privileges will be strengthened, which will result in a further loss of the people’s liberty.
(B) The government will be forced to admit its responsibility for the inadequacy of existing political institutions.4 r' [" s/ R2 ^% q
(C) The remaining vestiges of less democratic institutions will be banished from government.5 ?: w1 l/ h1 y5 \) y  S5 B# N" Y# n
(D) People will gain political concessions from the government and a voice in the affairs of state.# [* y0 p  {8 z' X8 I
(E) People will demand that political democracy conform to the ethical ideals of social democracy.! |5 o( b4 C* p& Y+ ~
25.It can be inferred from the passage that the practice of “government by deputy” (line 64) in a political democracy probably has its origins in C E
(A) aristocratic ideals
(B) human instincts
(C) a commitment to human equality
(D) a general ethical ideal. ~# M. L; w1 G
(E) a policy decision
26.Which one of the following statements, if true, would contradict the author’s notion of the characteristics of social democracy?  A
(A) Organized governmental systems tend to arise spontaneously, rather than in response to specific problem situations.2 g, n* \9 c8 i/ P8 N
(B) The presence of an organized system of government stifles the expression of human equality and brotherhood.* [: {" _8 G7 V: t) K% x
(C) Social democracy represents a more primitive form of communal organization than political democracy.% Q5 n5 S' J' r  f
(D) Prolonged and formal leadership may become necessary in a social democracy when problems arise that cannot be resolved by recourse to the general competence of the people." u2 i% I) J) Z* O; m
(E) Although political democracy and social democracy are radically different forms of communal organization, it is possible for both to contain elements of monarchy.

tequilawineUID: 2702008

Today's Topic: VEGETATION ANALYSIS

Located along the western seaboard of Ireland, the Burren is one of the largest expanses辽[广]阔, 苍天; of limestonen.  石灰石 karst in Europe and is renowned for its unique flora, which includes arctic alpine and Mediterranean species growing together, an occurrence found nowhere else in the world (Webb and Scannell 1983). The study area is part of the Atlantic biogeographical region of Europe (Roisin 1969), and it has a temperate不过分的, 适度的, 稳健的, oceanic climate characterised by mild, wet winters and cool, moist潮湿的, 润湿的 summers. It is subject to易遭[受,发生] few frosts冰冻, 严寒, but can be prone to severe periods of reduced water availability in the summer months (Osborne et al. 2003). These environmental and edaphic土壤的 features have contributed to the extant现[尚]存的, 未逸(失)的 floral assemblage. The arctic alpine species, particularly Gentiana verna and Dryasoctopetala, may be relicts【古生】残遗体[种];【地质】残余 from the glaciations (Hill et al. 2004). These two species’ distributions have also been described as European arctic montaneadj.  山的, 山地的
and circumpolaradj.极地附近的arctic montane, respectively (Preston and Hill 1997). The Mediterranean species (e.g. Neotinea maculata; also called Mediterranean Atlantic (Prestonand Hill 1997)) may be surviving because of the reduced water availability experienced during the summer months (Clabby and Osborne 1994; Jeffrey 2003). Highrain fall causes leaching(沥, 溶, 浸)滤, 用水漂; 溶化, 溶解
and acidificationn. 酸化, 成酸性 of the thin soils, and this further enriches the floral diversity of the Burren area, which, together with Connemara,contains up to 82% of the Irish flora (Webb and Scannell 1983).; i5 c0 ~, I$ Z; v* d+ ^, v, S

The traditional land use is grazing放牧, predominantly by cattle, although sheep were also significant grazers in the past. Grazing usually occurs only in the winter in the Burren uplands, due to the mild climate and nutritious grazing on these limestone grasslands (Haughton 1953). During the summer the cattle are moved down to the more-productive pastures草地; 山坡; 牧场. In recent times, however, due to depopulation and changes in agricultural policies, there has been a relaxation of grazing pressure in the Burren (Dunford and Feehan 2001). Other contributory factors include a switch to heavier and more productive animal breeds, as well as an increased reliance on supplementary feeding, so that grazing pressure is reduced (Dunford and Feehan 2001). In turn, this has contributed to a rapid expansion of scrub in recent times (The Heritage Council 2006), and this is encroaching on侵蚀侵犯 to the species-rich limestone grasslands and heaths for which the area is famous. This is not just an Irish problem (Bohnsack 2000): it is also occurring more widely in Europe in extensive grazing systems (Rejmanek and Rosen 1992;Dzwonko and Loster 1998).

Despite the importance of the Burren flora, classification分类； 分级 of Burren plant communities has been piecemeal一片一片的, 逐渐的 and superficial. There are many reasons for this. Being such a heterogeneous异种的, 异源的, 异类的 landscape with a paucity少许, 少量 of clear-cut 明确的, 清楚的 ecological boundaries,many of the communities merge and interdigitatevt.  (使)互相交叉, particularly the grassland and heath communities. Also, because of the intimate mixture of usually quite widely separated species assemblages, such as arctic_alpine and Mediterranean species,the community types found in the Burren do not fit neatly into any existing classification./ ?  j0 u. g) i

As these grassland and heath habitats make up the largest part of the area and are of unique conservation interest due to their species richness, diversity and unusual species combinations, there is a need for a more-comprehensive study of their vegetation.This has become more pressing in recent times, due to the changing grazing practices mentioned earlier. Other changes in land use, such as the reclamation of Burren grasslands, which involved bringing in topsoil and subsequent fertilisation (Drew and Magee 1994), and the change from haymaking to silage,which, in a karstic region with thin soils, affects groundwater quality (Drew 1996),have also impacted on the vegetation, but these are now of minor significance.As most of the Burren is now protected under European law as a suite of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), good baseline assessment and long-term monitoring are now practical and pressing requirements (Bohnsack 2000).; g, `  y' u/ p

GENERAL BACKGROUND TO PHYTOSOCIOLOGY OF GRASSLANDS AND HEATHS IN IRELAND: G/ s" u' e) {. b
The first description of Irish limestone grasslands was made by Braun-Blanquet and Tu¨xen (1952), who placed them into the class Festuco_Brometea, the dry, calcareous adj. 钙质的, 石灰质的grassland class found throughout Europe. The alliance同盟; 联盟, Brometalia describes the base rich central- and west-European grasslands, and the sub-alliance Mesobromion (Braun-Blanquet and Moor1938) represents the limestone and chalk grasslands of the British Isles and is well-represented in the Burren. Two sub-alliances have been described: the Eu_Mesobromenion and the Seslerio_ Mesobromenion (Oberdorfer 1957). The former is characteristic of eskers and moraines and stable landward dunes in the west of Ireland. It lacks the boreo-temperate Sesleria caerulea. The Seslerio_Mesobromenion sub-alliance is thought to be the most remarkable of all Irish grasslands, with such arctic_alpine species as Dryas octopetala found at sea level. This association has not been found outside of the Burren, and it has affinities【生】类缘, 亲缘, 类同 with the class of alpine grasslands called Seslerietea variae. The association Asperulo_Seslerietumwithin Seslerio_Mesobromenion was reclassified, being originally classed as subassociations within the Eu_Mesobromenion (Shimwell 1971).# ?1 ^- f9 ]2 b* P
) Q9 W/ N  L3 H2 r& U' w, W, @
Ivimey-Cook and Proctor (1966)were the first to attempt to classify Burren habitats as a whole. Within these habitats, they identified a range of limestone and mesotrophic grasslands and heaths. Firstly, they described the Centaureo_Cynosuretum (Braun-Blanquet andTu¨xen 1952), pastures on well-drained sites over the Carboniferous shales south of the Burren. They also recognised Centaureo _Cynosuretum on thin, clayey,drift-derived soils in the Burren itself, interdigitating imperceptibly with limestone soils, forming intermediate types between the two extremes. They noted that Braun-Blanquet and Tu¨xen (1952) created a Thymus drucei sub-association to cater for this intermediate formation in western Ireland, but they disagreed with this classification, considering it to be too general. Within the limestone grasslands they recognised three types relevant to this study. Firstly, the Dryasoctopetala_Hypericum pulchrum association (Braun-Blanquet and Tu¨xen 1952), which occurs widely throughout the Burren and is very species-rich. Ivimey-Cookand Proctor also recognised a variation on this theme in their Empetrum nigrum_Epipactisatrorubens nodum on steep, high, exposed slopes. A third type was recognised as the Antennaria dioica_Hieracium pilosella nodum, which was found over drift soils. The limestone heaths石南丛生的荒地, 荒野 they recognised were essentially derived from the Dryasoctopetala_Hypericum pulchrum association and the Antennaria dioica_Hieraciumpilosella nodum, but Calluna vulgaris replaced Dryas octopetala. Another heath community recognised was the Arctostaphyllos uva ursi_Dryas octopetala nodum,which occurs at altitudes over 200m and also contains, significantly, Juniperus communis.

From phytosociological studies conducted on lowland Irish grasslands in the early 1970s (O’Sullivan 1982), the upland calcareous grasslands were assigned to a unique sub-alliance called the Seslerio_Mesobromion.This disagreed with Ivimey- Cook and Proctor’s classification, which placed the same community in the Mesobromion erecti. Within this alliance the Dryas octopetala_Hypericumpulchrum association was considered to be the commonest grassland association in the Burren (O’Sullivan 1982). However, this also included variations with Calluna vulgaris on more-leached soils, giving it the appearance of a heath.' Q4 a8 R4 h% \7 G

The heaths are less studied and less easily defined within the Burren context. A general European classification may be applied using the classes Calluno_Ulicetea (dry,calcareous heath), Oxycocco_Sphagnetea (wet heath) and Carici rupestris_ Kobresietea bellardii/Loiseleurio_Vaccinietea (montane heath) (Fossitt 2000).

The habitats studied here may also be aligned to EU Annex I habitats, which form the Natura 2000 complex of protected habitats or SACs in Europe (European Commission 1999). The calcareous grasslands fall into the categories ‘seminatural dry grasslands and scrub facies on calcareous substrates (Festuco_Brometalia) (priority type for important orchid sites) 6210’ and ‘Juniperus communis formations on heaths or calcareous grasslands, 5130’. Some of the heath communities may fall under the categories ‘European Dry Heaths, 4030’, ‘Alpine and Boreal heaths, 4060’ and, again, ‘Juniperus communis formations on heaths or calcareous grasslands, 5130’.6 }7 I/ Y; F7 }7 a8 ?9 Q# d

As can be seen from the above, classification of Burren grasslands and heaths has been complex and has spanned a long time period. This study seeks to further elucidate vt.  阐明, 说明
the classification of grasslands and heaths in the Burren and to provide up-to-date information on the correlation of these groups with their management. Former classifications have aligned heath-like vegetation with grasslands. In an attempt to clarify the situation, the ambiguity between a heath and a grassland in the Burren context has been addressed by enforcing a25%- cover rule as a way of separating out heaths and grasslands, with heaths having more than 25% cover of dwarf shrubs (Fossitt 2000). The rationale基本理论, 理论基础 for this was based mainly on prior field experience. From that standpoint,vegetation classification was carried out to further clarify the composition of grasslands and heaths of high conservation value in the Burren.

The objective of this study was firstly to describe the grassland and heath vegetation of conservation interest in the Burren using well established vegetation-description techniques. A second aim was to correlate the vegetation data with environmental and management factors. This work is part of a larger study involving the use of satellite imagery to identify the spatial location of habitats likely to be of conservation value within the Burren region (Parr et al. 2006),and to investigate the correlation between these classifications and the vegetation classes defined by image analysis. Both of these methods were employed with a view to monitoring long-term change in the Burren landscape.Only data from the vegetation analysis are presented here.. u) G. c' Q, ~. s

tequilawineUID: 2702008

Abstract. " i) L) j2 u" B9 R2 F
Protein optimization is a major focus of the biotech and pharmaceutical industry. Various in vitro adj. 体外的technologies have been developed to accelerate protein evolution and to achieve protein optimization of functional characteristics such as substrate【生态】基层;【生化】基质 specificity, enzymatic【生化】酶的, 酶促的
activity and thermostability. The chicken B cell line细胞系 DT40 diversifies its immunoglobulin(Ig) gene by gene conversion基因转换 and somatic身体的, 肉体的 hypermutation. This machinery can be directed to almost any gene inserted into the Ig locus. Enormously巨大地, 庞大地
diverse protein libraries of any gene of interest can be quickly generated in DT40 by utilizing random shuffling of complex genetic domains (gene conversion) and by the introduction of novel non-templated genetic information ( random mutagenesis). The unique characteristics of the chicken cell line DT40 make it a powerful in-cell diversification system to improve proteins of interest with in living cells. One essential advantage of the DT40 protein optimization approach is the fact that variants变体; 变形; are generated within an in-cell system thus allowing the direct screening for desired features in the context of intracellular networks. Utilizing specially designed selection strategies, such as the powerful fluorescent荧光性的, 发荧光的 protein technology, enables the reliable identification of protein variants exhibiting the most desirable traits. Thus, DT40 is well positioned as a biotechnological tool to generate optimized proteins by applying a powerful combination of gene specific hypermutation, gene conversion and mutant selection.
Copyright © 2007 S. Karger AG, Basel$ T) g, P1 r6 D4 a, |6 e
  P9 `4 S) v4 i/ Y9 v0 z* [
Protein optimization by rational design
The increased sophistication of recombinant DNA techniques has made it possible to artificially generate mutant genes突变基因 and express these in vitro in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells and in transgenic animals. From the very beginning, this new discipline of protein engineering intended to produce variants of existing proteins to benefit human health and to improve quality of life. However, this goal often proved to be elusive令人困惑的
due to the difficulty of predicting the structure-function relationship of engineered variants even for well characterized proteins (Pabo,1983). Attempts of intelligent protein design are therefore often limited to residues for which natural variation exists between homologues or which were known toplay a central role in activity. Tremendous interdisciplinary collaborations toimprove computer modeling- and rational design-based structure functionpredictions are currently under way (i.e. Rosetta, University of Washington,USA). In addition, various biotech companies have successfully specialized indeveloping and providing algorithms and computer programs for rational proteinand drug design (i.e. Modular Genetics, USA and Xencor, USA). Despite rapid progress in the development of increasingly sophisticated复杂的; 精致的 rational designprograms, it is unlikely that rational design by itself will be sufficient tosolve all future demands for protein evolution and optimization (Dahiyat etal., 1997; De Maeyer et al., 2000; Klepeis et al., 2003). Indeed, the latest trend is to use a combinatorial approach to include mutagenesis approaches in additionto in silico techniques (Bornscheuer et al., 2001; Klepeis et al., 2004).


Protein optimization by random mutagenesis: I# L) `) E, O! ]5 W9 G6 R6 y
Alternatively, directed molecular evolution or evolutionary biotechnology is based on processes that mimic natural evolution to create bio-molecules with desired properties. Thus protein diversification is achieved by random mutagenesis without prior knowledge of the structure-function relation. The degree of variation within a protein population can be enhanced artificially during amplification through the use of mutator strains, error-prone DNA polymerases, base analogs or base modifying reagents (Farinas et al., 2001;Kurtzman et al., 2001; Stromgaard et al., 2004). In particular, the usage使用; 对待; 用法 of partially randomized oligonucleotides makes it possible to achieve extremely high levels of variation. This technique has the advantage that mutations are specifically introduced at the sites of interest whereas other regions (or domains) are not affected by mutagenesis (Kunkel, 1985; Jestin et al., 2004;Hart et al., 2006). However the oligonucleotide-based technique requires detailed information of the protein structure-function relation of the particular domain, which is currently available only in very few cases. 8 j' W( f* W! @$ `; R# i! R& E* W/ j

In vitro random mutagenesis techniques have been successfully combined with the expression of proteins in phages or bacteria to generate and search for protein variants with desirable properties (Dower et al., 2002; Graddis etal., 2002). In particular, phage display systems using fusions of randomized peptides to coat proteins of filamentous phages are a very popular display system (Smith, 1985; Winter et al., 1994; O’Neil et al., 1995; Amstutz et al.,2001; Willats, 2002). Phage particles can be separated by their affinity to a given target (bio-panning). However these phage display libraries generally fail to have an intrinsic diversification platform to improve their binding properties step wise by mutation and selection. In addition, proteins improved in bacteria frequently fail to display their selected-for characteristics when expressed in vertebrate cells because protein processing differs between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Therefore, the usage of a eukaryotic diversification system has a decided advantage (i.e. post-translational modifications).

An intrinsic protein diversification system in B lymphocytes
The immune system of vertebrates 脊椎动物uses hypermutation of Ig genes and B cell selection for affinity maturation of antibodies (McKean et al.,1984; French et al., 1989; Rajewsky, 1996). Somatic hypermutation in the antibody coding immunoglobulin genes has been successfully used for antibody diversification and optimization for millions of years.

During somatic hypermutation, point mutations are introduced at a million-fold increased rate in a defined region of the immunoglobulin genes of B lymphocytes. These mutations contribute to the diversification of the antibody repertoire generated by B lymphocytes and are essential for an efficient immunoresponse to a given pathogen or microorganism (Rajewsky, 1996).; }  L8 |( E- W4 q& q
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The Ig-locus specific hypermutation activity is preserved in some B cell lines (Wabl et al., 1885; Green et al., 1995; Zhang et al., 2001;Arakawa et al., 2004). Alternatively the ectopic expression of the proteinactivation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) causes somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination in various eukaryotic non-B cell lines and even prokaryotic cells (Martin et al., 2002; Petersen- Mahrt et al., 2002).

Arakawa et al. (2004) have shown that the B cell line DT40,which normally diversifies its Ig genes by gene conversion, can be induced into Ig gene specific hypermutation (in-cell locus specific random mutagenesis). It was proposed that transgenes integrated into the Ig locus of DT40 will be specifically and efficiently diversified by hypermutation and gene conversion (depending on the presence or absence of gene conversion donor sequences). During gene conversion,DNA sequences sharing a high degree of sequence similarity to the target transgene are utilized as donors to randomly shuffle complex genetic information.

The DT40 cell line
The chicken B lymphocyte【医】淋巴细胞, 淋巴球 cell line DT40, transformed by an avianl eukosis virus, displays some unique properties, which make this cell line valuable for academic research and potentially also for commercial application.Buerstedde, Takeda and others observed that DT40 cells exhibit a very high frequency of targeted-locus specific DNA integration at almost all its endogenous geneloci (Buerstedde et al., 1991; Sonoda et al., 2001). Targeting efficiencies inDT40 cells of up to 80% have been described, enabling fast and efficient genedisruption (knock out) or site specific transgene integration (knock in). This feature appears to be common among various chicken B lymphocyte cell lines,yet, it can not be seen in chicken non-B cell lines (Yamazoe et al., 2004).Presumably an overall enhanced homologous recombination activity is responsible for the remarkably increased targeting efficiency. Despite its high homologous recombinationand gene targeting efficiency, the karyotype and phenotype of DT40 cells stay quite stable even during long periods in cell culture. Therefore, successive rounds of gene disruption on multiple genes can be performed. In addition, DT40cells can easily be maintained in cell culture, have a short generation time of approximately ten hours and can be effortlessly subcloned (Yamazoe et al.,2004). Due to these features, DT40 is widely used as a cellular model system for reverse genetic studies (Sonoda et al., 2001).

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what's the hell is going on? yeah, i messed up all over the week, come back with sloppy apperance and just wanna have more rest without thinking of anymore test, yeah indeed i have to rethink what is going on?

tequilawineUID: 2702008

Today's topic: Racing against Invasion: Engineering a Kamikaze "Cruise Missile"

In the summer of 2007,1 was a volunteer researcher at the Paul E. Garber Restoration Facility of the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum (NASM), when a homb-shaped aircraft飞机
featuring two cockpits (飞机)座舱 was pulled out of storage for inspection on the hangar飞机库; 飞机棚 floor. Its unmistakable resemblance to the Imperial Japanese Navy's Ohka kamikaze aircraft piqued引起(好奇心、兴趣等) my interest.Curiously, the artifact bore an unusually brief description: "acquired from the Navy in 1974" and identified as "Kugisho MXY7-K2 Ohka 43B."I wondered why Japan would have built a two-seat trainer for kamikaze missions,especially since it already had used the single-seat MXY7-K1 trainer. And what did the 43B designation signify? Finding no satisfactory explanations on the Ohka in published English-language sources' or from experts like Robert Mikesh,former NASM senior curator(博物馆、图书馆等的)馆长; 保管员 and author of Japanese aircraft books, I set off on my own research. I dug dig的过去式 into recently discovered Japanese writings as well as some rare wartime Kugisho and Aichi Aircraft engineering records found in NASM's special collection. My quest took me through the entire history of the kamikaze aircraft development from wartime demands to the deliberations, decisions, and design evolution by the Imperial Japanese Navy's Kugisho—the Air Technical Arsenal, equivalent to the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics—headquartered at Yokosuka naval base.

In the process, I found that Japan's abrupt and unexpected "unconditional surrender" had left unfinished the Ohka "human bomb" development.However, this little-known project would go on to have intrinsic significance in air power history, beyond the accelerated development of the only combat-deployed Ohka Model 11. At war's end, the year-long Ohka development produced nine distinct variants of the manned aircraft bomb, from gliders滑翔机 to jets喷气式飞机 to assorted launching modes—all in various stages of design, engineering, test or production.4 F3 i7 i3 O# i5 t  ~! S

Different Perspectives
One of Japan's last wartime innovations acquired the nickname of "Baka"(a derogatory term "Fool" in Japanese) bomb among the Allied forces so targeted.^ The very notion of a human bomb put the Ohka on the list of famous World War II aircraft. It also ensured that the Ohka would be well documented, analyzed, and judged for its short and Limited war record,unorthodox非正统的; 异教的; 异端的 systems specifications, and its rather dismal忧郁的; 凄凉的 record of tactical effectiveness." C2 \* B+ l/ [* s( ~
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The Japanese perspective was from the decidedly losing side of the war. The fatalism had indeed given rise to the kamikaze warfare—an act of desperation even in the Japanese Bushido (the honor code of the Samurai warrior)tradition of extreme loyalty. Japan devoted all of its available technological resources to the war effort—knowing full well that it would be for naught. It was a race to fend off[古]防御, 保护
the Allied invasion, which would be the moment of certain death for the determined nation to fight honorably until the last man.

To the Western mind, the term kamikaze was perceived as an obsession for self-sacrifice.Webster's dictionary later defined kamikaze as "a Japanese air attack corps assigned to make a suicidal crash on a target." In fact, kamikaze is an alphabetical pronunciation of the Japanese Kanji (Chinese character) Shimpu,which literally translates to "Divine Wind" and refers to the sudden overnight storm that sank the Mongolian fleet threatening to invade Japan in 1281. When the Imperial military, after agonizing deliberations, decided to call for the last ditch, certain death tactics, they called it the TokkoTai, meaning Special- Attack Force. To honor the patriotic sacrifice, Shimpu was attached as the salutary有益健康的 prefix to that force designation. Thus, ShimpuTokko Tai means Divine-Wind Special-Attack Force. The Allies connected the prefix Shimpu to kamikaze, while the Japanese kept Tokko as spoken solemnly in wartime. The Japanese do not associate Tokko with the notion of suicide; in Bushido, suicide connotes atonement弥补; 补偿; 赎罪 for a failure or a shameful act and therefore is a wrong descriptor in this case of patriotic sacrifice.

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It is interesting to note the late emergence of the Japanese accounts of the Ohka history, upon which this paper is based. This history was due, in part, to a marked reticence沈默寡言 by the former Ohka project engineers to relate their decidedly somber 昏暗的; 忧郁的 chronicle. Their writings reflect their "painful experience" of shouldering the nation's fate and their responsibility for engineering the final weapon of the war that sent young pilots to their "Hisshi- Hissho(certain death in certain victory)." Rear Admiral Jun Okamura, an author and former Imperial Navy engineering officer wrote, "Each case of a young pilot's brave dive into the enemy ship hit deep in the guts of us engineers, as if a silent protest of the pilots against the minute power we and the nation could muster for them." He continued, "But I write, for the sake of the engineering record, about the Ohka as an aircraft whose designs encompassing application of several types of rockets and jets notched an epoch in our aviation engineering history." Okamura's engineering record covers the Ohka 11 model development to the practically simultaneous evolution of the MXY7-K1trainer, Ohka Models 21,22,33,43,43B and its trainer MXY7-K2 and 53.'^

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Today's topic: Technology Not Realized: Air Force Radar in the Early Pacific War+ N0 ^5 e3 f( Z; {) U$ ~% {


Japan's stunning 令人晕倒的; 震耳欲聋的; [口] 极漂亮的 employment of air power on the first day of the Pacific War, in 1941,is readily acknowledged by most; but its corollary必然的结果— the failure of U.S. air power in the Philippines and Hawaii—is often overlooked. While this failure of American air power may be written off to the tactical—and operational—surprise achieved in Hawaii, this was hardly the case in the Philippines, where the U.S. Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) had many hours of warning. Both Hawaii and the Philippines had operational radar sets that tracked the incoming raids袭击, 搜捕, 突袭, yet Army Air Forces fighters failed to intercept中途拦截, 截击(敌军); 截断(水、电等);
the Japanese bombers. What went wrong? How did the technology that saved Britain in 1940 let America down?

Early U.S. Army Air Defense Concepts
The U.S. Army's involvement with the concept of area air defense can he traced to the late 1920s. In the era of small Air Corps exercises and slow First World War-era bombers, point defense of targets, such as airfields, was relatively easy. This changed in the 1930s. During exercises in Ohio in 1931, Air Corps fighter aircraft achieved little success against "enemy" bombers reported by a ground observer net. Later, Capt. Claire Chennault, an instructor at the Air Corps Tactical School, devised a warning system based on the British experience in World War I. This rudimentary adj. 基本的, 初步的air defense system, using ground observers coupled with filter centers, improved plotting techniques, and better command and control, achieved success in the Air Corps' May 1933, maneuvers.Additional exercises in the late 1930s, laid the foundation for the Army's airdefense doctrine that was in place in 1941. This system, though, was limited by its sensors—volunteer civilians spread across the countryside. America's primary air threat of the era was coming from offshore—where precious few observers lived and operated. Thankfully, technology was preparing to fill this gap with a new sensor—the radar set.

The U.S. Army and Radar7 U: U; K0 K& r& V
The Army's relationship with radar technology dates back to the early 1930s,through development activities at the Signal Corps Laboratories, located at Fort Monmouth, N.J. Despite concurrent同时发生的， 并存的 experimental activity in Europe,American radar research was independent of outside influences. Though hampered by a lack of funds and personnel, a practical demonstration was possible with in a few years. On December 14-15, 1936, a successful test of the technology was conducted. This test led to the construction of a hand-built prototype, which was presented to the Chief of the Signal Corps on May 18-19, 1937, followed by a demonstration to the Secretary of War Harry Woodring a week later. The technology was well received and gave birth to a development program that led to the creation of the SCR-268 searchlight controlling radar.^ The Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Oscar Westover, who also attended the May demonstration and one on June 3, 1937, proposed an operational specification详细说明, 明确说出[提出] for a long-range 飞机、火箭等） 远程的, 远大的, 长期的early warning radar to meet Air Corps needs.'* Emphasis on the Air Corps requirement sent Fort Monmouth's staff back to the drawing board. By early 1939, both a mobile (soon designated SCR-270) and fixed (SCR-271) version of an early warning radar had been developed. An engineering model of the SCR-270 was tested in June 1939, and a November demonstration to the Secretary of War—involving two radars located at Twin Lights, N.J. and Meriden, Ct. was deemed a success.''' The Army established the 1st Aircraft Warning Company at Fort Monmouth on March 1,1940, and soon thereafter took delivery of the initial production SCR-270A radar sets for operational testing.. `. N2 I5 d, [4 u$ d( l

The SCR-270 Early Warning Radar
The Army adopted the SCR-270 in May 1940, and a contract for mass production was signed with Westinghouse in August.'' The SCR-270 was a long-range search radar intended to provide early warning of an approaching air raid; the SCR-270 came in many variants变体; 变形; 改编, 改写. The first two systems delivered were SCR-270s, followed by five improved SCR- 27OAs that incorporated minor changes to the antenna mount. The variant in production at the start of World War II was the SCR-270B, differing from its predecessor by having radar components moved fi-om the antenna mount to the operations truck. The SCR-270B was a mobile radar that required four trucks for transport; two vehicles were dedicated to moving the radar antenna, one truck to housing the generator and a fourth truck to house the transmitter, receiver,and operator position. The SCR-270B had a nominal 名义上的; 有名无实的maximum range of 150 miles as marked on the oscilloscope示波器 display at the operator position, though the Army training manual 训练手册for the system noted a maximum range against bombers at 10,000feet as 80-120 miles and fighters as 50-75 miles. The radar operated within the Very High Frequency (VHF) band at 104-112 Megahertz, utilizing a 55- foot vertical broadside array antenna. " Though the antenna was placed on a tower and the transmitter and receiver were emplaced in a building, the SCR-271was essentially the same as the SCR-270 in operation.

The SCR-270B was operated by four persons. Two maintenance technicians supported the generators and electronics, while an operator worked the actual radar. The fourth man was a communication specialist who relayed targets tracked by the operator to a headquarters command post (called information centers in that era, filter centers in today's vernacular) via telephone or radio. The radar operator would manually rotate the antenna (via an antenna drive) across his assigned sector, a 360 degree scan taking about 90 seconds. Once the operator saw a return or "echo" on his five-inch "A" scope, he ceased his scan and rotated the antenna hack and forth a few degrees until he determined the azimuth方位(角) that gave the largest return. The target azimuth was determined by reading three-inch high numbers painted on plates attached to the rotating antenna tower base. Measurement of range was a little more complicated. Usually only 75 miles of the radar sweep was visible on the oscilloscope; a rotating knob allowed the oscilloscope to move back and forth across the entire 150-mile range of the radar. To get the range of a radar return,the operator would use a rotating knob to move the display until the echo was lined up under a vertical line etched in the center of the screen. A range associated with the position of the now-centered echo could then he read out in a small window associated with the rotating control knob. The echo size grew with the number of aircraft, but it was not possible to identify the exact number of aircraft the radar was detecting. Finally, all radar returns were just that - raw energy reflected back from the skin of the target aircraft. The SCR-270 lacked an "identification friend or foe" or "IFF" transponder capability that enabled friendly aircraft to have a distinct response. While the Royal Air Force (RAF) had this function in their radars for the 1940 Battle of Britain, the Signal Corps was still developing an American IFF system in1941. 5 x! d" e/ v9 s- T+ _. y# h' R2 A

Another limitation with the SCR-270 was its inability to provide altitude高程 data for targets that were being tracked. This liability责任, 义务 was noted from the beginning by Air Corps commander Gen. Henry H. "Hap" Arnold, but there was little that could be done about it. Arnold unsuccessfully tried to acquire the SCR-268to provide altitude capability to radar sites, but these radars were already behind in their delivery schedules due to the priority assigned to SCR-270development. The Signal Corps attempted to provide an interim 间歇; 暂时; 临时altitude capability with modifications to their existing radars. Engineers tried to increase the range of the SCR-268 to make it a stand-alone, three-dimensional radar capable of ground-controlled intercept; they also explored making a height finder attachment for the SCR-270. Unfortunately, both ideas were limited by the existing designs and the need to field a radar as soon as possible. While the development of the Army's first radar set was not easy, it was only half the battle成功的一半. The deployment of the SCR-270 was another challenge that needed to be overcome.

On March 10, 1939, the Chief Signal Officer was instructed to prepare a comprehensive plan for the organization and operation of an Air Warning Service for the continental United States and select overseas locations. The final study was completed in February 1940, and provided for twenty-three radar sites supporting nine information centers. The first radar unit, the Signal Company,Air Warning, Panama, was formed in January 1940. In May 1940, it departed the U.S. and received two fixed-site SCR-271 radars in June. Located at Fort Sherman, Canal Zone, this building-mounted site became the first radar station in U.S. service.^^ Unfortunately for the U.S., world events limited the Army's methodical approach to fielding this new technology.' p2 U/ Q8 b& Y+ {
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The German Blitzkrieg against Poland, in September 1939, and its employment of air power sent a shockwave around the world. In November 1939, General Arnold asked the War Department to address the nation's lack of an air defense capability for the United States. On February 26, 1940, the War Department created the Air Defense Command under Brig. Gen. James Chaney. The Air Defense Command was chartered to conduct experiments in the northeastern United States to determine tactics for the integration of fighter aircraft, anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) and radar sensors.

Later that year, Arnold sent Chaney to England to gather information about the RAF's successful defense of Britain and to develop tactics, techniques and procedures for Army Air Corps air defense operations. The Plans Division of the Air Corps took Chane/s report and other data and issued their findings on October 30, 1940.Their plan called for a British-style air defense organization for both the Continental United States (CONUS) and America's possessions in Hawaii, the Canal Zone and the Philippines. Chane/s efforts also contributed to the opening of the Air Defense School at Mitchel Field, N.Y., in March 1941. Its short course provided an overview of the RAF's summer 1940 success and provided instruction in the emerging U.S. air defense system.

In March 1941, the Army took a cue fi-om the British, whose RAF controlled the airdefense system that protected England, and transferred responsibility for the grovmg Air Warning Service network to the General Headquarters Air Force (GHQAF).This move aligned command and control of fighters and sensors under a singlecommand.^° A lot of things were changing, doctrinally, technologically and organizationally, as the U.S. rushed to incorporate lessons learned out of the first stages of World War II.

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Today's topic: Efficacyn. 功效, 效力of Dialecticaladj. 方言的; 辩证的Behavior Therapy in Women Veterans With Borderline Personality Disorder' i2 t* t+ E3 j' O* u( s

Until very recently, there was only one punished randomized clinical trial of a psychosocial treatment for persons with borderline personality disorder (BPD), namely即, 就是, 换句话说 the report by Linehan, Axmstrong,Suarez, Allmon, and Heard (1991) on dialectical behavior therapy (DBT),summarized below. The need for replication反响, 回声
of the treatment's efficacy at an independent site provided the primary impetus for the present study. Since our study was conducted, Bate-man and Fonagy (~1999) have reported significantly more favorable outcomes for patients diagnosed with BPD who were randomly assigned to a long term, psychodynamically oriented partial hospital program(average length of stay = 1.45 years) than for those randomly assigned to standard outpatientn.  门诊病人treatment that included no psychotherapy. It is certainly fortunate for patients and intriguing for researchers that there now appear to be two treatments for BPD with some demonstrated efficacy.6 o6 K' Y6 L5 Y2 Z: ?% D& n
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DBT was developed initially by Marsha Linehan(Linehan, 1993a, 1993b), specifically for the treatment of chronically suicidal and self-injurious women. Most of these women meet criteria for BPD. About 75%of those diagnosed with BPD are female, and chronic suicidal behavior is a common feature (Widiger & Frances, 1987)." t7 O) T$ j) K6 Z# P' c2 w

Linehan et al. (1991) randomly assigned 44parasuicidal women diagnosed with BPD to 1 year of DBT or to treatment-as-usual(TAU) in the community. Women receiving DBT had significantly greater reductions in self-harm behaviors (including suicide attempts), in the medical risk of those behaviors, and in the frequency of psychiatric hospitalizations and lengths of stay, and lower treatment dropout rates than women receiving TAU. DBT also showed superior efficacy in reducing trait anger and improving Global Assessment Scale scores and both interviewer-rated and self-rated social adjustment (Linehan, Tutek, Heard, & Armstrong, 1994). On questionnaire measures of depression, hopelessness, reasons for living, and suicidalideation, however, although patients in both conditions showed significant improvement during the 12 months of treatment, the treatment conditions did not significantly differ (Linehan et al., 1991). Improved symptoms and functioning of patients were generally maintained at 6- and 12-month follow-up (Linehan,Heard, & Armstrong, 1993).* R. i: _1 J8 s" i6 B. m

DBT has generated considerable interest since the Linehan et al. (1991) report, and was the subject of a recent critical review (Scheel, 2000) and accompanying series of commentaries. DBT principles and strategies increasingly are being used in a wide variety of clinical settings, perhaps, as Swenson (2000) has noted, not only because there has been no other treatment with any documented efficacy, but also because clinicians and clinical administrators may find numerous aspects of the treatment's principles and strategies very appealing.

DBT also has been adapted for use with a variety of populations other than suicidal borderline women, A few nonrandomized controlled studies have been conducted with these populations(Rathus & Miller, 1999, with suicidal adolescents; Telch, Agras, &Linehan, 1999, with binge eaters), and some randomized trials are in progress or recently completed (Linehan, Dimeff, Comtois, K_ivlahan, & McDavid,1999, with BPD and opiate dependence; Linehan et al., 1999, with BPD and drug dependence; Lynch et al., 1999, with depressed elderly; and van den Bosch,1999, with alcohol/drug dependence with or without BPD), but none are yet published.) b8 j( l( Y# Q7 I% \
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Linehan and her colleagues are conducting a more rigorously controlled trial in which preliminary results so far again support the relative efficacy of DBT for suicidal borderline women (Linehan etal., 1998). However, as Scheel (2000) points out, conclusions about DBT's efficacy currently rest primarily on only one published randomized study(Linehan et al., 1991; Linehan et al., 1993; Linehan, Tutek, et al., 1994)conducted by the treatment's developer and "replication is clearly needed to ensure that initial results are reliable" (p. 80). Indeed, criteria designatingv. 指明; 任命; 指出adj. 指定的, 选定的a treatment as well-established adopted by the APA Division 12 Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures require an independent demonstration of efficacy in a randomized trial (Chambless et al.,1996). DBT is the only treatment currently listed as "probably efficacious" for BPD, and no treatments are listed as"well-established"

We report results of the first randomized controlled trial of DBT conducted outside of its site of development. It was designed as a pilot study with a relatively small sample, with the goals of determining whether our research therapists could conduct DBT with adequate adherence and whether outcomes would be superior to those of usual care in the same setting and system.

Just as in Linehan et al. (1991), we compared DBT to TAU. Comparison with another standardized treatment would provide a stronger test of specific efficacy, but no such treatment manual was available,and TAU provides a useful, clinically meaningful comparison. TAU was somewhat more standardized in our study than in other randomized controlled trials of psycho dynamic or cognitive behavioral treatments for BPD (Bateman &Fonagy, 1999; Linehan et al., 1991) or for recurrent suicidal or self-injurious behavior (Evans et al., 1999; Salkovskis, Atha, & Storer,1990) in that all patients received their treatment in the same system (the local VA) and efforts were successfully made to ensure that all patients referred to TAU actually began treatment.

Because in our study recent parasuicide 企图自杀wasnot a criterion (批判, 批评, 判断)标准, 规范, 准则, 依据for study entry, we expected our sample to have less current parasuicidal behavior than the sample of Linehan et al. (1991), and hypothesized that DBT would be associated with significant reductions in abroader range of symptoms. Because of its focus on distress tolerance skills,we predicted significant declines in both parasuicidal behavior and suicidalideation. Because DBT links behavioral change to specific goals and focuses ondeveloping a "life worth living;' we predictedthat it would reducehopelessnes s. In addition, we predicted that the focus on developing and using emotion regulation and interpersonal effectiveness skills, together with the targeted目标, 靶子 problem-solving approach, would significantly :reduce depression,anxiety, anger, and dissociation. We predicted that patients in DBT would change significantly more on these variables than patients in TAU. We alsoassessed whether patients in either treatment changed in diagnostic 诊断的, 在诊断上有价值的status following treatment, as recommended by Turner (2000).

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Today's topic: Rapid visual learning in the rat: Effects at the 5-HT1a receptor subtype

The 5-hydroxytryptamine1a (5-HT1a) receptor agonist【解】主动肌, 主缩肌(与拮抗肌对立)
8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin(8-OH-DPAT; 0.15 mg/kg) impaired损害, 伤害
rats’ rapid visual learning on a computerized maze.This treatment also increased decision time (DT) but the learning impairment was not necessarily a side-effect of slower responding because, in this task,responses made at long DT are more accurate than those at short DT. The selective 5-HT1a receptor antagonist WAY±100635 (0.3mg/kg) was itself without effect on accuracy, but was effective in reversing effects of 8-OH-DPAT (on both accuracy and DT). Within problems (i.e., over the 40±60 rials of a single discrimination), performance was reduced by treatment with 8-OH-DPAT at all stages of learning. We conclude that this effect is mediated 斡旋, 调停; 调解; 居中; 斡旋through the 5-HT1a receptor site (rather than through some other serotonergic receptor site or non-specific mechanism) as it was reversible by treatment with WAY±100635.Although it could still arise from behaviourally non-specific effects, the performance deficit finds its best account in terms of依..., 据...; 从...方面; 从...角度来讲; 换算, 折合; 以...为单位; 关于, 在...方面, 就...来说the psychological processes necessary to visual learning. Its reversal with WAY±100635 offers support to the hypothesis that 5-HT1a receptor antagonists could improve cognitive function, under conditions of pre-existing impairment due to overactive serotonergic inhibition, as is thought to occur in Alzheimer’s disease.

The serotonergic (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) system is implicated in normal learning and in impairments of learning due to ageing and dementia (Altman& Normile, 1988; McEntee & Crook, 1991). Thus antagonists at the 5-HT1areceptor site could provide a mechanism to increase the function of cortical pyramidal cells in Alzheimer’s disease (e.g., Bowen, Francis, Pangalos,Stephens, & Proctor, 1992; Francis, Sims, Procter, & Bowen, 1993). Such antagonists might work by blocking the tonic滋补的, 强身的 hyperpolarizing effects of endogenous5-HT and thus enhance glutamatergic excitation in functioning cells (Dijk, Francis,Stratmann, & Bowen, 1995). Further, in normal animals, 5-HT1a receptor agonists like 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino) tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) might similarly ``switch off ’’ cortical pyramidal neurones and result in cognitive deficits (Francis et al., 1993)./ b# S/ w# w0 ~& ~* e

We previously found that 8-OH-DPAT impaired visual learning as measured by discriminative accuracy, independent of its effects on response time, which was used as a measure of non-specific effects (Cassaday &Gaffan, 1996). However,8-OH-DPATis now known to bind 5-HT7 receptor sites (Shen et al., 1993). To define further the relevant receptor subtypes, in the present study we tested whether 8-OH-DPAT’s effects in this task are reversible可转换[掉换]的; 可翻转的 by treatment with a5-HT1a receptor antagonist. WAY±100635 is 100-fold selective for the 5-HT1a receptor site relative to its binding at other sites (Forster et al., 1995).9 v2 h" }% x- L
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Although 5-HT1a receptor antagonists have been shown to block a number of 8-OH-DPAT effects (Fletcher et al., 1996), there have been relatively few clear demonstrations that 8-OH-DPAT has cognitive effects (but see Carli &Samanin, 1992), and a number of studies have highlighted the difficulty in dissociating cognitive effects from non-specific effects on performance when8-OH-DPAT is given systemically (e.g., Stanhope, McLenachan, & Dourish,1995; Warburton, Harrison, Robbins, & Everitt, 1997). Given this difficulty,there is scant缺乏的, 不足的 evidence that cognitive effects of 8-OH-DPAT are blocked bypre-treatment with selective 5-HT1a receptor antagonists. Carli and Samanin(1992) found that 8-OH-DPAT impaired spatial learning in the water maze and went on to demonstrate that spatial impairment could be demonstrated by(intrahippocampal) 8-OH-DPAT treatment that was without effect on visual learning in the same water maze task (Carli, Luschi, Garofalo, & Samanin,1995). This dissociation suggests that the spatial impairment was not simply a consequence of non-specific deleterious effects of the 8-OH-DPAT treatment.

In the present study, we assessed the effect of systemic 8-OH-DPAT and WAY± 100635 using exactly the same paradigm 典范; 范例; 示例and apparatus (通常指有专门用途的成套)仪表, 器械, 仪器, 装置, 设备as previously (constant-negative discrimination training in a computer-controlled Y-maze, Cassaday & Gaffan, 1996), to allow direct comparison. In this procedure, rats learn a series of discrimination problems in which the stimuli are complex, wide-angle visual displays (``scenes’’)drawn from a large population. Each problem consists of a series of trials in which the rat chooses between two scenes: the constant, which is the same on every trial, and the variable, which is different on every trial. Food reward is given for choosing the variable not the constant.

We tested pigmented rats of two strains, Dark Agouti (DA) and Hooded Lister (HL). HLs are less proficient than DAs at visual learning (Aggleton, 1996; Gaffan &Eacott, 1995) so it was necessary to give them a slightly less demanding version of the task in order to maintain constant discrimination and to keep the baseline performance comparable to that of the DAs. Thus the DAs learned two new problems per session for 40 trials each (a similar procedure to that of Cassaday &Gaffan, 1996), whereas the HLs had only one new problem per session for 60 trials. We analysed to check that drug effects were consistent across the groups.- z) z5 h, [+ [6 f7 v5 O/ ~  ~
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It is important to dissociate the motor side-effects of a drug such as8-OH-DPAT from its effects on learning per se本身; 本来, 本质上. In our apparatus, accuracy of discrimination varies with decision latency, faster responses being less accurate than slower responses (Cassaday & Gaffan, 1996; Gaffan &Eacott, 1997). 8-OH-DPAT can affect response time, lengthening or shortening it at different doses, and such effects must be compensated for when assessing whether a particular dose of the drug changes choice accuracy during discrimination learning. Cassaday and Gaffan (1996) developed a method of partialling out the effects of a drug on speed of responding from its effect on discrimination./ k1 N  h  O) V: o# f  A1 v/ q. j

tequilawineUID: 2702008

CARING: A CRITICAL BEHAVIOR FOR THE BENEFICIAL EVOLUTION OF CULTURAL PRACTICES
The unwillingness or inability of people to care for each other aggravates v. 加重; 使恶化; 增剧; 激怒many societal problems. These problems include war, terrorism, prejudice, interpersonal adj. 人与人之间的, 关于人与人之间关系的conflict, crime, depression, and drug abuse.

Prejudice causes one to evaluate others based on the groups to which they belong rather than on their personal behavior. In interpersonal conflict, people are hostile to对---有敌意 each other and typically supply “good reason” to justify 证明...有道理[应该], 为...辩护the hostility. A stressful environment increases the likelihood 可能(性), 可能发生的事物of depression (Stroud, Davila, & Moyer,2008); aversive adj. 反感的, 嫌恶的; 避开的behavior of a depressed person’s family also adds to the depression(Biglan, 1991). A major risk factor for developing drug abuse is a coercive强制的， 胁迫的； 高压的 family environment that leads to children’s aggressive social behavior (Dishion& Patterson, 2006). Peers socially reject these aggressive children, who then form deviant异常的 peer groups within which drug abuse develops (Snyder, Dishion,& Patterson, 1986).) S" y8 m9 P- E- U+ t% m

In each of these examples, problems would diminish v. 减少, 缩减, 减小
if those involved began to care for those around them. This claim is hardly controversial, but behavioral science has lacked a clear framework for increasing caring across such diverse problems.Recent work on psychological flexibility provides just such a framework.

PSYCHOLOGICAL心理学(上)的; 精神(现象)的FLEXIBILITY AND EXPERIENTIAL AVOIDANCE
Psychological flexibility is “the ability to contact the present moment more fully as a conscious human being and to change, or persist in坚持, behavior when doing so serves valued ends” (Biglan, Hayes, & Pistorello, 2008, p. 142). To sense what this orientation involves, it helps to understand the opposite orientation—experiential avoidance (EA). EA is the tendency to avoid or control unpleasant thoughts and feelings, even when doing so creates problems for a person (e.g., in order to avoid feeling anxious, someone may avoid public places or avoid people who evoke anxiety). However, such behavior considerably limits one’s options in life.# [- u4 }, J1 R  _* A
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Growing evidence associates EA with diverse psychological and behavioral problems,including anxiety, depression, substance abuse, poor work performance,high-risk sexual behavior, pain, and long-term disability. Hayes, Luoma, Bond,Masuda, and Lillis (2006) provide a meta-analysis of relationships between a measure of EA and psychological problems: the weighted effect size was .42.

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy or Training (ACT) has increased psychological flexibility in more than 20 randomized trials. Hayes et al. (2006) summarized the evidence: ACT has ameliorated v. 改善, 变好, 改良substance abuse, depression, psychosis,self-harm, chronic pain, anxiety, smoking, prejudice, work site stress, employee burnout n. 燃料烧尽; 烧坏, diabetic adj.  糖尿病的 n.  糖尿病病人self-management, adjustment to cancer, obsessive-compulsive disorder,trichotillomania, and epilepsy n. 癫痫; 羊痫风." C0 W" o6 B7 b+ }4 `4 u& W* V
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ACT employs metaphors and experiential exercises to help people accept unpleasant thoughts and feelings and defuse vt. 拆除(炸弹等)的雷管，消除危险，缓和from them. People fuse with融合 接合 their thoughts when they behave as if those thoughts are literally true.That is, they do not distinguish between the thought and what the thought describes. For example, a person might think, “That person doesn’t like me,” and might react without noticing if the thought is true or not.

ACT also helps people clarify使（头脑等） 变清楚 their values. The critical question is, “What do you want your life to represent?” As people learn to accept and defuse from their thoughts,they become better able to connect fully with situations they face and to make the choice to act consistently with their values./ V) G5 n' c+ i5 h8 T  X# ^
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Behavior analysts who are unfamiliar with both Relational Frame Theory (Hayes,Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001) and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (Hayes,Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999) may be surprised to learn that ACT research grows out of1.长得太大而穿不上衣服2.起因于, 来自于3.(由于成长)抛弃(早年的习惯)a behavior analytic approach to language and human behavior. In behavior analytic terms, the ACT processes involve reducing rule governed behavior so that people stay in better contact with the contingencies n. 偶然; 意外事故; 可能性 in their current situation. For example, people may react angrily toward coworkers because they believe the coworkers have harmed them. However, behaving under the control of this verbal formulation may obscure behaviors of a coworker that might usefully be reinforced.

In general, ACT treats an individual’s relational responding as a set of stimuli that affects other aspects of behavior based on a prior history of reinforcement for responding to those aspects. A large and growing literature on relational responding(e.g., Barnes-Holmes et al., 2004; Hayes et al., 2001; Stewart, Barnes- Holmes,& Roche, 2004; Whelan & Barnes-Holmes, 2004) shows that, for verbally able humans, the functions of most stimuli are affected by the way the person relates them to other stimuli. For example, those who have learned a network of relationships about themselves that includes, “I am not smart” may avoid situations (e.g., a classroom) that might embarrass them. Such rule-governed behavior can be highly constricting and can interfere with effective behavior. ACT’s metaphors and experiential exercises enable people to reduce the control of their own relational responding over the rest of their behavior. People who thought they were not smart would learn to see such thoughts—as thoughts only—and to act in ways consistent with their values, as if they had no such thoughts.Thus, a father who valued getting ahead financially for his family’s sake might accept but “hold lightly” thoughts about his intelligence and take a class in order to get a better job.1 D5 ^2 E5 \/ `  w$ J% ?

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At least two studies indicate the value of ACT in reducing prejudice and stigmatization.Lillis and Hayes (2007) used an ACT intervention to help undergraduates accept their prejudicial thoughts, recognize them as such, and clarify their values about members of other races. In contrast to a traditional lecture approach to prejudice, ACT helped people accept the fact that they had prejudicial thoughts and to try to stop controlling them. Traditional theory suggests that this would make people more prejudiced. Instead, they found that those who received ACT were more interested and willing to be involved with people of other ethnicities and races than those who did not receive the training.

In a second study, Hayes et al. (2004) found that ACT had greater benefit in reducing drug counselors’ stigmatizing attitudes toward their clients than did traditional multicultural training. It also had a greater impact on counselors’ feelings of burnout.

Hayes(2006) has argued that increasing acceptance and defusion encourages loving acts toward oneself. If I dislike or am ashamed of aspects of me, such as memories of past behaviors, then acceptance and defusion can help me to view those memories only as thoughts I have about myself, not as reality. One metaphor ACT uses is to encourage people to accept thoughts and feelings: “Hold them as you would hold a crying child” (Hayes & Smith, 2005, p. 130). In other words,people are encouraged to take a loving stance toward the parts of themselves they usually dislike and avoid. This is not to say they are encouraged to like or believe these ideas about themselves but rather to learn simply to let those thoughts exist. In this context, it is possible for people to choose to act in keeping with their values (e.g., even if people often feel inadequate, they can still work on tasks at which they fear they will fail).

If we take this stance toward the full content of our minds (i.e., our thoughts andfeelings), we will include feelings we have about others. Learning to “hold lightly”our thoughts and feelings toward another can put us in better contact with the actual person—his or her needs as a human being. To understand this process better,it helps to consider the role of evaluation in human action.

tequilawineUID: 2702008

Today's Topic: Young adult outcomes and mental health problems among transition age youth investigated for maltreatmentn. 虐待; 粗暴对待during adolescence . ~+ d! d4 d" L3 I1 W1 y+ Z3 q
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The transitional period between late adolescence and young adulthood has been identified as a developmental stage marked by challenge and uncertainty ([Arnett, 2006] and [Furstenberg, 2000]).This stage, the transition to adulthood, is a critical time during which transition age youth need to juggle several developmental tasks ([Masten et al., 2004] and [Schwartz et al., 2005]). The developmental outcomes of this life-stage are generally measured in terms of normative adj. 建立基准的，标准的，规范的functional markers, such as educational attainment, full time employment, self-sufficiency, and starting a family of one's own ([Cohen et al., 2003]and [Shanahan, 2000]). While this is a challenging time for any youth, coming from high-risk environments adds to the normal challenges of negotiating these developmental tasks ([Bynner, 2005]and[Cicchetti and Rogosch,2002]). For transition aged youth who have been involved with the child welfare system (CWS), the risks associated with the transition to adulthood are likely to be amplified." k1 p; X, w) r5 [  x& q) [/ V

In virtually every biopsychosocial domain, transitional youth at-risk from social disadvantage have worse outcomes than the general population of youth ([Collins, 2001] and [Courtney and Heuring,2005]). Research has established that the impact of cumulative adj. 累积的，附加的psychosocial risks, such as child maltreatment, exposure to other traumatic adj. 外伤的; 创伤的; 外伤用的events (e.g. community and/or domestic violence), family disruption n. 分裂; 瓦解; 崩溃, social disadvantage, and out-of-home placement, amplifies the impact of these risk factors on developmental outcomes (Appleyard, Egeland,Dulmen & Alan Sroufe, 2005). Youth involved with child welfare also evidence particularly high rates of behavioral and emotional disorders ([Burns et al., 2004] and [Lyons and Rogers, 2004]) and criminal justice system involvement (Grogan-Kaylor, Ruffolo,Ortega & Clarke, 2008). Several studies have confirmed higher rates of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems among youth involved with child welfare than among youth in the general population, even those receiving mental health services ([Keil and Price, 2006] and [Raghavan et al., 2006]). Other research has shown that experiencing any maltreatment during childhood increases the likelihood of behaviors that lead to juvenile justice system involvement (Jonson-Reid & Barth,2000). In particular, maltreatment in adolescence, regardless of type, appears to increase the chances of arrest,general and violent offending, and illicit drug use in young adulthood, even controlling for sociodemographic characteristics and prior levels of problem behavior ([Smith and Thornberry,1995] and [Wall and Kohl, 2007]).

The functional demands of ---需求this transitional stage put transition age youth reported for abuse or neglect as adolescents in a highly vulnerable position. They face many critical risks to their well-being that are related not only to the challenges that characterize this developmental stage, but also to having been involved with a family investigated for child maltreatment. For instance, their ability to turn to their family for social and economic support may be compromised. Changes in the social context of the transition to adulthood have resulted in the extended dependency of transition age youth on their family ([Courtney et al., 2001] and [Mendes and Moslehuddin,2006]). The transition to adult self-sufficiency takes longer and requires the deployment of more social and economic resources than ever before (Arnett & Taber, 1994; [Bynner, 2005] and [Furstenberg, 2000]). The family plays an increasingly important role in cushioning the shock of these changes ([Fox et al., 2005], [Furstenberg and Hughes,1995] and [Settersten et al., 2005]). It has become normative for transition age youth to continue to rely heavily on their family during this developmental period, and to delay launching their independence in order to spend more time in the quest of educational and employment achievements 5 Y5 Z* N5 f1 |. d3 k, h
([Arnett, 2000], [Bynner, 2005] and [Osgood et al., 2005]). The lack of a supportive family or other social support represents increased risk of interrupted school achievement and residential instability, including homelessness and limited employment opportunities (Caspi et al., 1998 , [Choca et al., 2004], [Daining and DePanfilis, 2007], [Keller et al., 2007] and [Zielinski and Bradshaw, 2006]).: M% |; L* b2 `4 m, Q2 r( U
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It is also likely that many transition aged youth involved with the CWS as adolescents are dealing with the impact of having their own children as they struggle with the developmental challenges of young adulthood ([Coley and Kihlstrom,2001] and [Jaffee et al., 2001]). There is evidence that delaying marriage and/or parenthood until achieving the developmental milestones of completing an education and finding secure employment improves the outcomes related to psychosocial functioning in adulthood ([Bozick and DeLuca, 2005], [Cohen et al., 2003] and [Meier and Allen, 2008]). Conversely marriage or parenthood at an early age has been linked with greater likelihood of divorce and single-parenthood,interrupted education, and inability to achieve economic self-sufficiency ([Furstenberg and Hughes,1995] and [Jekielek and Brown,2005]). In an intergenerational两代间的 study of African American youth in Baltimore, daughters of high-risk teenage mothers who started their own families during the transition to adulthood had worse functional outcomes than that of their mothers a generation before (Furstenberg, Levine,Brooks-Gunn, 1990). Early marriage has been associated with social disadvantage as well as health problems in later adulthood, especially for already at-risk young adults (Wickrama, Rand, Wallace& Elder, 2003).


comment:

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