【TASK 2】原文抄抄抄 第二弹 FROM 石头

danteksjUID: 2977437

昨天做的一篇阅读 法律题材的
Although the legal systems of England and the United States are superficially similar, they differ profoundly in their approaches to and uses of legal reasons: substantive reasons in the United States, whereas in England the reverse is true. This distinction reflects a difference in the visions of law that prevail in the two counties. In England the law has traditionally been viewed as a system of rules; the United States favors a vision of law as an outward（外面的，向外的） expression of the community’s sense of right and justice.

Substantive reasons, as applied to law, are based on moral, economic, political, and other considerations. These reasons are found both “in the law” and “outside the law,” so to speak (so to speak: 可以说, 可谓). Substantive reasons inform the content of a large part of the law: constitutions, statutes, contracts, verdicts, and the like. Consider, for example, a statute providing (to make a proviso or stipulation) that “no vehicles shall be taken into public parks”. Suppose that no specific rationales or purposes were explicitly written into this statute, but that it was clear (from its legislative history) that the substantive purpose of the statute was to ensure quiet and safety in the park. Now suppose that a veterans’ group mounts a World War II jeep (in running order but without a battery) as a war memorial on a concrete slab in the park, and charges are brought against its members. Most judges in the United States would find the defendants not guilty because what they did had no adverse effect on park quiet and safety.

Formal reasons are different in that they frequently prevent substantive reasons from coming into play, even when substantive reasons are explicitly incorporated into the law at hand. For example, when a document fails to comply with stipulated requirements, the court may render the document legally ineffective. A will requiring written witness may be declared null and void and therefore, unenforceable for the formal reason that the requirement was not observed. Once the legal rule—that a will is invalid for lack of proper witnessing—has been clearly established, and the legality of the rule is not in question, application of that rule precludes from consideration substantive arguments in favor of the will’s validity or enforcement.

Legal scholars in England and the United States have long bemused themselves with extreme examples of formal and substantive reasoning. On the one hand, formal reasoning in England has led to wooden interpretations of statutes and an unwillingness to develop the common law through judicial activism. On the other hand, freewheeling substantive reasoning in the United States has resulted in statutory interpretations so liberal that the texts of some statutes have been ignored altogether.

danteksjUID: 2977437

superficially  
su·per·fi·cial adj \ˌsü-pər-ˈfi-shəl\
Definition of SUPERFICIAL1
a (1) : of, relating to, or located near a surface (2) : lying on, not penetrating below, or affecting only the surface <superficial wounds>
b British of a unit of measure : square <superficial foot>

2
a : concerned only with the obvious or apparent : shallow
b : seen on the surface : external
c : presenting only an appearance without substance or significance

— su·per·fi·cial·ly \-ˈfi-sh(ə-)lē\ adverb


profound
pro·found

adj \prə-ˈfau̇nd, prō-\

Definition of PROFOUND

1

a : having intellectual depth and insight b : difficult to fathom or understand

2

a : extending far below the surface b : coming from, reaching to, or situated at a depth : deep-seated <a profound sigh>

3

a : characterized by intensity of feeling or quality b : all encompassing : complete <profound sleep> <profound deafness>

— pro·found·ly
\-ˈfau̇n(d)-lē\
adverb

— pro·found·ness
\-ˈfau̇n(d)-nəs\
noun

approach

approach

noun

Definition of APPROACH

1

a : an act or instance of approaching <the approach of summer> b : approximation <in this book he makes his closest approach to greatness>

2

a : the taking of preliminary steps toward a particular purpose <experimenting with new lines of approach> b : a particular manner of taking such steps <a highly individual approach to language>

3

: a means of access : avenue

substantive

sub·stan·tive

adj

\ˈsəb-stən-tiv; 2c & 3 also səb-ˈstan-tiv\

Definition of SUBSTANTIVE

1

: being a totally independent entity

2

a : real rather than apparent : firm <need substantive evidence to prove her guilt>; also : permanent, enduring b : belonging to the substance of a thing : essential c : expressing existence <the substantive verb is the verb to be> d : requiring or involving no mordant <a substantive dyeing process>

reverse

reverse

noun

Definition of REVERSE

1

: something directly contrary to something else : opposite

2

: an act or instance of reversing; especially : defeat, setback <suffered financial reverses>

3

: the back part of something; especially : the side of a coin or currency note that is opposite the obverse

4

a (1) : a gear that reverses something; also : the whole mechanism brought into play when such a gear is used (2) : movement in reverse b : an offensive play in football in which a back moving in one direction gives the ball to a player moving in the opposite direction

distinction

dis·tinc·tion

noun \di-ˈstiŋ(k)-shən\

Definition of DISTINCTION

1

a archaic : division b : class 4

2

: the distinguishing of a difference <without distinction as to race, sex, or religion>; also : the difference distinguished <the distinction between imply and infer>

3

: something that distinguishes <regional distinctions>

4

: the quality or state of being distinguishable <no distinction of facial features in the twins>

prevail

pre·vail

verb \pri-ˈvāl\

Definition of PREVAIL

intransitive verb

1

: to gain ascendancy through strength or superiority : triumph

2

: to be or become effective or effectual

3

: to use persuasion successfully <prevailed on him to sing>

4

: to be frequent : predominate <the west winds that prevail in the mountains>

5

: to be or continue in use or fashion : persist <a custom that still prevails>

constitutions
con·sti·tu·tion

noun \ˌk&auml;n(t)-stə-ˈtü-shən, -ˈtyü-\

Definition of CONSTITUTION

1

: an established law or custom : ordinance

2

a : the physical makeup of the individual especially with respect to the health, strength, and appearance of the body <a hearty constitution> b : the structure, composition, physical makeup, or nature of something <the constitution of society>

3

: the act of establishing, making, or setting up

4

: the mode in which a state or society is organized; especially : the manner in which sovereign power is distributed

5

a : the basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group that determine the powers and duties of the government and guarantee certain rights to the people in it b : a written instrument embodying the rules of a political or social organization

— con·sti·tu·tion·less
\-ləs\
adjective

statutes

stat·ute

noun \ˈsta-(ˌ)chüt, -chət\

Definition of STATUTE

1

: a law enacted by the legislative branch of a government

2

: an act of a corporation or of its founder intended as a permanent rule

3

: an international instrument setting up an agency and regulating its scope or authority

contracts
con·tract

noun \ˈk&auml;n-ˌtrakt\

Definition of CONTRACT

1

a : a binding agreement between two or more persons or parties; especially : one legally enforceable b : a business arrangement for the supply of goods or services at a fixed price <make parts on contract> c : the act of marriage or an agreement to marry

2

: a document describing the terms of a contract

3

: the final bid to win a specified number of tricks in bridge

4

: an order or arrangement for a hired assassin to kill someone <his enemies put out a contract on him>

verdicts
ver·dict

noun \ˈvər-(ˌ)dikt\

Definition of VERDICT

1

: the finding or decision of a jury on the matter submitted to it in trial

2

: opinion, judgment

danteksjUID: 2977437

stipulation

stip·u·la·tion

noun \ˌsti-pyə-ˈlā-shən\

Definition of STIPULATION

1

: an act of stipulating

2

: something stipulated; especially : a condition, requirement, or item specified in a legal instrument

— stip·u·la·to·ry
\ˈsti-pyə-lə-ˌtȯr-ē\
adjective

rationales

ra·tio·nale

noun \ˌra-shə-ˈnal\

Definition of RATIONALE

1

: an explanation of controlling principles of opinion, belief, practice, or phenomena

2

: an underlying reason : basis

explicitly

ex·plic·it

adj \ik-ˈspli-sət\

Definition of EXPLICIT

1

a : fully revealed or expressed without vagueness, implication, or ambiguity : leaving no question as to meaning or intent <explicit instructions> b : open in the depiction of nudity or sexuality <explicit books and films>

2

: fully developed or formulated <an explicit plan> <an explicit notion of our objective>

3

: unambiguous in expression <was very explicit on how we are to behave>

4

of a mathematical function : defined by an expression containing only independent variables — compare implicit 1c

— ex·plic·it·ly
adverb

— ex·plic·it·ness
noun

adverse

ad·verse

adj \ad-ˈvərs, ˈad-ˌ\

Definition of ADVERSE

1

: acting against or in a contrary direction : hostile <hindered by adverse winds>

2

a : opposed to one's interests <an adverse verdict> <heard testimony adverse to their position>; especially : unfavorable <adverse criticism> b : causing harm : harmful <adverse drug effects>

3

archaic : opposite in position

— ad·verse·ly
adverb

— ad·verse·ness
noun

incorporated

incorporated

adj

Definition of INCORPORATED

1

: united in one body

2

: formed into a legal corporation

render

ren·der

verb \ˈren-dər\

ren·deredren·der·ing\-d(ə-)riŋ\

Definition of RENDER

transitive verb

1

a : to melt down <render suet>; also : to extract by melting <render lard> b : to treat so as to convert into industrial fats and oils or fertilizer

2

a : to transmit to another : deliver b : give up, yield c : to furnish for consideration, approval, or information: as (1) : to hand down (a legal judgment) (2) : to agree on and report (a verdict)

3

a : to give in return or retribution b (1) : give back, restore (2) : reflect, echo c : to give in acknowledgment of dependence or obligation : pay d : to do (a service) for another

4

a (1) : to cause to be or become : make <enough rainfall … to render irrigation unnecessary — P. E. James> <rendered him helpless> (2) : impart b (1) : to reproduce or represent by artistic or verbal means : depict (2) : to give a performance of (3) : to produce a copy or version of <the documents are rendered in the original French> (4) : to execute the motions of <render a salute> c : translate

5

: to direct the execution of : administer <render justice>

6

: to apply a coat of plaster or cement directly to

intransitive verb

: to give recompense

— ren·der·able
\-d(ə-)rə-bəl\
adjective

— ren·der·er
\-dər-ər\
noun

observed.

ob·serve

verb \əb-ˈzərv\

ob·servedob·serv·ing

Definition of OBSERVE

transitive verb

1

: to conform one's action or practice to (as a law, rite, or condition) : comply with

2

: to inspect or take note of as an augury, omen, or presage

3

: to celebrate or solemnize (as a ceremony or festival) in a customary or accepted way

4

a : to watch carefully especially with attention to details or behavior for the purpose of arriving at a judgment b : to make a scientific observation on or of

5

: to come to realize or know especially through consideration of noted facts

precludes

pre·clude

verb \pri-ˈklüd\

pre·clud·edpre·clud·ing

Definition of PRECLUDE

transitive verb

1

archaic : close

2

: to make impossible by necessary consequence : rule out in advance

— pre·clu·sion
\-ˈklü-zhən\
noun

— pre·clu·sive
\-ˈklü-siv, -ziv\
adjective

— pre·clu·sive·ly
adverb

bemused

be·muse

verb \bi-ˈmyüz, bē-\

Definition of BEMUSE

transitive verb

1

: to make confused : puzzle, bewilder

2

: to occupy the attention of : distract, absorb

3

: to cause to have feelings of wry or tolerant amusement <seems truly bemused that people beyond his circle in Seattle would be interested in his ruminations — Ruth B. Smith>

— be·mus·ed·ly
\-ˈmyü-zəd-lē\
adverb

— be·muse·ment
\-ˈmyüz-mənt\
noun

liberal

1lib·er·al

adj \ˈli-b(ə-)rəl\

Definition of LIBERAL

1

a : of, relating to, or based on the liberal arts <liberal education> b archaic : of or befitting a man of free birth

2

a : marked by generosity : openhanded <a liberal giver> b : given or provided in a generous and openhanded way <a liberal meal> c : ample, full

3

obsolete : lacking moral restraint : licentious

4

: not literal or strict : loose <a liberal translation>

5

: broad-minded; especially : not bound by authoritarianism, orthodoxy, or traditional forms

6

a : of, favoring, or based upon the principles of liberalism b capitalized : of or constituting a political party advocating or associated with the principles of political liberalism; especially : of or constituting a political party in the United Kingdom associated with ideals of individual especially economic freedom, greater individual participation in government, and constitutional, political, and administrative reforms designed to secure these objectives

— lib·er·al·ly
\-b(ə-)rə-lē\
adverb

— lib·er·al·ness
noun

danteksjUID: 2977437

154. Law should not be rigid or fixed. Instead, they should be flexible enough to take account of various circumstances, times, and places. 法律不应该是僵化或固定的，而应该根据不同的环境、时期和地点而足够灵活。

这个题就可以用这篇文章提供的英美两个角度去破题。法律应该是僵化固定还是灵活取决于对法律的认识。第一段中有提到两种。一种为outward expression of the community’s sense of right and justice，另一种是a system of rules 。明显前者会灵活些，后者僵化些。而尾段也给出了优缺点。

On the one hand, formal reasoning in England has led to wooden interpretations of statutes and an unwillingness to develop the common law through judicial activism. On the other hand, freewheeling substantive reasoning in the United States has resulted in statutory interpretations so liberal that the texts of some statutes have been ignored altogether.

中间是两个例子

danteksjUID: 2977437

剑4的一篇文章，做的时候不觉得，现在看怎么这么长啊。。。。。。

Lost for Words

                                                                   ---Many minority languages are on the danger list. ---
In the Native American Navajo nation, which sprawls across four states in the American south-west, the native language is dying. Most of its speakers are middle-aged or elderly. Although many students take classes in Navajo, the schools are run in English. Street signs, supermarket goods and even their own newspaper are all in English. Not surprisingly, linguists doubt that any native speakers of Navajo will remain in a hundred years' time.

Navajo is far from alone. Half the world's 6,800 languages are likely to vanish within two generations - that's one language lost every ten days. Never before has the planet's linguistic diversity shrunk at such a pace. “At the moment, we are heading for about three or four languages dominating the world,” says Mark Pagel, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Reading. “It's a mass extinction, and whether we will ever rebound from the loss is difficult to know.”

Isolation breeds linguistic diversity: as a result, the world is peppered with languages spoken by only a few people. Only 250 languages have more than a million speakers, and at least 3000 have fewer than 2,500. It is not necessarily these small languages that are about to disappear. Navajo is considered endangered despite having 150,000 speakers. What makes a language endangered is not just the number of speakers, but how old they are. If it is spoken by children it is relatively safe. The critically endangered languages are those that are only spoken by the elderly, according to Michael Krauss, director of the Alassk Native Language Center, in Fairbanks.

Why do people reject the language of their parents? It begins with a crisis of confidence, when a small community finds itself alongside a larger, wealthier society, says Nicholas Oster, of Britain's Foundation for Endangered Languages, in Bath. “People lose faith in their culture,” he says. “When the next generation reaches their teens, they might not want to be included into the old traditions.”
The change is not always voluntary. Quite often, governments try to kill off a minority language by banning its use in public or discouraging its use in schools, all to promote national unity.

The former US policy of running Indian reservation schools in English, for example, effectively put languages such as Navajo on the danger list. But Salikoko Mufwene, who chairs the Linguistics Department at the University of Chicago, argues that the deadliest weapon is not government policy but economic globalisation. “Native Americans have not lost pride in their language, but they have had to adapt to socio-economic pressures,”he says. “they cannot refuse to speak English if most commercial activity is in English. “But are languages worth saving? At the very least, there is a loss of date for the study of languages and their evolution, which relies on comparisons between languages, both living and dead. When an unwritten and unrecorded language disappears, it is lost to science.

Language is also intimately bound up with culture, so it may be difficult to preserve one without the other. “If a person shifts from Navajo to English, they lose something,” Mufwene says.

Moreover, the loss of diversity may also deprive us of different ways of looking at the world,” says Pagel. There is mounting evidence that learning a language produces physiological changes in the brain. “Your brain and mine are different from the brain of someone who speaks French, for instance,” Pagel says, and this could affect our thoughts and perceptions. “The patterns and connections we make among various concepts may be structured by the linguistic habits of our community.”

So despite linguists' best efforts, many languages will disappear over next century. But a growing interest in cultural identity may prevent the direst predictions from coming true. “The key to fostering diversity is for people to learn their ancestral tongue, as well as the dominant language,” says Doug Whalen, founder and president of the Endangered Language Fund in New Haven, Connecticut. “Most of these languages will not survive without a large degree of bilingualism,” he says. In New Zealand, classes for children have slowed the erosion of Maori and rekindled interest in the language. A similar approach in Hawaii has produced about 8,000 new speakers of Polynesian languages in the past few years. In California, “apprentice” programmes have provided life support to several indigenous languages. Volunteer “apprentices” pair up with one of the last living speakers of a Native American tongue to learn a traditional skill such as basket weaving, with instruction exclusively in the endangered language. After about 300 hours of training they are generally sufficiently fluent to transmit the language to the next generation. But Mufwene says that preventing a language dying out is not the same as giving it new life by using it every day. “Preserving a language is more like preserving fruits in a jar,” he says.

However, preservation can bring a language back from the dead. There are examples of languages that have survived in written form and then been revived by later generations. But a written form is essential for this, so the mere possibility of revival has led many speakers of endangered languages to develop systems of writing where none existed before.

周九UID: 2769406

石头童鞋~，上面这篇的字有点小

danteksjUID: 2977437

sprawl

sprawl

verb \ˈsprȯl\

Definition of SPRAWL

intransitive verb

1

a archaic : to lie thrashing or tossing about b : to creep or clamber awkwardly

2

: to lie or sit with arms and legs spread out

3

: to spread or develop irregularly or without restraint <bushes sprawling along the road> <sprawling suburbs> <a sprawling narrative>

transitive verb

: to cause to spread out carelessly or awkwardly <sprawled out her books on the table>

vanish

van·ish

verb \ˈva-nish\

Definition of VANISH

intransitive verb

1

a : to pass quickly from sight : disappear b : to pass completely from existence

2

: to assume the value zero

transitive verb

: to cause to disappear

diversity

di·ver·si·ty

noun \də-ˈvər-sə-tē, dī-\

plural di·ver·si·ties

Definition of DIVERSITY

1

: the condition of having or being composed of differing elements : variety; especially : the inclusion of different types of people (as people of different races or cultures) in a group or organization <programs intended to promote diversity in schools>

2

: an instance of being composed of differing elements or qualities : an instance of being diverse <a diversity of opinion>  

shrunk

shrink

verb\ˈshriŋk, especially Southern ˈsriŋk\

shrank\ˈshraŋk, ˈsraŋk\ or shrunk\ˈshrəŋk, ˈsrəŋk\shrunk or shrunk·en\ˈshrəŋ-kən, ˈsrəŋ-\shrink·ing

Definition of SHRINK

intransitive verb

1

: to contract or curl up the body or part of it : huddle, cower

2

a : to contract to less extent or compass b : to become smaller or more compacted c : to lose substance or weight d : to lessen in value : dwindle

3

a : to recoil instinctively (as from something painful or horrible) <shrank from the challenge> b : to hold oneself back : refrain <did not shrink from telling the truth>

intimately

in·ti·mate

adj \ˈin-tə-mət\

Definition of INTIMATE

1

a : intrinsic, essential b : belonging to or characterizing one's deepest nature

2

: marked by very close association, contact, or familiarity <intimate knowledge of the law>

3

a : marked by a warm friendship developing through long association <intimate friends> b : suggesting informal warmth or privacy <intimate clubs>

4

: of a very personal or private nature <intimate secrets>

— in·ti·mate·ly
adverb

— in·ti·mate·ness
noun

deprive

de·priveverb
\di-ˈprīv\
de·privedde·priv·ing
Definition of DEPRIVEtransitive verb
1
obsolete
: remove
2
: to take something away from <deprived him of his professorship — J. M. Phalen>

3
: to remove from office
4
: to withhold something from <deprived a citizen of her rights>

perceptions

per·cep·tion

noun \pər-ˈsep-shən\

Definition of PERCEPTION

1

a : a result of perceiving : observation (see perceive) b : a mental image : concept

2

obsolete : consciousness

3

a : awareness of the elements of environment through physical sensation <color perception> b : physical sensation interpreted in the light of experience

4

a : quick, acute, and intuitive cognition : appreciation b : a capacity for comprehension

— per·cep·tion·al
\-shnəl, -shə-nəl\
adjective

fostering

foster

verb

fos·teredfos·ter·ing\-t(ə-)riŋ\

Definition of FOSTER

transitive verb

1

: to give parental care to : nurture

2

: to promote the growth or development of : encourage <fostered the college in its early years>

— fos·ter·er
\-tər-ər\
noun

ancestral

an·ces·tral

adj \an-ˈses-trəl\

Definition of ANCESTRAL

: of, relating to, or inherited from an ancestor <ancestral estates>

— an·ces·tral·ly
\-trə-lē\
adverb

dominant

dom·i·nant

adj \-nənt\

Definition of DOMINANT

1

a : commanding, controlling, or prevailing over all others <the dominant culture> b : very important, powerful, or successful <a dominant theme> <a dominant industry>

2

: overlooking and commanding from a superior position <a dominant hill>

3

: of, relating to, or exerting ecological or genetic dominance

4

: being the one of a pair of bodily structures that is the more effective or predominant in action <dominant eye>

— dom·i·nant·ly
adverb

apprentice

ap·pren·tice

noun, often attributive \ə-ˈpren-təs\

Definition of APPRENTICE

1

a : one bound by indenture to serve another for a prescribed period with a view to learning an art or trade b : one who is learning by practical experience under skilled workers a trade, art, or calling

2

: an inexperienced person : novice <an apprentice in cooking>

— ap·pren·tice·ship
\-tə(sh)-ˌship, -təs-ˌship\
noun

essential

es·sen·tial

adj \i-ˈsen(t)-shəl\

Definition of ESSENTIAL

1

: of, relating to, or constituting essence : inherent

2

a : of the utmost importance : basic, indispensable, necessary <an essential requirement for admission to college> b : being a substance that is not synthesized by the body in a quantity sufficient for normal health and growth and that must be obtained from the diet <dietary protein provides the body with essential amino acids> — compare nonessential 2

3

: idiopathic <essential disease> <essential hypertension>

— es·sen·tial·ly
\-ˈsench-lē, -ˈsen-chə-\
adverb

— es·sen·tial·ness
\-ˈsen-chəl-nəs\
noun

danteksjUID: 2977437

6# 周九 改了一下~

danteksjUID: 2977437

237. Many of the world’s lesser-known languages are being lost as fewer and fewer people speak them. The governments of countries in which these languages are spoken should act to prevent such languages from becoming extinct. 世界上很多的小语种都快要消失了，因为越来越少的人在使用这些语言。使用这些小语种的国家应该采取行动以防止这样的语言逐渐销声匿迹。

这篇文章偏学术了些，给出了很多统计数据可以再这个issue中用到，也给出了语言diversity的成因和不同语言可以产生不同的思维方式等，并给出了遏制小语种消失的方法