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[素材库] 法的现象与法的本质 [复制链接]

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发表于 2004-2-15 23:47:13 |只看该作者 |倒序浏览
现象与意义——法律哲学的若干理论及方法问题








内容提要




法的现象是直观的、感性的,又是具体的、丰富的。对法的现象的准确把握有助于揭示法的本质,对法的本质对科学抽象又有助于说明法的现象。但是,研究法的现象与研究法的本质有着不同的领域、思路与意义。法学研究有所深化的标志之一,就是借助现代方法论变革的成就、立足于法的意义,探索、开拓法的现象领域。从法的意义出发.法的现象是综合的、整体的、动态的范畴,而法律的意义则是在法律与其它各类社会规范的比较之中获得的。只有把法律视为并实际作为法的现象的有机组成部分,使法律与法的现象的其它要素相结合,才能显示出法律的作用及法的现象的整体效应。我国法学研究的进一步繁荣、法制建设的进一步发展,都与法的现象观念的整体变革密切相关。






作者葛洪义,1960年生,1987年毕业于西北政法学院,获法学硕士学位,现为西北政法学院法律系副教授;陈年冰,女,1962年生,西北政法学院法律系讲师。






法的现象是具体的、活生生的、瞬息万变的。它每时每刻都在具体的社会与历史条件下,在不断地发展运动中创造和丰富自己。直观并不意味着简单,最具体的常常又是最复杂的。因此,对于法的现象研究,人们理应给予重视,同时,重要的不是探讨现象本身是什么等诸如此类的问题,而是探究如何揭示有意义的法的现象。本文仅就法的本质与法的现象、法的现象与法的意义的关系以及其中所涉及的法律哲学的若干理论与方法问题谈些自己的认识,也可以说是,试图对法的现象研究的重要性及研究方法做些论证工作。






一、法的本质与法的现象






法的现象与法的本质既是法的概念的两个不可分割的组成部分,又是两个相对独立的范畴。它们具有不同的研究领域研究思路和研究意义。






法的现象是指能够经验的、凭直观的方式可以认识的法的外部联系的总和,是直观的感性对象--法本身;法的本质则是深藏于法的现象之后以至凭借直观的方式无从把握的法的内在联系,是人们对可感知的法的外部联系的真实本源的一种主观把握和理性抽象。所以,法的现象与法的本质作为独立的范畴之间存在着有机联系。科学的法的定义既要能够反映法的现象的最一般的内容与特征,又要能够透过现象的表面关系揭示其深层次的本质。离开了现象,法的本体认知就无所谓意义;离开了本质,法的本体认知就无所谓价值。两者相互制约,构成统一的法的本体认知的两层次。同时,法的现象与法的本质又是两个相互独立、认识上不宜合而为一的范畴。马克思主义创始人曾经指出:“如果事物的表现形式与事物的本质会直接合而为一,一切科学就都成为多余的了”。①法的现象研究既可以用于科学地阐述法的本质,又有自己直接的现实的功利目的;揭示法的本质或许有助于深刻认识法的现象,然而却不能代替法的现象本身的研究。如果将这两种不同性质的研究混为一谈.其结果只能是或者将本质视为现象,或者将现象视为本质,从而导致认识上的混乱与错误。因此,法的现象有相对独立的研究领域。






法的现象与法的本质还遵循着两种不同的研究思路。从法学发生学上看,各国法学几乎都出自一个共同传统,即对法的真实本源和假想中的作用的追寻,而作为感性对象的法本身则变成了次要的、派生的。如古代思想家对法即公平正义的普遍认同、经院哲学大师托马斯·阿奎那的支配人法的神意、欧洲启蒙思想家的理性、黑格尔关于法是自由意志的定在等观点,显然已经都远远超出了感性对象本身的范围,而是试图表征法的深层本质的一种抽象。它一开始就不是感性现象的符合而是对法的现象背后的万变不离其宗的基始的探究,是试图用某种永恒不变的人类的精神力量去阐释、规范、限制丰富多彩的生动的法的现象世界.这就难怪黑格尔宁愿把法哲学视为哲学的分支。康德则承认了现象研究的价值,他无奈地宣布:本体属于彼岸世界,只能信仰不能认识,现象才是知识的领域。从这个意义上说,19世纪的分析实证主义法学无疑具有变革精神。尽管这一学派的思想家因主张法的性质存在于法自身而法又是主权者的命令或规范体系以致存在这样或那样的问题。但是,他们确实凭借对法的现象的研究推动了法学作为一门独立学科的进程,强有力地论证了法的现象的独立性。马克思、恩格斯首创的历史唯物主义法律观是从一个崭新的角度揭示法的本质的。他们指出:“法的关系正象国家的形式一样,既不能从它们本身来理解,也不能从所谓人类精神的一般发展来理解,相反,它们根源于物质的生活关系。”②在《德意志意识形态》中,马克思恩格斯针对"德意志意识形态"的集大成者施蒂纳把法归结为自由意志、把现实的法归结为统治者的意志的唯心主义法律观,明确指出:国家权力与法的现实基础是个人的物质生活,即他们之间相互制约的生产方式与交往形式,“而且在一切还必需有分工和私有制的阶段上,都是完全不依个人的意志为转移的。这些现象的关系决不是国家政权创造出来的,相反地,它们本身就是创造国家政权的力量。”③这些观点一方面指出了以往的思想家们关于法的本质的论述的错误所在,另一方面也道明了历史唯物主义关于法的本质研究的基本方法,即必须从法赖以产生、发展的物质生活条件中去寻求法的真实本源,法的内容归根结底是由社会物质生活条件决定的。可见,马克思主义关于法的本质的基本观点是沿着法与一定社会物质生活之间的关系的思路形成的,但职业法学家在关注法的现象本身的研究时,却应该探求新的恩路、新的方法。






法的现象与法的本质的研究实际上也具有不同的意义。研究法的现象并非仅仅为了揭示法的本质,而研究法的本质也决非只是为了阐明法的观象。在《德意志意识形态》中,马克思恩格斯指出了“德意志意识形态”法律观的唯心主义实质,认为施蒂纳等人把法等同于意志、观念,事实上是把现实领域的斗争转化为观念领域的斗争,其结果是,“他只是指出一项道德要求,即人们把‘我’对这种政权的关系在形式上加以改变”,对待现存政权本身,他则没有丝毫的认识,也就完全不打算攻击它,说到底,他只是“在与现存政权的神圣灵光(风车)作斗争”。所以,“尽管青年黑格尔派思想家们满口讲的都是‘震撼世界’的词句,而实际上他们是最大的保守分子”。④因此,马克思恩格斯对法的本质的研究.其价值指向是为了揭示法对社会物质生活条件的依赖,从而指出一条消灭资产阶级国家与法的特殊道路。马克思、恩格斯还指出:“只要生产力还没有发展到足以使竞争成为多余的东西,因而还这样或那样地不断产生竞争,那么,尽管被统治阶级有消灭竞争、消灭国家和法律的‘意志’,然而它们所想的毕竟是一种不可能的事。”⑤在马克思恩格斯看来,法总是与一定的生产力发展水平相适应的.它的存在与否,不依人的意志为转移。所以,当施蒂纳提出一种虚无主义法律观时,马克思恩格斯立即指出:“圣桑乔对法的全部批判只限于把法律关系的文明的表现和文明的分工说成是‘固定观念’、圣物的果实,而关于冲突的野蛮表现和调停冲突的野蛮方式,他反而为自己保留下来。”⑥显然,即使是剥削阶级的法律,也有野蛮与文明之别。那么,通过法律现象研究,我们可以使法更好地反映提高社会生产力的要求,为进一步研究法的本质创造条件;通过法的现象本身各种问题的研究,亦可以揭示法律关系的文明表现和文明分工,揭示和说明法的现象的独特意义,充分发挥法的现象的价值。法的现象的独特性只有通过观察法的现象本身才能予以把握。历史唯物主义法律体现的形成有其特定的历史背景和历史任务,是为了阐述法的产生、发展,消亡的客观规律,这也是一切社会上层建筑现象产生、发展、变化的共同规律。它不是为了研究法的现象的独特性而产生的,也就不能就法的独特规律进行深入论述,而是把这一任务留给了后人。鉴于此,加强社会主义法制,发挥社会主义法在市场经济建设中的独特作用,深入探讨法法的操作层次诸问题,就不能不就法的现象展开研究。正如一位西方学者所言:“形式是确定内容之为内容,是此不是彼的全部特点,从而使内容不同于无特征存在的不确定性。”⑦






根据以上三方面的分忻,我们以为,把法的现象作为相对独立的命题进行研究是必要的,也是可能的,它既有利于法律的实际操作效率最大化.又可以促进法的本质的进一步思考。






二、法的意义与法的现象






法的意义是现代法学研究的中心问题之一。现代法学的进展不仅体现在运用科学手段揭示法的意义,而且还在于把采用逆向思维即通过法的意义揭示法律现象视为研究的动态手段,进而得出必须综合考察法的现象的社会学结论。实现了对法即规范这一传统法观念的超越。






意义是个关系的范畴,有两层基本含义:一是指事物间相互联系、相互作用的过程中.一事物对它事物所具有的产生或能够产生一定后果的独特影响,这时的意义含有价值的意蕴;另一层则是指事物发生作用和作用方式的独特性。借用现代语言哲学的术语,前者表明事物的意义代表事物的一定的意向性,后者显示事物的意义还反映了事物的一定的指称性。从意义的双重性入手,可以认为,法的意向性是指通过依法调整、控制人的行为表明法的显在的或潜在的思想意向,从而反映法的目的性;法的指称性是指法总是表征一种特定现象,它可以通过其现象自身内容的交互作用和形式合理性达到其他社会现象无法企及的目的,表明了法的特殊性。简言之,法的意义就在于它能够通过自身的特殊性达到一定的社会目的。确切地说,法的意向性指向法的本质,法的本质决定法的社会效果;法的指称性指向法的现象,法的现象决定法的实效。法的本质研究的直接意义是促使法律对社会发展起到更为积极的作用;法的现象研究的直接意义则是促使法律切实得到实施和实现。






凭借从可验证的事实出发把握法的特征与实效、进而探讨法的内容与本质这种功能分析手段,法律社会学研究已经取得了令人瞩目的成就。然而,在我国,通过法的意义全方位透视法的现象这一富有研究价值的领域却尚未得到相应重视和有效把握。法的实效是由法的现象内部各个要素之间的关系所决定的。法的现象是由彼此相联的各个要素共同构成的,任何一个单独的要素都不能导致法律实际效果的产生。作为一个整体.法的现象内部各个要素之间的特定关系--结构,决定着法的实效。结构不同,法的意义也不同。因此.研究法的现象,不仅要从法的现象内部的各个要素去认识它,更要从各要素之间的关系去认识它,要从结构的整体去认识。皮亚杰(J·Piaget)曾举例说明这一问题:“以语言来说,由词构成句子,句子的意义由其整体决定,而不是由独立的各成分决定。”⑧众所周知。在现代社会,经由合法的立法机关依据一定的合法程序制定出来的规范性法律文件都具有法律效力。但是,这也仅仅是为人们的行为提供了一个规范标准,这一标准并不能自然转化为人的自觉行为,它本身并不包含其得以实现的全部必要条件。孤立的规范、尽管具有法律效力,但它根本不足以覆盖法的全部现象,因为它没有法的实际约束力。因此,法的现象是一种系统的社会调整机制,最低限度也应包含它能够护法律的权威机关。法的意义与它的结构密切相联,意义产生于结构之中。






以结构的观点分析法的现象虽属鲜见,但对法的现象的全方位考察却由来已久。庞德曾经指出,法学家意义上的法的第一种含义是法律秩序,而在发达社会中才出现了法的第二种含义,即“法是一套权威性的审判指南或基础”⑨。实际上.把法的现象的范围扩大到维护法律的权威机关--司法机关及其活动,除了法律必须得到有效实施这一重要理由之外,还有另一层原因,即法律本身的局限性要求司法活动予以必要补充。依照自然法的理论,“只要通过理性的努力,法学家们便能塑造出一部作为最高立法智慧而由法官机械地运用的完美无缺的法典。”⑩这种观念在我国有着非常广泛的影响,以至于人们总是把法与规范性法律文件相等同。但是,也有许多学者认为法官恪守完美无缺的法典完全是不可能的。首先,法典不可能完美无缺。社会本身是发展变化的,立法者的预见能力则是有限的,因而,也就不可能为各种社会关系设定或正确设定永恒的行为标准。法律内含的稳定性与社会固有的多变性之间本来就存在着矛盾之处。因此,从历史的纵向发展看,法律难以完美无缺。而且,从社会的横断面看,规范性调整的对象是一般的人和事,它不可能为具体的各个行为设定行为模式。然而,人与人是不同的、事与事也总存在一定细微差别,正如弗兰克所说:“每个纠纷都是独一无二的。”⑾法律作为一般的行为标准很难直接体现与实现个别正义;其次,法官不可能完全恪守法律。法官是人不是神,也不是机器,他不可能机械地适用法律。必然在适用法律时掺杂自己对法律的各种理解与认识。所以,对于同一个案件,法官们往往意见相左,这完全是可以理解的,相反,如果意见一致,才属于非正常。即使能够排除法宫职业能力、道德水准等变量,这种情况也准以避免。哈特曾从语言的不确定性出发推导出法官自由裁量权的必然性。他指出:“由于这些规则本身就是语言用法的一般规则,并且由那些它们本身就需要解释的词汇构成,它们不能比其它规则为自己提供更多的解释”,“语言固有的本质对一般语言所能提供的指导也有一定限制”。鉴于此,这位分析法学的泰斗对传统的实证主义法学进行了批评,指出,“形式主义或概念主义法律理论的人所共知的弊端存在于这样一种态度中,一旦一般规则已制定出来,他们便逐字地解释那种企图隐藏或把这种选择的需要降低到最小限度的规则,这样做的目的是使规则的含义凝固化,使它的一般词汇在它的各种应用中出现问题的场合下必须具有同样的含义”。他由此而承认,法律规则存在一个“开放结构”。在这个结构中“很多东西必须留给法院来发展”。⑿卢埃林在对司法实践进行考察的基础上提出了一种更为极端的观点:“那个根据规则审判案件的理论,看来在整整一个世纪中,不但把学究愚弄了,而且也把法官给愚弄了”。⒀弗兰克则认为,这种法观念是一个“基本的法律神话”和儿童“恋父情结”的残余。⒁上述观点,有些可以说是极端偏激的,但就提示注意司法机关及其活动对法律的整体影响而言,应该说是有借鉴意义的。法律毕竟是纸上的规定,而法官对案件的裁决与它不完全一致、甚至完全不一致则是可能的。






早在70年代以前,前苏联学者就对法的现象做出了一种更为宽泛的解释。他们在研究法的一般概念时存在四种观点,即“规范说”,认为法是一种规范体系;“形成过程说”,认为法律规范的形成过程必须到客观物质生活条件中去寻找;“社会学说”的观点顿向于法不是规范的总和而是自然人和法人的活动。如马尔采夫提出:“法首先是社会生活本身”;亚维奇则指出:“如果在一定条件下,法律规范不能在人们实际行为中实现,那么,它就是没有用的、没有生命力的,就不是发生效力的法。”显然,“社会学说”的观点对法的现象的理解更为宽泛。在前三种观点的基础上,还形成了“法律制度说”,认为“法律制度的概念(理论)不仅能够包括全部法律现象,而且还能够把作为我们社会生活特殊现象的整个法律现象的组织和相互作用看成是有机地联系着的。”⒂法的现象是社会现象的有机组成部分,法的现象的生命力来自于社会生活。应该从社会现象的交互作用中去认识法的现象,这是运用社会学方法研究法的现象的重要进展。






在对法的现象的具体内容给予必要关注的同时,结构的观点要求对法的现象内部的结构关系给予高度重视。为了说明结构分析的地位和意义,这里先假定存在这样一个社会:A.立法机关制定的法律是最具权威性的行为规范;B.司法机关是最权威的法律适用机关,它对任何纠纷都能做出具有最终效力的判决。如果立法机关制定的法律不是最具有权威的或者没有权威,而司法机关的判决没有终极效力或没有效力,如果存在比立法机关更为权威或能影响立法机关权威的规则创制机关,又存在比司法机关更为权威或能影响、干预司法权威的法律适用机关,那么,A十B的社会中法的现象的地位和意义必然有所变化。因此,可以推论如下:(1)特定社会法的现象的特殊性取决于其内部的组合形式;(2)法的现象的不同组合形式决定了法在不同的社会中处于不同的地位、发挥不同的作用;(3)法的现象是一个自律体系,其中任何一个要素的变化都足以引起法的现象的结构性变化,决定了法的意义的变化;(4)加强社会主义法制应是一种法的现象领域的全方位综合变革,其重要内容之一就是法的现象的结构性调整。






总之,法的现象是一个整体的结构性的范畴,它的意义决定于它的结构。法的意义与法的现象的联结考察可以促使我们有效地把握法的现象的整体而不是侧重其中某一部分。






三、规范:法的要素的意义及认知方式






如前所述,法的现象的内部结构决定着它的意义,研究法的现象应从认识现象的整体入手而不是偏执于构成整体的某个要素。然而,这丝毫不意味着可以忽视"要素"的意义。换言之,法的现象内部各个要素都是有意义的,问题在于,这种意义不是法的现象的意义而是要素本身的意义。只有当各个要素按照不同的形式组合为一个整体时,现象的意义才能够被充分地予以展示。要素本身只有在处于与其它要素的关系中才能发挥自己的优势并作为现象这一整体的部分起作用。那么,要素具有何种意义,应如何探讨要素的意义呢?






意义是通过我们直观和感觉到的外界物之间的对立呈现出来的,如"公正"的意义存在于与“偏私”的对立之中,“善”的意义存在于与"恶"的对立之中。我们感觉到外界物之间的差异,由于这种感觉,事物呈现在我们面前,为我们的目的而存在从而具有意义。如果说法的现象是有意义的,实际上这种意义正是通过法的现象各种组合形式的差异呈现出来的;如果说法的现象内部各个要素也有一定的重要意义,这种意义也将能够通过对比的方式予以揭示,鉴于法律规范在法的现象中的特殊重要地位,我们以法律规范为例对此加以探讨。






首先,有必要重申一个众所周知的事实,即法律规范并不从来都是人们行为的主要标准,更不从来都是裁决纠纷的主要依据。中国法律史研究曾经指出铸刑鼎是中国法律制度史上的一个重要里程碑。在此之前,人们更多地是依据习惯法调整自己的行为及评价他人的行为。法律、道德、宗教也曾经历了一个由溶合走向分化的过程。在漫长的封建社会中,中国的历代封建主虽很偏爱和擅长立法,但在民事领域,发挥主要作用的仍然是“礼”等封建伦理规范;在刑事领域,儒家伦理规范也经常可以代替法律规范作为官方裁决案件的根据。有趣的是,案件当事人同样能够以儒家伦理规范为依据要求裁判者变通处理,⒃直至诉诸君主的权威。无独有偶,创造了“简单商品经济社会的第一部世界性法典”的古罗马也存在类似情况,即使在法典统治的鼎盛时期,法律规范仍然受到自然法原则的支配。被查土丁尼授予代表官方解释法律特权的罗马五大法学家,在他们所留下的著作中部以不同方式表达了对自然法的关切。当西塞罗提出“为了自由,我们才成为法律的奴仆”、当塞尔苏斯把法定义为“善良公正之术”的时候,实际上道德原则已经获得了与法律规范相同的法律效力,甚至具有凌驾于法律规范之上的力量。这种道德原则在欧洲曾长期以自然法的形式直接运用于司法实践中,并可以取代实在法。⒄自然法与实在法相分离的二元思维模式曾导致欧洲一个重要的法律传统和观念的产生,即人们没有服从"恶法"的义务。时至今日,这种传统仍然在发挥作用并日益具有更为普遍的影响。






其次,法律规范在法的现象中重要地位的确定有一定的历史原因,它本身也是一个历史的观念。国家立法机关创制的法律规范的权威性是在资产阶级革命过程中随着以法制对抗专制的法的观念的产生而形成的。这种权威在分析实证主义法学角度将自然法学逐出法的领域之后达到了顶点。其原因主要有:(1)罗马法的复兴。由于罗马法适应了资本主义建立统一国家和扩大市场经济规模的需要,它"在各大学中校当作对整个教会帝国具有拘束力的东西来进行讲授",这就导致了一种"把习惯、道德、法律归结为类似-套制定法规的倾向"。⒅(2)资产阶级革命后的大规模立法活动。资产阶级变革社会的要求在欧洲大陆是以立法的形式得到确认和保障的,立法由于分享“革命”的神圣性而获得了自身的权威性。⒆(3)法的理想与法的现实由对立向统一的转化。自然法与实在法的关系在革命前后是不同的,之前侧重于对立,之后倾向于统一。这种法观念的变化要求人们尊重实在法以维护自然法。(4)分权学说的影响。启蒙思想家普遍认为由民选代表组成的立法机关可以制定体现人类理性的完美法律,这种法律的权威性足以使人民对抗行政、司法权力可能的专横与任性。(5)强调世俗的国家权力。欧洲资产阶级革命的一个重要结果就是主权的、独立的、民族的国家的兴起。新兴的民族国家为了从教会手中夺取政治自由需要强化世俗的国家权力。马基雅弗里强调权力对于法的重要性就是这一背景的产物。上述原因,最终引发运用立法形式反映国家意志以设定新秩序的实在法发展的新阶段。这一阶段以强调法律规范的重要性为其基本特征。






第三,法律规范在法的现象中重要地位的形成又是与一定的思想方式的演变相联系的。自亚里士多德时代开始,人们便潜心认识现象的性质并依据各种现象性质上的差别把握现象本身。这种思想方式反映在法的研究上.体现为探索法律现象产生的最初原因和最终原因的尝试。结果法被视为某种单一因素造成的因果关系式线性发展的产物。起初,人们比较倾向于从自然的或超自然的权威那里获得对法的彻底解释.于是“自然”、“天意”、“神意”、“君主权力”就堂而皇之地登上了法学的殿堂;其后,由于受到人文主义思潮和新教革命的影响,市民等级获得了人对神的政治解放,权威不再是神而是人自身。但是,无论哪一种权威观,“都在法律秩序的背后安置了一个唯一的,终极的和无与伦比的权威。并且把它作为所有法律律令的渊源”⒇。这种思想方式自牛顿时代以后逐渐发生了变化。伽利略曾给予我们一个有趣的启示:他是通过落体的场、速度、加速度等而不是落体的性质去研究落体的。他的成功,开辟了一个崭新的思想空间。新的思想方式要求人们不能满足于对现象性质的说明,而倡导以人类经验的领域为研究对象以观察和分析为基本的研究方法。这种方法在那个时代被称之为“科学”。分析实证主义法学就是在这一背景下开始致力于法的"科学"研究。他们提出,法学研究只能以可经验的法的现象为对象,主张将一切先验的和形而上学的理论赶出法学领域。由于他们认为,只有实在法规范体系才是可经验的法的现象,所以,法律规范在法的现象中也就具有了至高无上的地位。(需要说明的是,这一法学思潮由于反对法的性质研究,主张限制法的现象范围,而把法与国家权力紧密联系,以至于受到后来者的深刻批判。)






上述分析表明,法律规范的作用是为人们提供行为标准和为司法机关提供审判案件的依据。法律规范的意义存在于与其它各类规范标准和审判依据的比较之中。由于它可以由最权威的国家机构制定,也可以为人们的行为提供最大限度的具体标准,为审判活动提供最强有力的依据,并能够在一定意义上建立和维护体现现代民主精神的秩序,因而,它在现代法的现象中的地位是不容忽视的。但是,与法律规范地位的上升相伴随的则是道德规范.宗教规范等在法的现象层次地位上的下降。如果其它的规范标准和审判依据仍然存在并具有重大的法律实践意义,法律规范的作用必然相应减弱。如果其它规范标准和审判依据仍有其存在的合理性,那么就没有必要过分夸大法律规范的作用而绝对排斥其它。同时,法律规范作为社会的一种重要规范形式,是与社会的发展紧密相联的.它的地位和作用与它反映社会发展的能力相联系,如果它本身不能尽量完美地体现让会的需要和价值观念、单纯作为国家权力的产物,那么,人们行为的标准和司法解释的依据也就都会发生新的变化。法律规范并非永恒地发挥它在近代以来社会中的重要作用的。这一因素在法的现象中的可变性值得注意。






综上,法的现象:(1)是个相对独立的范畴,有自己独立的研究领域、研究思路与研究意义;(2)是个整体的结构的范畴,法的现象的意义存在于其内部各要素之间的关系,即结构之中;(3)单独的法的要素仍是有意义的,它的意义可以通过与同类要素的对比方式来认识,但不应把法的现象的某一个别要素与法的现象相等同,更不能把法的现象及其要素视为静止不动的。
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沙发
发表于 2004-2-16 00:28:44 |只看该作者
大哥,我怎么觉得这么做不大对呀.起码也得弄个英文的吧,别说看着费劲,就是看懂了也不会翻译的说....
write and rivise, again and again.

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Cancer巨蟹座 荣誉版主

板凳
发表于 2004-2-16 00:49:24 |只看该作者
我一开始查的是英文版的,但是太难了,我都没看下去,所以就贴了中文的,这个版本哲学味道也很浓,也不好懂

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地板
发表于 2004-2-16 00:55:18 |只看该作者

这个版本可能好懂

Introduction
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Law, body of official rules and regulations, generally found in constitutions, legislation, judicial opinions, and the like, that is used to govern a society and to control the behavior of its members. The nature and functions of law have varied throughout history. In modern societies, some authorized body such as a legislature or a court makes the law. It is backed by the coercive power of the state, which enforces the law by means of appropriate penalties or remedies.

Formal legal rules and actions are usually distinguished from other means of social control and guides for behavior such as mores, morality, public opinion, and custom or tradition. Of course, a lawmaker may respond to public opinion or other pressures, and a formal law may prohibit what is morally unacceptable.

Law serves a variety of functions. Laws against crimes, for example, help to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively stable society. Courts contribute to social stability by resolving disputes in a civilized fashion. Property and contract laws facilitate business activities and private planning. Laws limiting the powers of government help to provide some degree of freedom that would not otherwise be possible. Law has also been used as a mechanism for social change; for instance, at various times laws have been passed to inhibit social discrimination and to improve the quality of individual life in matters of health, education, and welfare.

Some experts believe the popular view of law overemphasizes its formal, coercive aspects. They point out that if a custom or norm is assured of judicial backing, it is, for practical purposes, law. On the other hand, a statute that is neither obeyed nor enforced is empty law. Social attitudes toward the formal law are a significant part of the law in process. The role of law in China and Japan, for example, is somewhat different from its role in Western nations. Respect for the processes of law is low, at least outside matters of business and industry. Tradition looms much larger in everyday life. Resort to legal resolution of a dispute is truly a last resort, with conciliation being the mechanism that is preferred for social control.

Law is not completely a matter of human enactment; it also includes natural law. The best-known version of this view, that God's law is supreme, has had considerable influence in the United States and other Western societies. The civil rights movement, for example, was at least partially inspired by the belief in natural law. Such a belief seems implicit in the view that law should serve to promote human dignity, as for instance by the enforcement of equal rights for all. Muslim societies also embrace a kind of natural law, which is closely linked to the religion of Islam.


Development of Law
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Law develops as society evolves. Historically, the simplest societies were tribal. The members of the tribe were bonded together initially by kinship and worship of the same gods. Even in the absence of courts and legislature there was law—a blend of custom, morality, religion, and magic. The visible authority was the ruler, or chief; the ultimate authorities were believed to be the gods whose will was revealed in the forces of nature and in the revelations of the tribal head or the priests. Wrongs against the tribe, such as sacrilege or breach of tribal custom, were met with group sanctions including ridicule and hostility, and, the tribe members thought, with the wrath of the gods. The gods were appeased in ritualistic ceremonies ending perhaps in sacrifice or expulsion of the wrongdoer. Wrongs against individuals, such as murder, theft, adultery, or failure to repay a debt, were avenged by the family of the victim, often in actions against the family of the wrongdoer. Revenge of this kind was based on tribal custom, a major component of early law.

Tribal society gradually evolved into territorial confederations. Governmental structures emerged, and modern law began to take shape. The most significant historical example is Roman law, which influenced most of the legal systems of the world. In the 8th century bc the law of Rome was still largely a blend of custom and interpretation by magistrates of the will of the gods. The magistrates later lost their legitimacy because of gross discrimination against the lower (plebeian) class. The threat of revolution led to one of the most significant developments in the history of law: the Twelve Tables of Rome, which were engraved on bronze tablets in the 5th century bc (see Twelve Tables, Law of the). They were largely a declaration of existing custom concerning such matters as property, payment of debts, and appropriate compensation or other remedies for damage to persons. The Twelve Tables serve as a historical basis for the widespread modern belief that fairness in law demands that it be in written form. These tables and their Roman successors, including the Justinian Code, led to civil-law codes that provide the main source of law in much of modern Europe, South America, and elsewhere. See Civil Law.

The common-law systems of England, and later of the U.S., developed in a different manner. Before the Norman Conquest (1066), England was a loose confederation of societies, the laws of which were largely tribal and local. The Anglo-Norman rulers created a system of centralized courts that operated under a single set of laws that superseded the rules laid down by earlier societies. This legal system, known as the common law of England, began with common customs, but over time it involved the courts in lawmaking that was responsive to changes in society. See Common Law.

Modern legislatures and administrative agencies produce a much greater quantity of formal law, but the judiciary remains very important because of the continued vitality of the common-law approach even in matters of constitutional and statutory interpretations. Increasingly in civil-law countries, the subtleties of judicial interpretation and the weight of judicial precedents are recognized as involving the courts in significant aspects of lawmaking.

III  Substantive and Procedural Law
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In broad terms, substantive law defines the rights and duties of persons; procedural law defines and deals with procedures for enforcing those rights and duties. Substantive law determines a wide variety of matters—for example, what is required to form a contract, what the difference is between larceny and robbery, when one is entitled to compensation for an injury, and so on. The rules of procedure and jurisdiction determine the court or administrative agency that may handle a claim or dispute; the form of the trial, hearing, or appeal; the time limits involved; and so on. Related rules also cover the kinds of evidence that may be presented. Such rules are more limiting in trial courts than in administrative agencies. The fine points of procedural law are considerable, but they are generally thought to be indispensable to whatever efficiency and fairness law may have.

IV  Public Law
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Public law concerns the relationships within government and those between governments and individuals. Because the Roman codes were almost entirely limited to the private area, public law is usually not codified. In civil-law countries, separate administrative courts adjudicate claims and disputes between the various branches of government and citizens, and many lawyers specialize in public law. In France, Germany, and Italy, still other courts handle constitutional issues.

Public law is not quite so clearly demarcated in the United Kingdom and the U.S. Under the common-law approach the same courts handle public and private litigation. Because the United Kingdom has no written constitution, basic principles pertaining to government powers and limits and to fundamental individual rights are found in acts of Parliament, judicial opinions, and tradition. The U.S., on the other hand, has a distinct body of constitutional law.

The development of administrative law is a comparatively recent occurrence. Numerous federal and state administrative agencies now make rules that reach into all manner of activities, including licensing, regulation of trades and professions, protection of health, and promotion of welfare. Their powers emanate from legislation, and their rules are reviewable by the courts.

U.S. constitutional law is the most extensive and pervasive of any country in the world. It is embodied in the Constitution and in the opinions of the U.S. Supreme Court rendered over time. Through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court may invalidate any legislation or other governmental actions that it finds to be in violation of the Constitution. Constitutional courts in some civil-law countries have similar powers. In the United Kingdom no equivalent judicial power exists, and Parliament is supreme. In totalitarian nations, constitutional limits on legislative power are generally a matter of political determination.

The U.S. Constitution allocates power within the federal government and between the federal and state governments. The first ten amendments (the Bill of Rights) and subsequent amendments define fundamental individual rights by placing limits on the powers of government at all levels. Through its powers of judicial review and interpretation, the Supreme Court has played a remarkable role in facilitating the growth of national power and influence by means of decisions about acts of Congress and federal administrative law. The Court has, for the most part, acted extensively to invalidate and inhibit discriminatory legislation and to adjust the relative distribution of government-connected services and revenue so as to ultimately provide for more democratic social relations. The Court, however, is frequently the center of much controversy because of widely varying interpretations about its role and the nature of constitutional law.

Laws concerning taxation and the regulation of business are in the public area, as is criminal law, which involves the exercise of governmental power by way of enforcement and punishment. Historically, criminal law in Britain included crimes defined by the courts. In the U.S. crimes are defined by statute, thus satisfying constitutional notions of due process. The public-law nature of the area is further emphasized by other constitutional protections such as the right of the accused to remain silent and the right to effective counsel. Criminal law not only promotes security and order but also reinforces moral norms. Debate has been continuous regarding the legitimacy of government intervention in areas where moral attitudes are in significant conflict, such as in matters of sexual practices, pornography, birth control, and euthanasia.

V  Private Law


Private law involves the various relationships that people have with one another and the rules that determine their legal rights and duties among themselves. The area is concerned with rules and principles pertaining to private ownership and use of property, contracts between individuals, family relationships, and redress by way of compensation for harm inflicted on one person by another. Historically, government involvement was usually minimal. Private law has also operated to provide general guidelines and security in private arrangements and interactions in ways that are complementary to morality and custom but that are not necessarily enforceable in a court of law, such as noncontractual promises and agreements within an association of private individuals.

The relative significance of purely private law has decreased in modern times. Public law dominates in government-controlled societies; democratic societies increasingly have a mix of public and private law. The private sphere includes individuals and a vast array of groups, associations, organizations, and special legal entities such as corporations. They compete with one another and with government for control of resources, wealth, power, and the communication of ideas and values. Special fields of law, such as labor law, facilitate and control this competition. Much of such law is in the commercial and corporate areas. The formerly purely private law of property and contracts, for example, is now overlaid with legislation, regulations, and judicial decisions reflecting the competition. The public law of taxation has significant impact on the whole private sphere. Courts have increasingly regarded resolution of seemingly private disputes as vehicles for response to changing social conditions and values—especially in the U.S. Thus, manufacturers have experienced an expansion of liability for physical injuries caused by defects in their products. The mechanism of insurance allows manufacturers to spread such costs across the general consuming public.

VI  International Law


The legal process that concerns relations among nations is called international law. Belief and experience in some form of international law dates from at least the days of the Roman Empire. Such law differs greatly from national legal systems. No court has the authority or power to give judgments backed by coercive sanctions. Even in its most modern developments, international law is almost wholly based on custom. The precedents on which it rests are the acts of independent governments in their relations with one another, including treaties and conventions. Behind many of its rules is only a moral sanction: the public opinion of the civilized world. When treaties or conventions are involved, however, machinery to enforce them exists—either an arbitration or conciliation procedure or the submission of the dispute to a regional or international court.

A discernible body of rules and principles is observed or at least acknowledged in international relations. These rules concern such matters as territorial titles and boundaries, use of the high seas, limits on war, telecommunication, diplomatic and consular exchange, and use of air space. The major sources of international law on these matters are multilateral treaties, international custom, and such general principles as are recognized by civilized nations.



The United Nations is one of the primary mechanisms that articulate and create international law. The General Assembly and other agencies of the UN bring a combination of diplomacy, negotiation, and propaganda to bear on world affairs in ways that produce effective international treaties and affect world opinion. Certain courts also have indirect impact, including the International Court of Justice (see International Court of Justice, United Nations). Domestic courts in various nations at times also engage in the articulation of international law.

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发表于 2004-2-16 01:04:09 |只看该作者
这个还不错.阅读可以,写作还记得用上的一定是"狂牛",呵呵!
write and rivise, again and again.

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发表于 2004-2-16 01:07:32 |只看该作者
不行
看了一点点
晕忽忽了~~~~

不过还是谢谢poohJJ~~~~~~~~
True love never runs smooth.

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RE: 法的现象与法的本质 [修改]

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