[分享]Essential Techniques of Exposition Writing

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　　从图书馆借了本书，《A Peking University Coursebook on English Exposition Writing北大英文写作教程》，作者[美]黛安娜.M.考夫曼（Diane M Coffman）。读来对GRE写作有不少参考作用。
　　下面我把书中的关键部分敲出来，也就是Essential Techniques of Expostion Writing，希望对大家有用。

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What is writing style? Basically, it is the author’s voice presented through words. Therefore, the choice of vocabulary, order of words within a sentence, and emphasis through punctuation can affect the style of the essay. These elements set the tone and should reflect the author’s purpose for writing the essay, and should consider the reader, or audience, of the essay.

  The author’s purpose— In addition to explaining, the author’s purpose in writing an essay may be to inform, to persuade, to describe, to illustrate, to define, to analyze, or to entertain. In college essay writing, the writer needs to show clear, logical thinking, not just present a “good idea.”

  The audience— who is going to read the essay? What words are best suited to convey the message to the reader?

    When selecting words to use in an essay it is important to remember the four levels of Diction: Formal, Standard, Informal, and Slang. In exposition writing, a Standard level is most commonly used, with occasional uses of Formal or Informal depending on the nature of the writing. The best approach is to use the word that conveys the most accurate meaning. Exposition writing, even when technical in nature, should use common language for its primary word choice.

                                   Eloquent versus Practical Style

    Eloquent writing style uses abstract words, similes and metaphors. Practical writing style uses words that are concrete and specific. Because much of exposition writing is academic, a practical writing style is preferred. How can you tell if you are using a practical style? A good rule to follow is:

  RULE: Descriptive words and phrases should be accurate;
And the word choice should be Standard/Common language;
And the sentence structure should follow the standard word order of:
Subject->Predicate
Adjective->Object
Adverb->Verb
And The Subject Noun should be able to actually do what the Verb says.

  Words such as wonderful, beautiful, lovely, superb, awful, ugly, different, better, something, sometimes, and phrases such as a lot of and a few, are general and vague; they can be perceived differently by each reader and are, therefore, abstract. Practical style requires the use of specific, concrete words. Be specific.

                                                 Frugal Use of Words

  The fewer the words used to make your point the better. Treat each word as if it will cost you money to use it. Spend wisely.

  Remember the rule for Absolutes:
  RULE: NOTHING IS ABSOLUTE.
  -- Avoid using words such as: all, only, never, always, nothing.—unless it’s true.
  -- Instead, use words: seldom, usually, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, and often.

  Another bad habit in word choice is the improper use of the phrase “In a word,...” This summarization phrase is singular—In a word—and requires that there be only one word following it.
  --In a word, marvelous!
  --In other words, the students are efficient workers.
  --NOT: In a word, the students are efficient workers.

  Frugal word choice requires the writer to watch for unnecessary words such as when starting a sentence with the words “There is …” It is better to start the sentence with the subject. For example:
  --Crime is increasing in most big cities.
  --NOT: There is an increase of crime in most big cities.

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Characteristics of Good Sentences

1) Unity—One single, complete thought.
  --This course is more efficient than the previous one.
  --NOT: This course is more efficient.
  --Michael Jordan is one of the greatest basketball players in the world.
  --NOT: Michael Jordan is one of the greatest basketball players.

2) Coherence—Clear connection between parts; no faulty parallel constructions, no unknown pronouns, no unclear relationships.

3) Conciseness—No unnecessary words.
  --He returned in the early part of the month of August.
  --BETTER: He returned in early August.

4) Emphasis—Important ideas are stressed using word choice, repetition of words, and punctuation such as an exclamation point (!).

5) Variety—A combination of simple and complex sentences, short and long sentences.

6) Good Grammar—Good structure, good use of articles (a, an, the), accurate spelling, and clear punctuation.

Characteristics of Good Paragraphs

1) Unity—A central theme; one topic sentence (main idea), which can be an actual sentence anywhere in the paragraph, or an implied thought, and all sentences within the paragraph relate to the topic sentence.

2) Coherence—Proper order; each sentence lead smoothly and logically to the next sentence. Paragraphs need to be planned.

3) Development—The paragraph should have sufficient information to support the topic sentence.

4) Good Grammar—The paragraph should have proper punctuation, accurate spelling, etc

5) Good Transition—Use of transition words that move the reader between thoughts and paragraphs. These words also help to clarify meaning.

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To Provide Meaning

TO SHOW AN EXAMPLE:
for example
for instance
in particular
specifically
that is
to illustrate
to illustrate this concept
that means
for one thing
as an example
as proof
to substantiate
as an illustration
in one instance
let me illustrate
according to
as follows

TO GIVE ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
additional
also
and
furthermore
in addition
moreover
additionally
too

TO COMPARE
also
as we see
in the same way
in parallel to
similarly
in the same manner
in like manner
as in
both
like
alike
likewise
esembling
resemblance as
as well
almost the same as
similar to

TO CONTRAST
alternatively
but
conversely
however
on the contrary
on the other hand
rather
unlike
yet
whereas
nevertheless
even so
differ from
in contrast to
in opposition to
less/more than
otherwise
although
while

TO DEFINE
to define
in definition
to explain
in explanation
by that I mean
by ___ is meant
to clarify
in clarification

TO DIVIDE/CLASSIFY
primary, secondary
major, minor
kinds of
basic kinds of
main kinds of
divide
divide into
classify
fall into
fundamental
types
types of
methods
divisions
categories
characteristics
classes
classifications
aspects
sources
factors
regions
clearly distinguishable

TO EMPHASIZE
certainly
clearly
in fact
more importantly
as a matter of fact

TO SHOW UNCERTAINTY
questionably
arguarbly
allegedly
possibly
potentially

FOR SEQUENCE OF CAUSE AND EFFECT
as a result
because
because of
due to
consequently
finally
first, second, third
hence
later
meanwhile
at last
initially
for a start
recently
since
so
so that
such that
now that
subsequently
then
thereafter
therefore
thus
next
when
although
the reason for
for this reasonthe cause of
it follows that
owing to
thanks to
at this point
at that point
through the use of
as soon as

TO REPHRASE
in other words
more simply
that is
to state this another way
what I mean by that is
in summary
in general
generally speaking

TO CONCLUDE
finally
in conclusion
in short
to conclude
to recap
to sum up

To Link Information
  In addition to showing how subjects or clauses are related, and for providing meaning and purpose to the essay, transition words and phrases are also used:
  * to connect two short sentences into one complex sentence
* to connect a main clause with a subordinate clause
* to connect two main clauses of equal importance
When using transition words and phrases to connect short sentences and clauses, they are called Connectors.Punctuation and sentence structure are important in the use of Conectors.
RULE: When using a Connector to combine two clauses, use a comma (,) or in very complex sentences, a semicolon (;) with the Connector.

乒乓球爱上九月UID: 162925

我要好好看看，谢谢斑竹！ :D

genie05UID: 30358

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Good exposition writing requires an understanding of other writing types. Using other writing types enhances the purpose and meaning of an exposition essay. These writing types are the “building blocks” for good writing. It is not necessary to use all of them. It is best to use the one, or ones, that best suits the purpose of the essay. Following is a brief overview of each of these other writing types.

Definition
The purpose of Definition writing is to define. It is necessary when one uses a term that may have various denotative or connotative meanings, or shades of meaning. Definition writing clarifies abstract terms or concepts by presenting the essential nature and qualities of the concept, or by showing how the concept is different from others like it. When ideals, concepts, or emotions are discussed, they are better understood when explained using deductive or inductive reasoning. Through reasoning, the reader is convinced of the writer’s definition.
A deductive definition begins with a stated definition followed by supporting examples. An inductive definition reaches the definition after developing the concept through examples.
Briefly, the characteristics of Definition writing are that it:
* Discuss an abstract term, the denotative or connotative meaning of which is often different to different people;
* Fully answers the question “What is (the term)?”;
* Uses deductive or inductive reasoning to develop the term’s meaning.

Description
The purpose of Description writing is to describe—to paint a picture in words of a person, object, place, or scene. The writer should choose those that help to bring out the dominant characteristic or outstanding quality of the person or thing being described.
Briefly, the characteristics of Description writing are that it:
* Uses sensory words and phrases;
* Creates a central scene;
* Focuses on one theme/message/characteristic;
* Uses specific, concrete details;
* Doesn’t overuse adjectives and adverbs.

Illustration
Illustration writing is the most common writing type. It is used every time an example is given.
Briefly, the characteristics of Illustration writing are that it:
* Provides relevant examples;
* May use simile or metaphor;
* Must have a logical sequence if multiple examples are given;
* Must balance with the information the examples are illustrating.

Persuasion/Argumentation
Persuasion writing, or Argumentation writing, is used to convince the reader of the writer’s point of view or assertion, to persuade the reader to change his mind or behavior, to approve a policy, r to take a course of action. Persuasion writing uses evidence and facts, forceful language, reasoning and logic to influence the reader’s thinking.
Briefly, the characteristics of Persuasion writing are that it:
* Convinces the reader of a debatable point;
* Uses a sufficient amount of valid evidence;
* Uses logic and reasoning to come to its conclusion; --Inductive or Deductive
* Orders the evidence from most important/familiar/easy to least important/familiar/easy;
* Uses strong word choices yet is not abusive.

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