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发表于 2005-8-25 09:55:34
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声明：
参考资料来源：《高级英语写作》 世界图书出版社出版 编著：王艾芬 王惠玲
如果要使用以下内容，请注明啦，我只是找自己觉得有用的type了，感兴趣的话的话就去看看原书。That's all，Thank U～
第一节： 2
1.简单句 2
2.并列句 2
3.复合句 3
按照交际功能划分 4
1.陈述句 4
2.疑问句 4
3.祈使句 4
4.感叹句 5
第二节：英文基本句型—简单句的基本类型 5
1.SV句型——主谓结构 5
2.SVC——主－系－表结构 6
3. SVO 句型——主－谓－宾结构 7
4.SVOO句型——主谓双宾结构 8
5.SVOC句型——主－谓－宾－补结构 9
第三节：parallel structure 平行结构 11
1.平行结构的用法 11
2.表达平行意义的语法结构 12
A-words or phrases 12
B- prepositions or Prepositional phrases 12
C-Infinitives or Infinitive phrases. 12
E-Clause 13
F- Sentences 13
第五节—句子结构常见错误 14
sentence structure Problems 14
错误1－残缺句 Sentence fragments 14
常见的是句号错误 14
修改残缺句子的方法： 15
错误2.接排句（run－on sentence） 16
错误3. 误置修饰词（mispalced modifiers） 17
错误4.悬垂修饰语（Dangling modifier） 18
常见的悬垂有四种 19
常用修改方法 20
第六节——主谓一致 21
一-不定代词做主语例子 21
2-复合主语例子 21
三-插入词-along with, as well…, like, no less than, except, but, in addition to, together with; 23
4集合名词强调整体用单数，强调各个成员用复数 23
5-复数形式，单数意义 24
第七节 标点符号 Punctuation 24
1. 冒号 Colon 24
1.1列举 24
1.2解释 25
1.3 引语 25
2.Semicolon 分号 26
3.逗号Comma 26
3.1在复合句汇总，如果状语从句在主句之前，主句和状语从句之间用逗号隔开； 26
3.2非限定性定语从句，与句子的主要部分之间用逗号 26
3.3 当动词的非限定性短语和介词短语在句首时，逗号置于其后； 27
3.4并列句中，逗号置于并列连接词的前面 27
3.5为了防止意义混淆或引起误解使用的逗号 27
3.6在一系列的词或者短语之间用逗号 28
3.7用逗号隔开对比内容 28
第一节：
句子结构基本训练，写出一个意义清晰，准确的句子是一种艺术。
1.简单句
只含有一个主语和谓语的句子称为简单句。但有时一个句子可包含连歌或者两个以上并列的主语或者谓语，仍为简单句；
如1 a resume generally consists of personal information, work experiences and educational background.
2) I enjoy playing badminton and look forward to it every weekend.
3)my friends and often play golf and go bowling on holidays.
2.并列句
含有两个或者两个以上互不依从的主谓结构的句子成为并列句。
意义上：同等重要并且相互关联；
语法 结构：平行而且没有从属关系；
各个分句常常用些并列连词，连接副词，分号等连接
如： 1） I hate/dislike jogging, but I love hiking.
2) Punctuation is important; therefore, don't forget to use a comma before the coordinating conjunction in a compound sentence.
3) This is the best book I have ever read; it kept me up all night.我读了一晚上
3.复合句
由一个主句，和至少一个从句构成的句子。主句是整个句子的主体，从句不能独立存在，在句法关系上是从属于主句的，从句必须由关联词引导，来表明主句的关系
如：1) Although many people were unknown to each other before, they have got acquainted with each other through E-mail.
2) Most westerners who travel to the Orient for the first time will experience culture shock.
3) Scientists wonder what effect global warming will have on the biosphere.
4) When you go for job interview, it is important to creat a good first impression.
按照交际功能划分：
1.陈述句
1) Browsing on the Internet is my favorite pastime.
2) Bill sent out many applications for a job,but hasn't got any replies yet.
3) There aren't as many trees here as there used to be.
2.疑问句
1) Isn't the new edition of this book more expensive than its old edition?
2) What's today's exchange rate for US dollars aganist Japanese yen?
3) Is your favorite winter outdoor activity skiing or skating?
4) The youngsters' values are quite different from their parents' at present, aren't they?
3.祈使句
1)Be sure to take your personal belongs before getting off the train.
2)Let 's not waste our time arguing about current topic.
3)Don't hesitate to give me a call if you have any problem.
4.感叹句
1) How beautiful the scenery is!
2) What a great idea( it is)!
3) Fire! call the first brigade.着火了，给消防队打电话
第二节：英文基本句型—简单句的基本类型
1.SV句型——主谓结构
Things change.万物变化
A gigantic red truck was speeding crazily down the highway.
Many car owners in America belong to the American Automobile Association.
较常见的特殊结构就是
THERE BE 结构
1-There's a wide range of current and back issue journals in our university library.现刊和过刊
2-There is no serious problem to control the temperature.
3-Are there several feature of English academic writing which make if of value for nonnative speakers to learn.
THERE BE+ appear,come ,enter, exist, happen, lie, occur,remain, rise, seem, stand.etc
1-There exist a variety of opinions on this question.
2-There stans the Statue of Liberty on Liberty Island in the New York Harbor.
2.SVC——主－系－表结构
主语＋系动词（linking verb）＋表语的补足语
系动词由：be ， appear， become， seem；feel， look，smell， sound，taste
表语补足语：名词，形容词，分词，不定式，介词短语，从句等
例如
1-Brown is delighted because his general manager has given thumbs-up to his proposal.
2-It is a traditional custom to eat moon-cakes during the Mid-Autumn Festival.
3-Microwavalbe popcorn has become a big hit in American households.
4-Without suitable preservation, food goes bad easily.
3. SVO 句型——主－谓－宾结构
V 是及物动词；
O为动词宾语，名词，动词，数词，动名词，不定式（短语），或者从句都可以做宾语，后面可以带有修饰语；
1-Then yongest skater nearly won a gold medal in the last Winter Olympic Games.
2-Students often recite useful phrases to be used in their compositions.
有些较常见的及物动词后面可以＋动名词做宾语
比如：avoid, admit, deny, enjoy, finish, keep, mind, postpone, practice,prefer, require, resume, risk, quit, recommend
1- In order to lose weight, Susan avoids overeating every day.
2- Would you mind filling out this application form?
3-The brave young man risked losing his own life to save the drowing girl.
有些常见的及物动词——＋不定式做宾语
比如：agree, ask, decide, determine, hope, learn, order, pretend, promise, try ,want,etc.
1-The surgeon has decided to perform an operation on him at an approriate time.
2-He hoped to major in the International Law while taking part time job.
有些及物动词既可以——＋ving还可以＋to do，意义基本相同
比如：begin, continue,intend,like, prefer,start.
1-I prefer making(to make) an outline before I write my composition.
2-The Ph.D. candidate continued to work (working) on his dissertation and preparing for the thesis defense.
有些及物动词如forget, need, remember,stop,try后面接着ing还是to do涵义不同
1-I remember locking the door before leaving my room.记得做过了
I remember to lock the door before leaving my room.记得要做
2- They went on talking about the recent regional conflic between India and Parkistan.继续谈论
They went on to tald about the public education program about cancer.接着谈起
4.SVOO句型——主谓双宾结构
V为动词，＋双宾语意义才完整；
O间接宾语，指人，常用名词、代词表示
O直接宾语，是物，常用名词表示；
常用谓语动词有：
allow, bring,buy,fetch, get,five, offer, lend,save, sell,send, show,take, wish,etc.
1-The night scene in Hong Kong gives visitors an indelible impression of excitment.
2-The boss accorded him a hearty reception in the new sales promotion campaign.
间接宾语（人）也可以在直接宾语（物）后
用to 或者for 此时to，for 没有实际意义，只是连接作用
1-Please fetch me the thesaurus on the top shelf( for me).
2-A friend brought a textbook of internal medicine( to me).
一些动词如advise, show, teach, tell,——＋直接宾语可以在to do 的前面加上 what, which,whether,whatever, how,when
如;1-Can you advise me which medicine to take?
2- The doctor has told the nurse when to draw a blood sample.
5.SVOC句型——主－谓－宾－补结构
谓语V除了需要宾语以外还需要宾语补足语才能使句子结构完整。
宾语＋宾语补足语——复合宾语，在逻辑上谓主谓关系、或者系表关系。
适用的常见动词有
believe, call,consider, cut, elect,find,have, keep, leave, let, like, make, name,polish, think, want,wish,etc.
宾语补足语——n. adj,adv；－分词（短语）：现在分词表示正在进行的状态，或者已经发生的事情；过去分词表示和强调被动；to do（短语）；介词（短语）；
1-Today ，we call Einstein a genius.
2-People consider eight o'clock every evening a prime time TV slot.
3-Sue is happy to see her friends driving a brand new car.
4-Every where we saw people celebrating the carnival in Quebec of Canada.
5- They believe it important to make an early diagosis of cancer.
6-The chairman declared the meeting adjourned
使役动词-causative verb: have , let, make, & 感觉动词：feel, hear, notice, see, watch,＋不定式为宾语补足语时，to 可shenglve
但是这一类词语做被动语态时，不能省略
help不定式可以——＋to，或者不加
1－She made her daughter study deep into the night in order that she would come out top in the class.
Her daughter was made to study deep into the night in order that she would come out top in the class.
2- Regular exercise helps people (to) achieve better health.
第三节：parallel structure 平行结构
长句子如果在语法结构上平行，就会显得比较清晰和易于理解；在一个句子或者一组句子中，如果具有相同的语法结构并起相同语法作用的部分称为平行结构；
1.平行结构的用法
eg1. It is important for engineers to think logically, to analyse carefully,and to make decisions realistically.
并列结构的成分必须结构相同，名词连着名词，动词与动词相连，从句和从句相连，动词相连的时候必须以相同的形式。而且在平行句中常常使用成对的关联词
比如：both...and, either...or, not only... but also,neither ...nor, not but.etc
1－Viruses carry either DNA or RNA, never both.
2- Either we go full speed ahead or we stop right here.
3-Clearly, neither serological tests nor virus isolation studies alone would have been adequate.
4-Let us now look at parallelism not simple as a potential problem in structure,but also as an asset in effect writing style.
2.表达平行意义的语法结构
A-words or phrases
1-If you want to earn a satisfactory grade in the training program,you must be punctual, courteous,and conscientious.
2- English academic writing has good content,clear orgnization,and effective language.
B- prepositions or Prepositional phrases
1- In matter fo principle, stand like a rock;in matter of taste,swim with the current._Thomas Jefferson
2-Studies serve for delight, for ornament,and for ability. Their chief use for delight,is in privateness and retiring ;for ornament, is in discourse; and for ablility,is in judgment,and disposition of business._ Francis Bacon
C-Infinitives or Infinitive phrases.
1- to walk in the rain and to swim in the lake are two of my greatest pleasasures.
2- They decided to begin again: to begin hoping,to begin trying to change,to begin working toward a goal.
D- Gerunds or Gerundial phrases.
1- Writing is a skill like driving, typing, or cooking.
2-I spent the day cleaning the house,reading poetry, and puting my life in order.
E-Clause
1- We are looking for engeers who can think logically, who can analyse carefully, and who can make decisions realistically.
2-The advantages of a table are that it can present numerical data more concisely than text can and that provide more detail than graph can.
3-Although the car was highly rated and although the car was guaranteed ,the engineer found many faults.
4-He was promoted because he was industrious, because he was punctual,and because he was willing to put in extra effort.
F- Sentences
1-History became popular, and historians became alarmed.
2-Should scientists go into research,or should they teach,or should they work in industry.
第五节—句子结构常见错误
sentence structure Problems
错误1－残缺句 Sentence fragments
1－wondering what his son was going to do
Mr. smith had been wondering what his son was going to do.
2-Some errors in writing are serious, for example,fragments and run-on sentences. 举例前面是逗号
Some errors in writing are serious,among which are fragments and run-on sentences.
常见的是句号错误
1-Having driven across the desert,we enjoyed the cool weather.
2-He enjoys flowers and shrubs,which help screen his yard from the street.
修改残缺句子的方法：
1.将句子中的句号变成逗号，或把分隔开的短语或者从句从它所属的句子合并成一个完整意思的句子
1－Since there is lack of interest, there is a great lack of information.
2-You should make a determined effort to avoid sentences fragements beacause they are considered serious mistakes in writing.
3- I look forward to holidays, for example, Thanksgiving and Christmas.
2.把残缺句扩展到主句中，或者通过添加或者减少某些成分，把残缺改成独立，完整的句子。
1－ I am interested only in the properties of citrus fruit,such as lemons, oranges,and grapefruit.
2- Having no money and being lonely in the big city, the women committed suicide.
3-It was difficult to decide whether to return to school or to accept the job.
错误2.接排句（run－on sentence）
就是两个或者更多的句子混合交织在一起，却没有明确的标点符号表明他们之间的关系的句子。
一般有两种：一是融合句 fused sentence,就是在句子之间没有标点符号或者句间连接词；二是逗号连接，comma splice 即没有并列连词，只用逗号代替分号和句号，把赖宁个完整的意思连接起来
改正方法
1.用句号分隔。当长句或者两个句子之间的关系不是很密切或者毫无关系的时候，用这种方法。
1- Gestures are a means of communication for everyone.They are essential for the hearing-impraired.
2- Education is an elusive word. It often means different things to different people.
2.用分号隔开。用分号连接连歌独立的分句是，他们的关系在意义和句法结构上比起句号时关系更紧密
1－The girls scored higher in math; the boys scored higher in verbal skills.
3.用并列连词连接，当接排的句子关系紧密，容易辨别和合乎逻辑，可借助并列连词
比如
Education is an elusive word,for it often means different to different people.
4.使用连接副词，根据作者的意图，此时句子之间要用分号，连接副词后面要接逗号，但是，一般在单音节的连词后面不加逗号，如so， yet， thus 等
1- the girls scored higher in math; however, the boys scored higher in verbal skills.
2-Gestures are a mean of communication for everyone; nevertheless, they are essential for the hearing-impaired.
5-使用从属连词，关系副词或者关系代词连接，当可以判断一个句子从逻辑上或者意义上从属另一个句子的时候，可以改写
1－The power failure caused a blackout which created a lot of problems.
错误3. 误置修饰词（mispalced modifiers）
例如1- We agreed on the next day to make the adjustments.
revised: we agree to make the adjustments one the next day.
2- Students who practice writing often will benefit.
often放在后面，是个adj，不能作为adv用
所以revised
Students who often practice writing will benefit.
Students who practice writing will often benefit.
副词的位置很重要，比如
He only suggested three rules for us to follow.
这里的only用来强调suggest，意思：He only suggested them;he didn't insist on them
否则如果说强调数量的话应该是
He suggested only three rules for us to follow.
错误4.悬垂修饰语（Dangling modifier）
悬垂修饰语是与句子的主语不能成为逻辑关系的修饰语。
1－想当然认为主语是I，但是逻辑关系混乱：似乎是语言，行为参加了女联谊会，遇到了新的女孩儿。。。
By going to the various sorority houses on campus and meeting hundreds of new girls, my conversation, manners, and poise became more polished.
revised:
By going to the various sorority houses on campus and meeting hundreds of new girls , I polished my conversation, manners, and poise.
2-动词不定式在逻辑上不能修饰句子的主语
To write the proposal, research must be done.
Revised:
To write the proposal,the professor must first do research.
常见的悬垂有四种
A；悬垂分词
eg1- Looking up at the sky, the sun went under a cloud.
_Looking up at the sky,he saw the sun go under a cloud.
eg2-Reading,the doorbell rang.
_Reading, I hear the doorbell range.
B;悬垂动名词
eg1- By installing a birdbath, the birds were given a source of water.
By installing a birdbath, we gave the birds a source of water.
eg2- After finishing the research, the paper was easy to write.
After finishing the research,I found that the paper was easy to write.
C:悬垂动词不定式
eg1-To ski properly,a course of instruction is necessary.
To ski properly,a beginner should take a course of instruction.
eg2- To write well,good book must be read.
To write well, I must read good book.
D; 悬垂省略从句
eg1 -While climging the hill,the rain began to fall.
While climbing the hill, she felt the rain beginning to fall.
eg2- When only a small boy, my father took me with him to Chicago.
When I was only a small boy, my father took him with to Chicago.
常用修改方法
1－找出句子隐含的主语，对所修饰的短语提供行为者，承担动作行为的的人或物；
eg1－At the age of six my uncle bought my first pet, a goldfish.
动作的承受者是I，隐含的主语，收到礼物的人
At the age of six, I received my first pet, a gold fish from my uncle.
Eg2- While leaving the house, the phone rang.
缺少主语
While leaving the house, I heard the phone ring.
Eg3-Using this drug, many undesirable side effects are experienced.
缺少主语
Using this drug, the patient experienced many undesirable side effects.
2-补足悬垂短语或者省略从句的必要成分，扩展其成为一个完整的从句，由行为者做主语
When I was six, my uncle bought me my first pet, a goldfish.
As I was leaving the house, the phone rang.
Many undesirable side effects are experienced when this drug is used.
第六节——主谓一致
一-不定代词做主语例子
As each arrives for the meeting and is seated, please hand him or her a copy of the confidential report. Everyone is to return the copy before he or she leaves, No one should be offended by these precautions when the important of secrecy has been explained to him or her. I think everybody on the committee understands that neither of our major competitors is aware of the new process that we have developed.
2-复合主语例子
2.1 大多数情况，两个或两个以上的名词或者代词用and 连接，具有复数意义，要求用复数
eg1- Cooperation and communication are two major keys to better human relations.
Eg2- Success and fame are often the litmus tests of one’s success.
2-2表示同一个人或者物的时候，或者用or连接表示任何一个的时候用单数
1-The secretary and accountant was present.秘书兼会计在场_一个人
2-The secretary and the accountant were present. 两个人
2-3修饰一个词用单数，表示两个用and，用复数
1－The food and textile industry depend mainly on agriculture for the raw materials.
2-The steel and iron industry plays an important role in the national economy.
2-4 某些情况下具有单数意义，要求谓语动词用单数
1－Law and order is a desirable feature for all modern societies.
法律和秩序是所有现代社会的主要特征
2－Rock’ n’ roll has remained popular for decades.
摇滚乐几十年来一直收到欢迎
2-5用and 连接的名词前面each, every, no 或者many a 等修饰的时候，谓语动词用单数
1-Each pen and piece of paper is found in its place.
2-Many a teacher and students has read this book with eagerness.
2-6两个或者两个以上主语，就近一致的情况，or, nor, but, either…or, neither…nor, not only… but also.
1-Neither Larry nor his classmates were satisfied with the way the test was given.
2-Not only the boys but also their father encourages him to enter the competition.
2-7 There be 结构，就近一致，第一主语
1-There are variously colored little lamps and a Santa Claus on the big Christmas tree.
2-There is a schedule flight and two notebooks on her desk.
三-插入词-along with, as well…, like, no less than, except, but, in addition to, together with;
为了表明两个或者多个主语不是同等重要的，用逗号，谓语要和最前面的主语一致
eg－ Tom and his brother were home for the holidays.
Tom, along with his brother, was home for the holidays.
4集合名词强调整体用单数，强调各个成员用复数
1-A whole series of studies about the problem of global warming has been made since last year.
2- A series of studies all have failed to prove her theory.
5-复数形式，单数意义
Dynamics informatics measles mumps news
Economics Electronics Ethics
A million dollars is a great deal of money.
Forty-four hours is the regular workweek.
Percentage, half, part, the rest 取决于后面的名词
Half of our work is done.
Half of the books are novels.
A large percentage of the province’s crop was ruined by the flood.
Over 90 percent of the students in this department have passed the CET-6.
第七节 标点符号 Punctuation
1. 冒号 Colon
常用于引出或者强调后面陈述的信息，主要方法包括列举，解释和引用
1.1列举
1－ In order to graduate, students need to be proficient in several areas : reading, writing, and computing information of a technical nature.
2- We will need the following for the party: paper cups, paper plates, paper napkins, and all the silver teaspoons you can find.
注意：任何情况下， 系动词Be 后面都不能用冒号引出列举
1－The obstacles between them and their goals were: substandard facilities, too few qualified staff, and old-fashioned method.
Revised: The obstacles between them and their goals: substandard facilities, too few qualified staff, and old-fashioned method.
2- To me, the most important things in my life are: health, happiness, good friends, and a great deal of money.
Revised:
To me, the most important things in life are the following/as follows: health, happiness, good friends, and a great deal of money.
1.2解释
1－There are several reasons to throw the emphasis forward: to list, to explain, and to illustrate a long quotation.
2－ English skills assumes that four principals in particular are keys to effective writing: unity, support, coherence, and sentence skills.
1.3 引语
1- Professor Han addressed the need for professional to write clearly when she said: Writer are expected to think logically, creatively and objectively. They must know…
2- Clare Safran points out two of the things that cannot be explained: “One of them is poltergeists. Another is teenagers.
2.Semicolon 分号
分号最主要的作用是连接两个在意义上紧密相连的并列句，用连接副词表明连歌并列句之间的关系时，可以把分号置于连接副词之前；此外，逗号可能表达不清，或者短语过长，可以用分号。
We are planning a trip to Disney World next summer; therefore, even the children are saving their pennies.
3.逗号Comma
所有的标点中，逗号最容易用错。
3.1在复合句汇总，如果状语从句在主句之前，主句和状语从句之间用逗号隔开；
1- As the examination approaches, some students cram for it.
2- Since a school is a society in miniature, students may learn cooperate with others and make friends with others there.
3-Don’t eat too much fat if you want to be slim.
3.2非限定性定语从句，与句子的主要部分之间用逗号
1－ We should cultivate an interest in reading, which increases our knowledge and bring us pleasure.
2- Robert, who is the best singer of the class, will teach us to sing the song.
3.3 当动词的非限定性短语和介词短语在句首时，逗号置于其后；
1- To protect our environment, measures should be taken to curb pollution.
2- For a small sum of money, you can be a shareholder of this company.
3- Unlike the online source, a CD-ROM disk is a physical object like a book.
3.4并列句中，逗号置于并列连接词的前面
1－School life is often unforgettable, and it brings many sweet memories.
2- There is absolutely no substitute for reading, but there are other things that can enrich and enlarge vocabulary.
3.5为了防止意义混淆或引起误解使用的逗号
1-His brother, Peter, goes to medical school.名字在句号中，表明只有一个弟弟
2-His brother peter goes to medical school.名字不在句号中，表明不只有一个弟弟；
3.6在一系列的词或者短语之间用逗号
eg－ The writer effectively analyzes the information, interprets the facts, make judgment, draws conclusions, summarizes ,and defends opinions.
3.7用逗号隔开对比内容
Human beings, unlike oysters, frequently reveal their emotions.
3.8习惯用法
Yes，I think so.
She is the new secretary, isn’t she?
4-冒号 Quotation mark
4.1-当引号和逗号，句号一起使用的时候，逗号和句号在引号内外的情况都有
4.2.分号和冒号在引号外面
43.句号，问号，破折号，感叹号，在用于引用材料的时候放在引号内。
声明：
参考资料来源：《高级英语写作》 世界图书出版社出版 编著：王艾芬 王惠玲
如果要使用以下内容，请注明啦，我只是找自己觉得有用的type了，感兴趣的话的话就去看看原书。That's all，Thank U～
第一节： 段落的构成Paragraph structure 1
一，如何写好主题句——how to write good topic sentence 2
2. 如何写好辅助句 How to write good supporting sentences 4
3.如何写好结尾句 how to write a good concluding sentence 4
第二节 段落的整体性 paragraph unity 6
第三节，段落的连贯性 paragraph coherence 6
1.转承词语 transitional words 7
2.转承词语的种类 8
2.2并列连词 coordinator 8
有些并列连词和并列副词意义一样 9
2.3从属连词 subordinator 9
2.4介词和限定词 proposition and determiner 9
3.段落间的转承词语 10
3.1递进关系 to indicate addition 10
3.2举例 to introduce exampkes 11
3.4比较和对照 to show comparison and contrast 11
3.5因果 to show cause or effect 12
3.6 结论或概要 to indicate conclusion or summary 12
3.7强调 to emphasize a point 12
3.8时间，to indicate time or sequence 13
3.9空间 space 13
4.重复 coherence through repetition 14
第四节 句子的多样性 sentence variety 14
第一节： 段落的构成Paragraph structure
三个部分：主题句，辅助句，结尾句
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics. First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewelry, coins, and ornamental purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. For example, a Macedonian remains as untarnished today as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries age. Another portent characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science. For many years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields for protection outside the spaceship. In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility. ( Oshima & Hogue,1991)
一，如何写好主题句——how to write good topic sentence
主题句是一个段落中最重要的句子，主题句不仅简明扼要的表达了段落主题的内容，而且清楚的限定了写作范围。好的主题句能正确的引导读者的思路，使读者对段落的中心思想一目了然，能较好的理解坐着的意图。
好的主题句有一下三个要点
一， 必须是一个完整的句子，包括一个主语，一个谓语动词，常常还要带有其他修饰语。
二， 主题句由主题词和主题思想的表述两部分组成；主题词表明讨论的对象，主题思想的表述部分限制或者控制这个主题在一个段落中能够被论述的具体方面，它应该是能够展述主题思想的一个词或一个短语，即关键词；
1) The women’s Movement has had several effects on the English languages.
2) Students on this campus recently voiced several complains.
三， 由于主题词不仅仅提及主题思想，因此只是一种概括性的陈述而不提供具体的细节，能被段落中的其他句子推演，解释，论证或分析。主题句应该对该段落内内容进行适当的概括和限制。主题句过于笼统，而没有包含具体的思想和观点，就会对段落如何展开缺乏指导和限定，使读者由于内容空泛而很难确切的知道本段的内容，太具体读者就会发现作者对这段内容已经无发挥的余地，无法将主题句展开
American food is tasteless and greasy.
Hong Kong is famous for its developed economy, high standard of living, and intercultural atmosphere.
- Hong Kong is famous for its developed economy.
Albert Einstein, one of the world’s geniuses, failed his university entrance examinations on his first attempt. William Faulkner, one of the American’s noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his English courses. Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during elementary school. These few example show that failure in school does not always predicted failure in life.
2. 如何写好辅助句 How to write good supporting sentences
辅助句是对主题句的延伸，是段落对主题句进行具体论证的句子，即以具体的真是的细节对段落的主题进行阐述，说明，引申或补充，从而扩展深化回族体，作者采用的论据，必须准确，充分，典型和具有相关性。
比如说，我得室友有好性格。一个特征就是认真对待课程。举例1－For example, when his philosophy professor assigns a class discussion on the ideas of Kant, he goes to the library and does extensive research on the subject. 举例2－In addition, when his English instructor assigns…..
再举一个例子：市中心可以越来越适合居住
Inner cities can be made more inhabitable. One way is to omit automobiles and encourage walking. With no cars, people are forced to walk and interact, and interacting is pleasant. Another way is to eliminate public housing projects. More than half the poor are often in public housing. Warehousing the poor is destructive to the neighborhood and occupants.
3.如何写好结尾句 how to write a good concluding sentence
结尾句可以用不同的方法再现主题或者对所阐述的一些要点进行总结，概括。此外，结尾句还可以启发读者思考
一， 表示一个段落的结尾；
二， 对段落进行总结；
三， 对主题进行评论，给读者留下深刻的印象。
The cafeteria is terrible in our campus. First of all, the mashed potatoes could be used to make a collage. Next, the meat must be cut in small pieces because it’s too tough to chew. Finally, the vegetables are cooked so long you can’t tell the string beans from the spinach. In short, our school cafeteria serves food that is unfit for students consumption.
糟糕和不适合吃是一个道理，再现主题；
再看一个成功的例子
San Francisco has one of the worst public transportation systems in the United States. The first problem is that the buses and streetcar are never on schedule. Second, maintenance is very poor. The buses and streets often break down, causing long delays. The third problem is the poor attitude of many of the drivers. They refuse to give information about transfer points, and they show little consideration for the comfort and safety of their passengers. A fourth, and by far the most serious problem is the increase in crime. A report from San Francisco Police Department shows that thefts and assaults have increased forty-three percent over the three previous months. In conclusion, these problems make it increasingly inconvenient and even dangerous to ride public transportation in San Francisco.
第二节 段落的整体性 paragraph unity
There are few places in the world today that have not been spoiled by industrial development and pollution. The air we breathe is more often than not polluted by the smoke from factory chimneys and the exhaust fumes of motor vehicles, while chemical waste poisons our rivers, lakes and seas. And by covering more and more of the earth’s surface with buildings and roads, we are erecting barriers of concrete between ourselves and nature. It would appear that we are purposely cutting ourselves from nature and destroying wildlife as we do so.
第三节，段落的连贯性 paragraph coherence
连贯是指 一，结构连贯，二，内容连贯。
保持连贯性的方法
一， 用转承词语或者转承信号词，表明一个意思怎样和下一个意思相连的；
二， 按照一定的逻辑结构排列句子，采用何种结构呢？有Chronological order 时间顺序，spatial order 空间顺序，order of importance 主次顺序
同一段落可以有不同的顺序结合使用
1.转承词语 transitional words
运用转承词语是保持连贯性的重要方法，告诉读者作者什么时候阐述相同意义，什么时候阐述相反的意思，什么时候给出结果或结论。转承词语在段落中起到承起句意，疏通思路的作用，使各个句子的相互关系表达的更加清晰明了。
Daniel and I have several things in common that have strengthened our relationship. First of all, we are Asian American. Both of us were born of middle class parents in San Francisco and lived on the same block on the East side. As a result, we got to know each other early in our lives. Another commonality is our age. In fact, we have shared similar interests over the years we have known each other. Both of us enjoyed taking piano lessons. In addition, we each worked summers at Burger King to help our parents reduce the expenses for us to attend the University of Colorado, where we both majored in art. The most significant thing that has bonded us together is our mutual respect for each other. Certainly we hold diverse opinions, represent different political and religion beliefs, and lead unique life-style; we have, nonetheless, remained close to each other even to this day-our twentieth class reunion.
2.转承词语的种类
2.2并列连词 coordinator
连接两个独立的句子构成一个并列句在第一个分句后面必须用逗号，例如
Mushrooms are good for you, but I dislike them.
I dislike mushrooms, so I never eat them.
2.3连接副词，conjunctive adverb
用于把一个句子和另一个句子连接起来构成并列句，表示第二个分句同第一个分句关系。连接副词的标点比较特殊：在第一个分句后面使分号，副词后面使逗号
例如
I dislike mushrooms; therefore, I never eat them.
连接副词在句首，后面加逗号；
On the other hand , mushrooms are good for you.
Therefore, I never eat them.
连接副词在句中，前后都加逗号；
I, therefore, never eat them.
Mushrooms, on the other hand, are good for you.
在句尾，前面加逗号；
I never eat them, therefore.
有些并列连词和并列副词意义一样
and------------- furthermore, moreover, besides, also=additional
but, yet----------however, nevertheless, still =opposite
or----------otherwise =choice, or else
so-----------consequently, therefore, thus, hence, accordingly,=result
2.3从属连词 subordinator
引导从句同主句相接而成复合句
当状语从句在主句前，用逗号，在后面则不必
I never eat mushrooms because I dislike them.
Because the cost of education has been rising, many students are having financial problems.
2.4介词和限定词 proposition and determiner
在标点符号方面没有特殊的要求
常用的介词词组： because of, due to, in spite of;
常用的限定此词如：another, additional , final
I dislike mushrooms because of a bad experience I once had.
Another reason I dislike mushrooms is their rubbery consistency.
3.段落间的转承词语
例如 Flextime
One of the most important changes that management ahs made in industry in recent years is the scheduling of flexible work hours for their employees. Workers are given the option of choosing when they will work. This allows them more leisure time for family and fun. Flextime has obvious advantages for both workers and management although it may not be practical in all types of business. The first advantage is increased production per work-hour. A second advantage is that factory workers are happier. In addition to increased output and worker satisfaction, factory managers report that absenteeism has declined. Although flextime has produced these three positive results in some industries, it is not as advantageous in all type of business.
To summarize, flextime has resulted in increased production and happier workers who are less likely to miss work, and works well in manufacturing and retail industries. It works less well in service industries such as restaurant and health care industries.
3.1递进关系 to indicate addition
also, besides, another, in addition, furthermore, what’s more
moreover,况且，而且，此外 an additional… 附件，另外的
3.2举例 to introduce exampkes
a case in point 恰当的实例，范例 for one thing 一方面，一则
in essence 本质上，大体上 namely即，就是
for another thing，另一方面 such as the following 例如
for example ,that is (to say), for instance, to illustrate举例说
by the way of example 例如，举例来说 as an illustrate做为例证
as an example 例如， incidentally顺便说一句，附带的
in illustration of 作为……的例证
3.4比较和对照 to show comparison and contrast
all (just)the same 完全一样，仍然 in any event 无论怎样
in general 一般，大体上 in spite of 不管
likewise 同样的 contrary to 跟……相反
nevertheless 不管，任凭 differ from 和…不同
even though/if 即使
by contraries 相反的，出乎预料的
in contrast with/to 和…成对比
anyway/anyhow 总之，无论无何
not only …. But also 不但………而且
resent a striking contrast to 和…成显著的对比
or the sake of contrast 为了对照起见
3.5因果 to show cause or effect
accordingly 因此，于是，相应的 owing to 由于
as a result 由于…结果，所以 result from 由…产生
result in 结果为，导致 since 因为，所以
by reason of 凭….的理由 consequently 因此
due to 由于 the cause of …的原因
hence 因此，所以 otherwise 否则，不然
with the result that 其结果是
3.6 结论或概要 to indicate conclusion or summary
as has been noted 如上所述 in other word
as a few words 一言以蔽之 overall 全面的，总的
therefore 因此，所以 in conclusion
a sum up 概括，总结 in brief/short/sum 总之，简言之
to put in another way换句话说
3.7强调 to emphasize a point
above all 尤其重要的，最重要的是 for this purpose 为此目的
particularly 特别，尤其，格外 indeed 确实
primarily 首先，主要的 to repeat 重复一下
more important 更为重要的是
more significantly 更为有意义的是
anyway/anyhow 无论如何，不管怎样
3.8时间，to indicate time or sequence
at the end of 终于 after an interval过了一段时间
at the same time 同时 eventually 最终，最后
afterwards 后来，其后 finally 最终，最后
at present 目前 first of all 第一，首先 nowadays 现在，现今 in the first place 首先
previously 在以前 in the meantime 在这期间
in the second 其次 simultaneously 同时，一齐
subsequently 其后，接着 temporarily暂时
meanwhile 期间，在那当中 thereafter 此后
ultimately 最终，最后 to begin with 首先，第一
3.9空间 space
in front of in the center of at one end
in the distance at the end of at the bottom of
at the back of at the other end close to
elsewhere on top of opposite to
in the foreground 在最突出的地位
in the upper left-hand corner在左上角
on/to the left/right hand of 在…左边或右边
in the bottom left-hand corner在左下角
4.重复 coherence through repetition
有意识的重复是另一常见的方法，很有用的修辞手法和写作技巧
之后是时间顺序，空间顺序，主次顺序
第四节 句子的多样性 sentence variety
句子的多样性，并不是对单个句子的要求而是当一串句子出现的时候，句式要丰富；写文章的最好方法是使用混合简单句，并列句，复合句，此外长短句混合使用，并行结构要保持一致。
例子1－长短混用
In the past two decades there has occurred a series of changes in American life, the extent, durability, and significance of which no one has yet measured. No one can.
例子2-句子开头多样话，总是用人称代词开头，乏味单调,可以用并列法和从属法改写，效果更好
Thomas Jefferson was born in 1743 and died at Monticello, Virginia, on July 4, 1826.During his eighty-four years he accomplished a number of things. Although best known for his draft of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was a man of many talents who had a wide intellectual range. He was a patriot who was one of the revolutionary founders of the United States.
例三――丰富多彩的开头
Proud and relieved, they watched their daughter receive her diploma.
Hungrily, the boy devoured his lunch.
When foreign students come to the United States, they suffer from culture shock.
For better or worse, credit cards are now readily available to college students.
Having decided to quit his job, Robert to began looking for another one.
Located on the west coast of Great Britain, Wales is part of the United Kingdom.
His interests widening, Picasso designed ballet sets and illustrated books.
And football is an exciting sports to watch for a lot of people from around the word.
Furthermore, football is also a dangerous sport to play.
Famous for having discovered penicillin, Alexander Fleming was a British scientist.
The way football and basketball are played is as interesting as the players. Because football is a game of precision, each play is diagrammed to accomplish a certain goal. Basketball, however, is a game of endurance. In fact, a basketball game looks like a track meet; the team that drops of exhaustion first loses. Basketball players are often compared to artists, their moves and slam dunks are their masterpieces. 杰作
例子四－同一个词语不要使用过于频繁，要考虑同义词和近义词的代替；如good
We had a very enjoyable evening on Friday. After a meal at a romantic Italian restaurant we went to a very powerful film. I liked it because the actors were so sensitive and the plot was an original one as well. Afterwards we felt so exhilarated that we decided to visit some close friends of ours and tell them all about our evening. They were very understanding about our calling round so late and I was glad that I was able to do them a favor by mending their clock while we were there.
声明：
参考资料来源：《高级英语写作》 世界图书出版社出版 编著：王艾芬 王惠玲
如果要使用一下内容，请注明啦，我只是找自己觉得有用的type了，感兴趣的话的话就去看看原书。That's all，Thank U～
第一节——英文短文的构成Structure of English essay 1
Useful expressions 1
1. 引言段 2
1.1引言段包括2个部分： 2
1.2主题阐述要点： 3
1.3引言段举例 3
1.4 成功的引言 effective introductory 4
2- 正文 Main body 6
结尾段 concluding paragraph 7
1. 结尾段的写作要求： 7
2.典型结尾 7
3.Useful Expressions 8
一篇好的文章应该具备的四个条件
1－有一个鲜明的主题；
2－有充分的细节材料扩展和论证主题；
3－有严谨的结构，段落间衔接自然流畅，通篇完整连贯；
4－语言通顺，表达地道
第一节——英文短文的构成Structure of English essay
一篇结构完整，脉络分明的文章应该具有三个主要组成部分
引言段－正文－结尾段
Useful expressions
As the proverb says… Generally speaking, ...
It goes without saying that… It is often said that…
With the development/ progress/ growth of…
Many people often ask this question:“…?”
Currently there is widespread concern that…
Now people in growing number are coming to realize that…
1. 引言段
引言段语言要简洁明快，提供主题的概括性背景信息，常常表明文章的主题将怎样展开，文字生动，并引起读者对论题的兴趣；
引言段位于文章的开头，所占比例较小；
用于说明文章题目讨论什么问题，将要谈那些内容等；
1.1引言段包括2个部分：
一是概括性阐述general statement；引出文章主题，简要提供有关主题背景引起读者的主意，便于读者了解文章的论题的由来，对文章的意图和意义产生兴趣。
二是主题阐述 thesis statement；和段落的主题句一样，阐明文章的主题，包含了正文具体论述扩充的内容，同时表达作者的态度，意见或关于主题的观点。同段落主题句相比，文章的主题的阐述更为广阔，他表达整篇文章的中心思想，并可能表明整篇文章的构思方法，主题阐述通常位于引言段的结尾处；
特别主意的是：不要包括：as I will show, it seems to me, in my paper, I plan to demonstrate’这样的语言会分散读者的注意力，而且削弱论证的可信度；
1.2主题阐述要点：
1. 应在一个完整的句子中表达；
2. 表达一种观点，态度或者间接，而不是简单的提出文章将要展开的主题；
3. 应表达一个观点，而不是一个事实；由于主题阐述表达有关主旨的态度，观点或见解，需要进一步解释和论证；
4. 不仅对有关主题的一种观点的表达，而且表明和限制其展开的方法；
5. 位置最好在引言段的结尾或者接近结尾段处；
1.3引言段举例
例1.
Traveling to a foreign country（ 话题） is always interesting, especially if it is a country that is completely different from your own. You can delight in tasting new foods, seeing new sights, and learning about different customs, some of which may seem very curious. If you were to visit my country,（缩小范围） for instance, you would probably think that my people have some very strange（ 段落主旨关键词）customs, as three examples illustrate.
例2.
Are males and females truly equal? They do possess several common characteristics: intelligence, capacity for compassion, desire for acceptance. (概括性阐述，引起读者的注意)At the same time, however,转折 males and female also exhibit very pronounced biological differences other than the obvious anatomical ones. Three of these differences（主题） will be discussed in the paragraphs that follow. 承上启下
例3.
Pollution is undermining the quality of life in the United States and throughout the world. On the certain days in some urban areas it is dangerous for people with respiratory problems to go outdoors. In rural areas as well as urban ones, polluted water is destroying many forms of marine life. And in all large cities, noise, perhaps the most noticeable pollution of all, it is impairing the ability to hear and listen, especially among young people.
1.4 成功的引言 effective introductory
把握要点，开门见山是议论文开头语的特点，有经验的坐着在引言中力求使自己提出的问题发人深省：
1- 恰当的引语（pertinent quotation）
恰当的使用名人名言，会使文章显得富有这里，不仅引起读者注意而且可以增强文章的说服和表现力度；
例如：
“ The only useless life is woman’s,” wrote Benjamin Disraeli about a century ago. Today many feminists are hard at work to liberate woman from the “useless” life of housewife to a “useful” one of engineer, doctor, or political leader. All women, however, do not consider the life of keeping house and rearing children useless. In fact, as strange as it may sound to most people, not all women want to be liberated.
2- 提出问题，解决问题的模式
3- 修辞性疑问句 rhetorical question 反诘句
Are the courts abolishing sex discrimination in American education? Recent court decisions concerning charge of sex discrimination in university athletics have raised some very real doubts in the minds of female athletes about the willingness of the courts to abolish sex bias. A review of three of these cases will illustrate the point. 表明将有三个段落描述
4- 个人经历 autobiography
尽量不要使用，因为有时间限制，这种引言对作文来讲可能会显得太长；
5- 事实和统计数字 facts and statistics
列举语论点相关的事实和统计数字，必须确定提出的事实的真实性，并语论点相关；
6- 驳斥 refutation
在引言段中先总结陈述对方的观点或意见，再表达自己的观点，以一种灵活的方式确定论点；议论文比较恰当；
Forcing children to do things, in general, is good if the child is in danger of too young to make major decisions. Parents may also argue that forcing their child to take up certain hobbies, like the piano, will give the child a well- rounded education and a possible future career in music. However, there are several problems with forcing children to comply: a breakdown in communication between the children and the parents, rebellion, and failure in school.
2- 正文 Main body
正文，是文章的核心，true substance
主题一般由若干个次主题组成subtopic，正文部分实际上是对次主题的主意论证达到对主题的论证的；正文部分的逻辑性，如正文内容的安排顺序，是依据主题对各个次主题的统率，次主题对事实，数据，细节的统率体现出来；
正文模式结构;formal outline pattern
Thesis statement;
I. first main idea –subtopic1
A. first subordinate idea
1- first example or illustrate
2- second example of illustrate
a． first support detail
b． second support detail
B. Second subordinate idea
II. Second main idea-subtopic2
结尾段 concluding paragraph
结尾段位于短文的末尾，是整篇文章的总结要点，他归纳文章正文阐述的观点，并重申主题，与引言段首尾呼应。由于这是作者展示论点的最后机会，所以句子应该有力而耐人寻味。
1. 结尾段的写作要求：
以不同的简洁语言重申主题，使之深化；
对主题做最后的评论，以引起读者对文章主题的回味和思考；
总结文章的论点要点，加深读者对整篇文章的理解，给他们留下更深刻的印象；
在结尾段开首的时候，运用表示结论的转承词语，并表示整篇文章就要接收，同时也使结尾段与正文的连接更为流畅自然。
2.典型结尾
评价文章主题的重要性
These amazing, controversial photographs of the comet will continue to be the subject of debate because, according to some scientists, they yield the most important clues yet revealed about the origins of our universe.
阐述文章蕴涵的更深远的寓意
Because these studies of feline leukemia my someday play a crucial role in the discovery of cure AIDS in human beings, the experiments, as expensive as they are, must continue.
用名言强调总结文章的论点
No one said dieting was easy. But for some of us who have surrendered, the cliche “half a loaf is better than none” has taken on new meaning!
根据文章主题进行分析和推论或展望和预测其前景
Soap operas will continue to be popular not only because they distract us from our daily chores but also because they present life as we want it to be: fast-paced, glamourous, and full of exciting characters.
用修辞疑问句给人意犹未尽之感，使读者对文章的主要观点进行深思
No one wants to houstages put in danger. But what nation can afford to let terroists know they can get away with murder?
3.Useful Expressions
In a word…/ to sum up,…
On account of this we can find that…
The result is dependent on…
Therefore, these finding reveal the following informantion…
It is high time that… we put considerable emphasis on…
Form the foregoing, we know…
第二节，英文短文的写作程序
1－写作的五个步骤
1-1． 确定主题 Determining the topic
主题使作者主要意图的体现。要根据自己现有知识和材料；题目应是自己最了解最感兴趣的，并有充足的事实阐述论证
1-2． 收集和选择素材
任何与材料有关的自己亲身经历，和别人的经历以及读到的和听到的有关信息，；还要主题符合人的逻辑思维习惯哦
1-3． 组织材料和编写提纲
Buleprint 对文章精心构思，布局谋篇的过程；把材料条理化。
1-4． 打草稿
文章预先书写阶段，按照拟好的提纲，将思路一步步展开；写句子的时候要主意句法结构和修辞，文字的通顺流畅，选择最合适的段落展开方法和技巧来展开细节，同时要主意运用转承词语和逻辑顺序使结构严谨，浑然一体，行文流畅；
1-5． 检查修改
proofreading
2. 如何编写提纲
Introduction-Major point -top
First Division
Second division
Third division
Conclusions
编写提纲的重要原则使逻辑平行；主要的项目分类在逻辑上应使并列的，也就是说他们在内容，等级程度上相同；语法结构和短语，句子组成互为平行；
[ Last edited by davidjacky on 2005-9-11 at 13:52 ] |
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发表于 2005-8-25 10:25:54
发表于 2005-12-20 01:26:37
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