【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）-（11）

Blithe0404UID: 2738704

谢谢版主的资料。
今天先看了段落间的关系，还有前一节的逻辑顺序和逻辑标志词，明天继续。看会文法去。

段落间的关系

一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
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支持论据１：
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle.（重要性的句子顺序：4, 3, 1, 2, 5（最重要）.）Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include
general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly

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支持论据２：
In a historically-oriented paper (e.g. "The Early Conquests of Alexander the Great"), you might simply want to move the paper along chronologically.（不要过早到达高潮和在高潮前引用过多的极端词汇！！！要呈趋势出现，就像播放一部电影。）

If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing?
Your outline might look like this:
Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion

You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science   before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation,   you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
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支持论据３：
After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order, that is, ascending from least to most important. You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.

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支持论据４：
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.



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反例一：
DECREASING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: when you want to tell your readers that something new has happened and why they should be interested -- then fill them in on the details
INCREASING COMPLEXITY: a sequence that leads your readers gently into a complex subject
STEPS OF A PROCESS: when you want to focus on a process itself, not the end result
A SPATIAL SEQUENCE: when you want your reader to see the way different aspects of your subject are spatially interrelated or lie in contrast
A TEMPORAL SEQUENCE: for emphasizing the time relations among things or events

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反例２：


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反例３：
·
Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors
·
Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
·
There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors
·
A businesslike, courteous, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
·
The writing style flows smoothly
·
The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
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反例４：you have for each in a logical order and one that most effectively organizes your argument:
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect

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反例5：
A possible outline template for an analytical paper
This is for an essay that happens to have three main answers, again listed in ascending order as in our argumentative paper template. How you order them will entirely depend on which ones you feel, given all the evidence, are the most or least convincing. If we take our research question example from before, perhaps the first answer would be from researchers who believe music has no effect on studying, the second about studies that show how detrimental it is, and the third one pointing out the positive aspects. In your conclusion, you might point out how certain conditions (e.g., absence of lyrics, tempo, volume, type of studying student is engaged in etc.) appear to be incredibly important.
  
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
·
What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
·
Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")

_________________________
·
(You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
· Answer #3 = _________________________
·
one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
·
strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
·
another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
·
best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
·
why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
·
sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
·
critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
·
look at the implications

通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１．
并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２．
实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -
Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions:
The Parts of an Essay


A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.


It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim.)

"What?"
The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" often directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing（what长度应＜全文的1/3）.
"How?"
：怎样驳斥相反观点？你怎样为自己的观点证明？一般最少一个How(太长也不好)。这部分一般出现在What之后。
"Why?"
： Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end.
文章地图法：
Mapping an Essay
Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in understanding your idea.

Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:

*
State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.

*
Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)

*
Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.


Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what, how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.

注意不要写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").

Blithe0404UID: 2738704

谢谢版主。
发现一篇一篇看很有效率 更是发现这个时候效率挺高 因为难得的安静 呵呵。

段落内部的关系

一、段落的基本概念：
１．
段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
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一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
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一个合理的逻辑顺序
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没有无关细节

注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.

２．
段落的长短问题：
首先原因一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
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但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
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过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。

一、
段落的组成结构：
１．
The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２．
Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３．
The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。

段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before.
Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors.
Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,划双线的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.

二、
段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
１．
为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them , not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.

２．怎么做？
读者更在乎的是你的新论据（他们熟悉的但不了解的）
Three way：
（１）
表示指向的词和短语：
·
of course
·
as you know
·
until now
·
obviously
·
normally
·
previously
·
everyone is familiar with
·
remember that


（２）LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：（用新的扩大旧的）
不一定非得按一定的顺序写文章（如：年代顺序。可能你是因为对新的东西好奇才去了解旧的，或者是对比新的你更喜欢旧的）

（３）
ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：(加上解释的词和短语)

你的观点越复杂，附加的解释就要越多。一般解释要写的比你想象得多（因为别人不如你自己了解它。In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.）
三、
段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
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Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
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Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
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Connection－适当的连接句子

（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit.
逻辑连接词
Connective words that describe relationships:

also [/td][td]However [/td][td]Although [/td][/tr]

incidentally [/td][td]Therefore [/td][td]Besides [/td][/tr]

Likewise [/td][td]Thus [/td][td]Meanwhile [/td][/tr]

Moreover [/td][td]Usually [/td][td]Furthermore [/td][/tr]

Next [/td][td]Wharever [/td][td]Generally [/td][/tr]

Yet [/td][td]Accordingly [/td][td]nevetheless [/td][/tr]

Instead [/td][td]In contrast [/td][td]For example [/td][/tr]

Connectives that give a sense of time:

First [/td][td]Second [/td][/tr]

Finally [/td][td]Now [/td][/tr]

Once [/td][td]When [/td][/tr]

Ultimately [/td][td]Eventually [/td][/tr]

Lastly [/td][td]Later [/td][/tr]

Meanwhile [/td][td]Previously [/td][/tr]

Then [/td][td]Soon [/td][/tr]

Formerly [/td][td]sometimes [/td][/tr]

Other Connective phrases:

TO BEGIN WITH [/td][td]ON THE OTHER HAND [/td][/tr]

IN BRIEF [/td][td]IN GENERAL [/td][/tr]

IN SUMMARY [/td][td]MORE SPECIFICALLY [/td][/tr]

INSTEAD OF [/td][td]IN ADDITION TO [/td][/tr]

IN OTHER WORDS [/td][td]ANOTHER WAY TO [/td][/tr]

FOR THE SAME REASON [/td][td]NO MATTER WHAT [/td][/tr]

SUCH A [/td][td]THAT'S WHAT (WHY) [/td][/tr]

IN FACT [/td][td]WHAT'S MORE [/td][/tr]

IN THE SAME WAY [/td][td]ON THE CONTRARY [/td][/tr]

CONVERSELY [/td][td]AS A RESULT [/td][/tr]

SUMMING UP [/td][td]IF SO / NOT [/td][/tr]

All of these words and phrases link ideas and assure continuity in your writing. (具体的这些连接词我在写作语言里边有更详细的总结)


（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:

TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.

这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．(用代词指代核心)One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:

THIS	THAT
THESE	WHICH
THEIR	HIS
ITS	HER

利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）

For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
对比下列俩句子：
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives:

ESPECIALLY [/td][td]AS MUCH AS [/td][td]EVEN IF/THOUGH [/td][/tr]

INCREASINGLY [/td][td]BY FAR [/td][td]SO...THAT [/td][/tr]

MORE IMPORTANTLY [/td][td]HIGHLY [/td][td]ONLY [/td][/tr]

PARTICULARLY [/td][td]IN FACT [/td][td]VERY [/td][/tr]

SIGNIFICANTLY [/td][td]QUITE [/td][td]SUCH [/td][/tr]

MOST [/td][td]UNIQUE [/td][td]AT ALL [/td][/tr]

ABOVE ALL [/td][td]INDEED [/td][td]IN ANY CASE [/td][/tr]

CAUTION:
不要滥用强调词！！！
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Blithe0404UID: 2738704

谢谢版主

1．
如何使用论据论证？
（１）
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
（２）
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
（３）
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
（４）
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim

举例：
Weak Use of Evidence
1)
Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content
缺陷：论证和题目结合不紧密，不是论据无关，而是作者没有表现这种合理的关系在哪里，其实就是却一句话或者是一个逻辑连接词的问题．

Stronger Use of Evidence
2)
Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim

Blithe0404UID: 2738704

谢谢版主的资料
终于找到感觉了，恩恩。上一篇没进入状态。。

Strategies for Writing a Conclusion

结论最难写，但读者最关心的恰恰在此。

结论要素：

• 重现主题句
• 完善全文
• （给读者一个深刻的印象

Suggestions

• Answer the question "So What?"
  （强调文章的重要性）

Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.

Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it.

• Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
  不是总结！！！
  • Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.

• Redirect your readers
  • Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）

• Create a new meaning
  • You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
• Point to broader implications.

For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies

• Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.

Example

Introduction

From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.

Conclusion

I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）

• Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.

Example

Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.

• Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

Example

Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）

• Posing questions:（提出问题） Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

Example

Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

Strategies to Avoid·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
·
在结论中第一次提到论点
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
·
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
·
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.
The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
2.
The "Sherlock Holmes: Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" her with your main idea, much like a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.
3.
The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
4.
The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（8）
·
段落间的逻辑顺序
1.
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
Items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…"
A possible outline template for an analytical paper (ascending order)
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
·
What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
·
Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of .., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects of ….")
_________________________
·
(You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
Reason #3 = _________________________
·
one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
·
strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
·
another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
·
best answer so far what does it say?
·
why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
·
sum up what different angles have shown are: research question
·
critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
·
look at the implications
2.
If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation, you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
How do you cover the ground with multiplying your outline headings? You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.  Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.  This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.
3.
Descending order
4.
General to specific order
5.
Known to unknown
6.
Problem to solution
7.
Concept to example
8.
Cause and effect
9.
Contrast and compare
10.
IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -Results – Discussion
11.
Flow of mind
·
如何处理复杂顺序
一．三“W”法：Answering Questions:
The Parts of an Essay
A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding.
Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't.
Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending.
Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.
"What?"
What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.
"How?"
How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.
"Why?"
Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance.
二．文章地图法Mapping an Essay
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:
*
State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.
*   Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)
*   Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.
The order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one.
Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Although they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
·
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
·
一个合理的逻辑顺序
·
没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
·
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
·
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.
Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.
Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.
Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
·
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
·
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
·
Connection－适当的连接句子
1.
利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.
利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
·
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
·
一个合理的逻辑顺序
·
没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
·
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
·
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.
Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.
Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.
Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
·
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
·
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
·
Connection－适当的连接句子
1.
利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.
利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
•        一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
•        一个合理的逻辑顺序
•        没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
•        过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
•        过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
•        Orient your reader to the subject.
•        Tie your ideas together.
•        Take it easy through technically dense passages.
•        Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.        Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.        Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.        Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
•        Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
•        Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
•        Connection－适当的连接句子
1.        利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.        利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
·
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
·
一个合理的逻辑顺序
·
没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
·
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
·
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.
Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.
Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.
Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
·
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
·
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
·
Connection－适当的连接句子
1.
利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.
利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
·
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
·
一个合理的逻辑顺序
·
没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
·
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
·
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.
Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.
Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.
Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
·
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
·
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
·
Connection－适当的连接句子
1.
利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.
利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
·
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
·
一个合理的逻辑顺序
·
没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
·
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
·
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.
Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.
Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.
Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
·
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
·
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
·
Connection－适当的连接句子
1.
利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.
利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

第9讲练习：
Global Airlines carried as much as three-million passengers last year, in contrast, only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago. Their planes have averaged 80-percent full last year. Meanwhile, their record has always been accident-free since 1950. This increase may due to that they expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada. While, older, unprofitable routes were dropped. Besides, the new DC-12 aircraft proved much more fuel-efficient than the older 737's. On the other hand, passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing. As a result, their profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（10） 如何有效的论证
l
如何使用论据论证？
1.
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
2.
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position.
3.
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
4.
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph:
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
论证的段落首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子。几乎每一个句子都有逻辑连接词连接。
l
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper. Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.
l
Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（11）Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best.
A conclusion should
·
Stress the importance of the thesis statement.（重现主题句）
·
Give the essay a sense of completeness.（完善全文）
·
Leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
n
Suggestions
·
Answer the question "So what?" （强调文章的重要性）
Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful. Ask yourself the question “so what?” or “why should anybody care?”
·
Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
·
Redirect your readers
Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study.
·
Create a new meaning
You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
·
Point to broader implications.
n
Strategies
·
Echoing the introduction:（呼应开头）
Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
·
Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）
By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.
·
Looking to the future:（展望未来）
Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
·
Posing questions:（提出问题）
Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
n
Strategies to avoid
·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
·
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
·
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
n
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.
The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion.
This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say.
2.
The "Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion.
Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front.
3.
The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion.
This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
4.
The "Grab Bag" Conclusion.
This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper.