【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）-（11）

cicialiceUID: 2594855

这一讲的精华在于最后提出的这几个问题：
Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

提出论据之后一定要对其进行分析~GRE写作考察的是你的逻辑推理能力而不是单纯誊写论据的抄写能力~
in turn,你每提出一个论调，必须要有合理的论据来支持它~论点和论据都不能独立存在，合二为一才能服人~

cicialiceUID: 2594855

哈~这几讲真是很强大呀！从thesis到段落内部到论证再到结论全都讲明白了@！:lol

cicialiceUID: 2594855

the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best.

A conclusion should

• stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
• leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）

Suggestions

• Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）

Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.

不能只做成简简单单的陈述~要让读者真有体会这是一篇effective writing!

• Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
  • Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
  • 这一条提的是多么多么好啊！！我真想给它五颗大大的五星~~好多时候都把结论做成了summarize,认为结论就是总结没法体现什么文章结构~大错特错！结论是给了你一个极好的机会去再次（首次是thesis）将全文内容浑然一体，让读者一眼看出你要陈述的重点是什么以及以上陈述的各段观点是如何被融为一体的~

• Redirect your readers

Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）

·
Create a new meaning

o
You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.

升华观点而不是提出一个全新的观点~

·
Point to broader implications.

Strategies

• Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
• 呼应开头绝对不是对开头简简单单的陈述~经过了几段的论证要深化开头提出的观点，更体现文章的全局观。

• Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.

• Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

Posing questions:（提出问题） Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

Strategies to Avoid（太重要了！！！）·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
·
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
·
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

moon-pieUID: 2723812

东西真多啊。。。时间紧迫

QuincySMUID: 2162088

Date: 11/12/2009
Topic: 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）段落的逻辑顺序问题
Reference: https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html

一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
常见的climactic order=order of importance, 顺序为从最不重要到最重要，也就是递进。
可能用到的写作连接词：
more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on.
其变体psychological order ，特点为两头重点，中间不那么重要。
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly
关于比较：If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.也就是说两点分别谈。有时候也可以交叉进行。sometimes you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn.
using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.结构要紧凑。
You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.
下面这个提纲只是一个思路。我觉得其很值得借鉴的一点就是它不停地以提问回答促使作者来思考
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
·
What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
·
Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")

_________________________
·
(You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
· Answer #3 = _________________________
·
one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
·
strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
·
another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
·
best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
·
why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
·
sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
·
critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
·
look at the implications

1.
并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
2.
实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
3.
补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -
Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
3Ws
what：
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What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true?
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often directly after the introduction
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it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
how
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How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument?这个又呼应了“写文章时考虑反对意见”的要点
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This section usually comes after the "what,"
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an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length 这才是文章长度的主要来源，也就是讲道理（当然要结合事实来讲）
why
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Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you?这个有点像so what/who cares那种意思了
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your essay explains its own significance.这是一篇文章与众不同的源泉
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the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end.
三、文章地图法：
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:
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State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim.
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Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ."
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Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."

QuincySMUID: 2162088

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Date: 11/12/2009
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Topic: 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（9）段落内部的关系
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Reference: https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html

一、段落的基本概念：
１．段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
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一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
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一个合理的逻辑顺序
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没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：
２．段落的长短问题：
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
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过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
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过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构：
１．The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２．Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３．The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
(1)USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
·
of course
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as you know
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until now
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obviously
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normally
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previously
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everyone is familiar with
·
remember that

(2)LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD 这个仔细想来很巧妙。承上启下主要是启下。
(3) ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES
In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.这句话很适合我这种喜欢跳跃思维的人
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
四、段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
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Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
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Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
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Connection－适当的连接句子
（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：因为文章有logical jump
（二）利用重复
利用人称和其他代词指代。
核心词重复：同义替换的能力
利用强调词

QuincySMUID: 2162088

Date: 11/12/2009
Topic: 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（10）如何有效论证
Reference: https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html

如何使用论据论证？
（１）
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.$
（２）
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position 这个已经谈过好多次了
（３）
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition 要营造讨论的感觉，文章是有价值的，是因为这个issue值得讨论
（４）
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
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State your claim.
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Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
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Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

QuincySMUID: 2162088

Date: 11/12/2009
Topic: 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（11）Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Reference: https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html

A conclusion should

• stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
• leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）

原来如此，我一直觉得来不及写就罢了。。。看来这是4分与5分的区别啊！

Suggestions

•
Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
•
Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize 这句话很有启发性。
•
Redirect your readers
Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. 很值得借鉴 一时还找不到这种感觉
•
Create a new meaning
You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts. 这个也是属于升华的那种
•
Point to broader implications.总之是要留出思考空间来。感觉像中国画的留白

Strategies

•
Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）

•
Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）

•
Looking to the future:（展望未来）

•
Posing questions:（提出问题）

Strategies to Avoid

•
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.

•
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.

•
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
注意区别于前面的升华类型。这个是给人一种你没讨论完的感觉。

•
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.

•
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
别喊口号

•
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

xiguan_33UID: 2641018

【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）段落间的关系 笔记 items are arranged from least important to most important. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. 【今天阅读课老师还讲到这个问题 说是这样的 先写重要的这点是由老外的思维模式决定的 中国人说这句话是“你要是需要我帮忙 我肯定会帮你的”但老外说的就是“I will help you, if...” 同理在写单独一段的时候也因该是先结论后举例】 对应连接词： more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly 【平时多读读这类东西 自己写文章的时候不要总用第一反应反应出的那个 要做适当的变化】 if you use up the good stuff early, you’ll have little left to keep the reader interested in the rest of what you have to say. 【时刻记得reader的想法 记得替reader考虑】 If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it. If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing? Your outline might look like this: Introduction The Go Ahead Position All Science is Legitimate. We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk. The Benefits Outweigh The Risks. The Wait A Minute Position Is all Science Legitimate? Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk? Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks? Conclusion 【这一段非常值得借鉴！多看几遍】 Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position. Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B. 【先因后果】 Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.) 【这个以前也没考虑过写的文章需不需要介绍背景知识 这又涉及到了那个GRE考试中作文写作的假想受众是谁的问题。】 【由此还想到一点 作文老师曾经说 举例一定要简单介绍一下这个人或事再用 不能假定是美国的事或是著名的事他都一定能知道】 【注意不要写成堆积型那段再好好看看 自己的文章时常不小心就写成那样】

xiguan_33UID: 2641018

本帖最后由 xiguan_33 于 2009-11-15 22:27 编辑 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（9）段落内部的句子结构和句子连接 笔记 这里注意段落基本的三要素： 一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关 一个合理的逻辑顺序 没有无关细节 一、段落的组成结构： １．The topic sentence: 有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！ ２．Supporting evidence/analysis: 由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！ ３．The conclusion(observation): 结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。 一、段落组成的内容： 内容基本原则——要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写 【这点我以前一直不在意 甚至有时觉得没必要 不过现在换位思考一下 如果我是读者 还是读这种能猜到作者继续怎么写的文章比较舒服】 【这篇文章特别重要 剩下没摘抄的地方就是特别需要多读精读的部分 尤其表格里的各类词汇 用来做写作时候的第一反应替换词很有用】

xiguan_33UID: 2641018

【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（10）如何有效使用论据论证 笔记 In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：) o State your claim. o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim. o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim 【先结论后解释型思路 先重点后次重点的思维模式的广义推广】 Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence 【reader的重要性！】 Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper 1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative? 2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper? 3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas? 4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims? 5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them? 6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly? 【写完之后按照这个检查一下 看看问题出在哪里 进而确定是不是自己思维和逻辑上的错误导致 改之】

xiguan_33UID: 2641018

本帖最后由 xiguan_33 于 2009-11-15 22:26 编辑 【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（11）Strategies for writing a conclusion笔记 Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！） and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.【自己的问题就是这个‘many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper’】 A conclusion should stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句） give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文） leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）【final impression.. 从来没想过还有这么个东西】【】 Suggestions Answer the question "so what" 【显示出文章的意义 说的不是废话是有意义的 对文章进行一个提升】 Synthesize, don't aummarize 【同这篇笔记中第一段写得意思差不多 最后是要做一个提炼一个升华的】 Redirect you readers 【“think globally”这点很重要 在前面论述过程中也因该考虑到】 Creat a new meaning You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts. 这段不是很理解 求助~ 】 Point to broader implications 【这一点我觉得在我最近看的好多文献中体现的特别明显 好多文献最后一部分都是这个作用 尤其综述类的文献。。】 Strategies Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头） 【这个如果第一段有按前面讲的写法写的话 提出了thesis 那么结论必然与之有呼应】 Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） 【这个我觉得对我来说实际操作起来比较困难】 Looking to the future:（展望未来） Posing questions:（提出问题） Strategies to Avoid Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）【嗯 自己以前没注意过这点 写文章好多地方显得口语化】 Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.【这个必然不会啦】 Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.【要有升华~】 Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper). Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

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【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）段落的逻辑顺序问题
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html
薇薇vivi阅读笔记


1、Climactic Order (Order of Importance)

从最不重要的到最重要的

Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on.

A variation of climactic order is called psychological order.逐渐递增顺序的变体是心理顺序。
读者常常关注开始和结尾，而并不关注中间部分。所以，把最重要的东西放在开头或结尾，然后选择第二重要的东西，把它放在开头或结尾。（开头放一个，结尾放一个）。最不重要的东西放在中间。

If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.

其他顺序
general-to-specific order,普遍到特殊的顺序
specific-to general order,特殊到普遍的顺序
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,最熟悉到最不熟悉的顺序
simplest-to-most-complex,简单到复杂的顺序
order of frequency,频率顺序
order of familiarity, and so on.熟愁的顺序

对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly
一定要抽时间把连接词总结，牢记！！！


2、历史题材的作文，按年代排序

In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors.
Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…,however, is…"
像电影一样，逐渐进高潮，才能吸引读者。

观点的比较和对比，
如果两个观点都很简单，尝试经度的方法。讨论A观点的所有方面，再接着讨论B观点的所有方面。
Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.

如果两个观点比较复杂，读者也许忘了第一个观点说的啥，可采用cross-sectional approach,which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn，轮流处理每个观点的一个方面。

主标题少，副标题要多。（这样翻译好像不对，我的理解是写提纲时，一个观点为一个大点，分为很多小点，用小点去补充细节）

3、把相关支持的细节分为三大基本部分
比如描述一个邋遢的咖啡馆，可以用墙，吧台，柜台三部分来说明。in climactic order,即从不重要到重要的顺序，递进说明。

4、Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
逻辑顺序：
  for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first,   then, finally)
用从不重要到最重要的顺序时，使用合适的转换词，如first, then,finally

Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
另一种方法是，原因和结果的方法。如果A产生了B，那么先讨论A，再讨论B。

Still another way is to organize by problem then solution.State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
还有一种方法是，先讨论问题，再给出解决方法。

还有的顺序是：复杂性增加的顺序，过程顺序，时间顺序，空间顺序等。
一般到特殊的关系，已知到未知的顺序，时间变化，空间变化，概念到例子，问题到解决方法，数据到结论。

AW的模板：
Introductory Paragraph
• What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
• Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")
　 _________________________
• (You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
· Answer #3 = _________________________
• one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
• strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
• another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
• best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
• why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
• sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
• critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
• look at the implications

通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１． 并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２． 实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods - Results – Discussion

二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions: The Parts of an Essay
相反观点段，常出现在开头部分，或结尾之前。
历史或传记信息，相关理论或批评的总结，关键词的定义，常出现在文章开头，在介绍段和第一个分析段之间，也可以出现在相关段的开头。
what,how,why

2、文章地图法：
用一两话提出观点，再用一句话写为什么这个观点很重要。然后写，读者最需要知道的是什么，然后写为什么这是读者最想知道的东西，然后列出一两个例子。第二个读者想知道的是什么？写为什么。。。直到列出所有的。

注意不要写成堆积型。常被写成描述型，而不是议论型。

"time" words("first," "next," "after," "then")
"listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition")

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【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（10）如何有效论证
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html
薇薇vivi阅读笔记


1． 如何使用论据论证？
（1）提供支持观点的论据，与自己的观点结合
（2）提出相反的观点，并且反对它，从而加强自己的观点
  （3）用引用来支持观点，并使用论据增强

注意：观点与论据的结合

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（11）怎么写CONCLUSTION
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html
薇薇vivi阅读笔记


Strategies for Writing a Conclusion

A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.
结尾是读者记忆深刻的部分。所以要写好。

A conclusion should
• stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
• leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）

Suggestions

Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
Play the "So What" Game.
If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:
和朋友玩“so what"游戏。
让朋友问，这是什么，或者为什么。然后自己来回答。

Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.

Redirect your readers
Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.
如果介绍顺序是从一般到特殊，那么结尾就从特殊到一般。
比如提出一个行动方案，一个解决方法或以后学习的方向。促使读者应用你的思想，联系实际。

Create a new meaning
You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
不必给新信息来创造新的信息。整好所有的材料和思想就不错了。它们合起来的力量远超过单个材料本身。


Point to broader implications.
For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.
简言之，就是写它的影响。比如写一个事件对战争的影响，一个作家对其他女权主义作家的影响。

Strategies
1、Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.

2、Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）
如
Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.

3、Looking to the future:（展望未来）
如
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）

4、Posing questions:（提出问题）
may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion.
如
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

Strategies to Avoid

• Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
这是我经常犯的错误啊。。。用in conclusion,in summary, in closing 等等，陈腐的词语。

• Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
在总结中才第一次出现观点。

• Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
在总结时介绍新观点或副主题。

• Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
结尾时改述观点，却没有实质上的变化。

• Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character（不适合，不符合） with the rest of an analytical paper).
在AW中，写一些伤感的情绪化的东西。

• Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
论据，引用，数据等应该在文章主体部分。

Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions错误的结尾

1. The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion.
This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.

2. The "Sherlock Holmes: Conclusion.福尔摩斯式
不能最后才第一次出现观点。

3. The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion.
This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
不能是情绪化式的东西，在AW中。

4. The "Grab Bag" Conclusion.各种观点混杂的结尾
想到或是发现的观点不能都整合到文章中来