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标题: 1006G【clover】备考日记 by 小灵易碎——重生 [打印本页]
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-3 11:02:32     标题: 1006G【clover】备考日记 by 小灵易碎——重生

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-26 19:36 编辑

《山高路远》，却风雨兼程。


呼喊是爆发的沉默


沉默是无声的召唤


不论激越


还是宁静


我祈求


只要不是平淡


如果远方呼唤我


我就走向远方


如果大山召唤我


我就走向大山


双脚磨破


干脆再让夕阳涂抹小路


双手划烂


索性就让荆棘变成杜鹃


没有比脚更长的路


没有比人更高的山
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-3 20:52:31

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-15 00:28 编辑

空白沙发是吧？
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-6 17:22:21

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-26 19:38 编辑

【clover】作业
1.把日志的标题改成 1006G 【clover】备考日志 by xxx--标题。。记住每天更新。。记录一天所学。。然后回忆巩固
2.每天去阅读一篇eco，做好词好句照抄，然后背诵，并且，挖掘你所看的eco里面可以用于写作的素材。届时bela和我会开eco作业贴。
3.仔细看看下面这个关于写作的指导。。务必反复阅读。。然后在你的日志上更新你看了多少。。有什么启示和收获。。自己以前的文章里面做到了这点没有。。应该如何改进。。。
    Fundamental Course of Writtng
4.intro再研读一遍，然后把感想写在日志上，写出根据intro的要求，以及自己的考试时间，自己的优缺点，写出自己的大致规划。
5.argu和issue的题库每天各十五左右的提纲练习，issue可以是一类的，给自己十到十五分钟深刻思考题目，然后记录下自己的思想瓶颈以及为什么会遇到这样的障碍，在日志里更新，我们到时候会总结。
6.题库继续过，尤其是argu。issue要熟悉所有的题目，不至于看到题目后，会觉得没看到过或者印象不深刻。argu的题库一周至少一次，也是以熟悉为目标。
7.每天背诵红包2-3个list。。毕竟你们已经背过至少一遍了。。
8.难句每天看五句，分析语法，然后再抛弃语法，反复练习。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-6 17:24:06

12.5
单词①——④——①
提纲两篇，写出来跟心情一样糟糕~
觉得前方的路好难，是不是大家跟我差不多呢？╮(╯▽╰)╭
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-7 22:29:51

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-9 22:02 编辑

12.7
单词已经开始总结~终于……╮(╯▽╰)╭呼~~
ISSUE13差不多了，大家狠劲儿拍吧~https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=1038560&extra=
ARGU努力中~
https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=1038580&;extra=不过还是要加快速度了……(ˇˍˇ）q 终于一点点从低落中慢慢恢复，明天会更好的！小灵加油~！！！！！！！！！！
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-8 00:31:54

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-8 23:21 编辑

12.8
单词顺利进行，按照进度就好
写一篇ISSUE172，虽然可能文很烂，但今天敲字快一点了，高兴~^+++^https://bbs.gter.net/thread-1038930-1-1.html
AWINTRO挣扎中，赶不上进度ing，一会儿又要熄灯了……撑不了两小时了~尽量吧
ARGU……我都懒得提它~明天死也要写一篇出来~！！！！！


【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（1）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-930785-1-1.html

1. What does X mean? (Definition)定义
2. What are the various features of X? (Description)事物特点
3. What are the component parts of X? (Simple Analysis)事物的组成部分
4. How is X made or done? (Process Analysis)事物如何做成（方法）
5. How should X be made or done? (Directional Analysis)应该如何做（指导原则）
6. What is the essential function of X? (Functional Analysis)事物的核心功能
7. What are the causes of X? (Causal Analysis) BE EACW事物原因
8. What are the consequences of X? (Causal Analysis)事物结果
9. What are the types of X? (Classification)事物种类
10. How is X like or unlike Y? (Comparison)事物间比较
11. What is the present status of X? (Comparison)事物现在状态
12. What is the significance of X? (Interpretation)事物的重要性
13. What are the facts about X? (Reportage)关于事物的事实
14. How did X happen? (Narration)如何发生的
15. What kind of person is X? (Characterization/Profile)人格特点
16. What is my personal response to X? (Reflection)我自己对事物的反应
17. What is my memory of X? (Reminiscence)对事物的记忆
18. What is the value of X? (Evaluation)对事物的评估
19. What are the essential major points or features of X? (Summary)事物的核心要点
20. What case can be made for or against X? (Persuasion)什么条件下会出现跟事物对抗的情况
(Adapted from Jacqueline Berke's Twenty Questions for the Writer)

嗯，相当受用的信息，就好像ISSUE的破题思路和角度，很不错，学习了


【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（2）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-931194-1-1.html

Coping with Writing Anxiety


Many situations or activities, such as writing, taking tests, competing in sports, or speaking before a large audience, may make us anxious or apprehensive. It's important to remember that a moderate level of anxiety is helpful and productive. That flow of adrenaline is a natural response that helps get us ready for action. Without it, we might not perform as well.


If we let our anxiety overwhelm us, it can cause problems. If we control that anxiety, however, we can make it work for us. One way to do that is to use some of the coping strategies listed below.


Coping Strategies:


Examples:


Relaxation Strategies




【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（3）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-931466-1-1.html

Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block  对于神经性写作便秘的症状介绍及治疗建议


Because writers have various ways of writing, a variety of things can cause a writer to experience anxiety, and sometimes this anxiety leads to writer's block. Often a solution can be found by speaking with your instructor (if you are in school), or a writing tutor. There are some common causes of writer's block, however, and when you are blocked, consider these causes and try the strategies that sound most promising:


Symptom


You have attempted to begin a paper without doing any preliminary work such as brainstorming or outlining...


Possible Cures




Symptom


You have chosen or been assigned a topic which bores you....


Possible Cures




Symptom


You don't want to spend time writing or don't understand the assignment...


Possible Cures




Symptom


You are anxious about writing the paper...


Possible Cures


Symptom


You are so stressed out you can't seem to put a word on the page...


Possible Cures


Symptom


You're self-conscious about your writing, you may have trouble getting started. So, if you're preoccupied with the idea that you have to write about a subject and feel you probably won't express yourself well...


Possible Cures




Other Strategies for Getting Over Writer's BlockIf you have tried the other strategies and are still having problems, try some of these general techniques for getting over writer's block. These strategies will prove more helpful when you're drafting your writing.
Begin in the MiddleStart writing at whatever point you like. If you want to begin in the middle, fine. Leave the introduction or first section until later. The reader will never know that you wrote the paper "backwards." Besides, some writers routinely save the introduction until later when they have a clearer idea of what the main idea and purpose of the piece will be.
Talk Out the PaperTalking feels less artificial than writing to some people. Talk about what you want to write someone—your teacher, a friend, a roommate, or a tutor. Just pick someone who's willing to give you fifteen to thirty minutes to talk about the topic and whose main aim is to help you start writing. Have the person take notes while you talk or tape your conversation. Talking will be helpful because you'll probably be more natural and spontaneous in speech than in writing. Your listener can ask questions and guide you as you speak, and you'll be more likely to relax and say something unpredictable than if that you were sitting and forcing yourself to write.
Tape the PaperTalk into a tape recorder, imagining your audience sitting in front of you. Then, transcribe the tape-recorded material. You'll at least have some ideas written down to work with and move around.
Change the AudiencePretend that you're writing to a child, to a close friend, to a parent, to a person who sharply disagrees with you, or to someone who's new to the subject and needs to have you explain your paper's topic slowly and clearly. Changing the audience can clarify your purpose and can also make you feel more comfortable and help you write more easily.
Play a RolePretend you are someone else writing the paper. For instance, if you have been asked to write about sexist advertising, assume you are the president of the National Organization of Women. Or, pretend you are the president of a major oil company asked to defend the high price of oil. Consider being someone in another time period, or someone with a wildly different perspective from your own. Pulling yourself out of your usual perspective can help you see things that are otherwise invisible or difficult to articulate, and your writing will be stronger for it.


【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（4）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-932138-1-1.html

Planning (Invention): when you start to write

You can try the textbook formula:


I. State your thesis.
II. Write an outline.
III. Write the first draft.
IV. Revise and polish.


. . . but that often doesn't work!



Instead, you can try one or more of these strategies:



Ask yourself what your purpose is for writing about the subject.

There are many "correct" things to write about for any subject, but you need to narrow down your choices. For example, your topic might be "dorm food." At this point, you and your potential reader are asking the same question, "So what?" Why should you write about this, and why should anyone read it?


Do you want the reader to pity you because of the intolerable food you have to eat there?


Do you want to analyze large-scale institutional cooking?


Do you want to compare Purdue's dorm food to that served at Indiana University?


Ask yourself how you are going to achieve this purpose.

How, for example, would you achieve your purpose if you wanted to describe some movie as the best you've ever seen? Would you define for yourself a specific means of doing so? Would your comments on the movie go beyond merely telling the reader that you really liked it?


Start the ideas flowing

Brainstorm. Gather as many good and bad ideas, suggestions, examples, sentences, false starts, etc. as you can. Perhaps some friends can join in. Jot down everything that comes to mind, including material you are sure you will throw out. Be ready to keep adding to the list at odd moments as ideas continue to come to mind.


Talk to your audience, or pretend that you are being interviewed by someone -- or by several people, if possible (to give yourself the opportunity of considering a subject from several different points of view). What questions would the other person ask? You might also try to teach the subject to a group or class.


See if you can find a fresh analogy that opens up a new set of ideas. Build your analogy by using the word like. For example, if you are writing about violence on television, is that violence like clowns fighting in a carnival act (that is, we know that no one is really getting hurt)?


Take a rest and let it all percolate.


Nutshell your whole idea.

Tell it to someone in three or four sentences.


Diagram your major points somehow.

Make a tree, outline, or whatever helps you to see a schematic representation of what you have. You may discover the need for more material in some places.


Write a first draft.

Then, if possible, put it away. Later, read it aloud or to yourself as if you were someone else. Watch especially for the need to clarify or add more information.


You may find yourself jumping back and forth among these various strategies.


You may find that one works better than another. You may find yourself trying several strategies at once. If so, then you are probably doing something right!

作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-9 20:17:41

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-9 20:52 编辑

看了寄托的阅读单词库，有些单词标明了在阅读中的实际用法和可能会出现的题型，非常实用，还是要好好记一下
ETS的范文，看完之后不禁惊呼：果然比北美那个鸡肋有用多了，之前写文章和提纲都不自觉套用北美范文，自己都觉得写得像八股文……%>_<%不过官方范文的存世量实在太少，不能尽情拜读~总之，学习了新东西总是好的，心里还是挺高兴的。
话说我那篇不争气的ARGU……因为今天心情跌落谷底，一整天被惹得哭哭啼啼的，晚上才缓过劲儿来~今晚只能写个大概了，看到坛子里已经提前一个月开了备考日记并完成了作业的筒子们，本来就紧张的时间更加显得急迫~熄灯之后电池只能撑两个多小时~看来明天要回家通个宵了~今天肯定是“谷底”了，明天一定上扬！！！



【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（5）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-932417-1-1.html

Writing With Computers
Using word processing software on a computer is an efficient way to write. You can delete, revise, and cut and paste with great ease and speed, without having to retype, and you will find your drafts easier to read as you revise. Even if you cannot type well (and many successful computer users can't), a computer can be both a convenience and an aid throughout the writing process. But remember to save your files often and make a backup copy of the file, even when you've carefully saved it. Disks can fail and not open, and files can be deleted or lost.
Word processing software can aid your efforts in all aspects of the writing process:

Planning
freewriting
If freewriting or brainstorming is a useful invention strategy for you, do either invention strategy on a computer using word processing software. You can then cut and paste parts of those planning notes into a draft as needed. Some writers find that they can freewrite more easily by turning down the computer screen, so they cannot see what they type. You may also want to create separate files for different topics discovered while freewriting.

writing an e-mail message
As you think about your assignment or topic, try writing an e-mail message to a friend, to someone in your class, or to a Writing Lab tutor . Use that e-mail message to test ideas as you would in a conversation with peer group members or a tutor. Encourage the person who receives the e-mail to ask you questions that help you clarify your ideas.

making an outline
Set up headings for an outline in large bold letters. Later, as you go back and fill in the subheadings and sub points, you will be able to see the larger structure of the paper. Some word processing programs either outline for you or permit you to indicate the outline headings in a way that allows you to go back and forth between a screen showing only the headings and screens showing the detailed material within sections.

planning visually
Use a drawing or painting program to do some visual planning. To do some clustering, put a topic word or phrase in a circle in the middle of the page and then surround that circle with clusters of related ideas (also in circles). Use lines to connect these ideas to the main idea or to other sub-ideas. To try branching, another visual planning strategy, put the main idea at the top of the page and then list sub-ideas underneath the main idea with related points for each sub-idea branching off.

keeping a journal
If keeping a journal helps you, start a journal file for each assignment and include thoughts and questions that occur to you as you proceed through the writing. Include a plan for how you will proceed through the assignment, and if there are stages or steps to complete, write a "to do" list. Include phrases and ideas that occur to you and that may fit into the paper later with some cutting and pasting from one file to another. You may want to insert page breaks for different sections or thoughts.

Drafting
creating a scrapfile
As you start an assignment, make two separate files, one for the assignment itself and the other for scraps of writing that you will be collecting. As you write (or plan) use the scrap file to cut and paste anything that doesn't seem to fit in as you write. This scrap file can be a very useful storage space for material that should be deleted from the paper you are writing now but that may be useful for other writing assignments. You may also want a separate file for keywords, words that come to mind and that can be used when needed or phrases that may come in handy as section headings in your paper.

splitting screens
If you are using a Macintosh or Windows, you can have multiple files visible on your screen at the same time. Consider this strategy if it helps you to look at one bit of information while trying to create another. One box on the screen can display your outline or visual planning while another can display your draft. Or, you can keep your scrap file visible while writing a draft. Remember that you can cut, copy, and paste between files.

adding notes
As you gather material from your reading (or want to save comments to yourself about something you've written), develop a method to store this kind of material that you may or may not use. For example, put parentheses around material that might not stay in a later draft, or use bold lettering, or make use of a word processing feature that permits you to store material as notes. Be sure to delete this material when you are sure you no longer want it.

Organizing
mixing up the order of paragraphs or sentences
Make a new copy of your file. Then, in the new file, use the cut-and-paste feature to move paragraphs. You may see a better organizing principle than the principle you had been using. Do the same with sentences within paragraphs.

checking your outline
Look again at the bold-lettered headings of the outline you made during planning (or create one now), and reassess whether that outline is adequate or well organized.

staying on topic in every paragraph
Put your topic sentence at the top of each paragraph to keep the sentence in mind and not lose track of your topic.

Revising
starting at the beginning of the file
Each time you open a file, you are at the beginning of the draft. Start there when you are drafting and revising and read until you come to a section where you will be working. That rereading has several advantages for you. It helps you get back into the flow of thought, and it permits you to review what you've written so that you can revise as you read forward. But be careful not to get caught up in endless revising of the beginning of the paper, especially if like some writers, you find that you need to write the whole paper before you can write the introduction.

renaming a file
Each time you open your file, save it as a different file so that you always know which is the most recent version you've worked on. If your first draft is Draft I, the next time you open that file, save it as Draft II.

saving copies of material to cut and paste
When you are moving large blocks of text, highlight what you are going to move and make a copy for your clipboard before moving. if you lose the portion you are moving, you still have a copy available.

printing out hard copies to read
It may help you to look at a printed copy of your paper as you revise, so you can see the paper's development and organization.

resisting the neat appearance of a printout
If you print out a draft of your paper, resist the temptation to hand in that draft because it looks neat and seems to have a finished appearance.

using page or print view to check paragraphs
Switch to the page or print view so that you can see the whole view of each page on screen. Do the paragraphs look to be about the same length? Does one look noticeably shorter than the others? Does it need more development? Is there a paragraph that seems to be disproportionately long?

highlighting sentence length
Make a copy of your main file and, using that copy, hit the return key after each sentence so that each looks like a separate paragraph. Are all of your sentences the same length? Do they all start the same way and need some variety?
  
Editing and Proofreading
using online tools
A number of online tools exist, such as spell checkers, grammar checkers and style analyzers, but grammar and style checkers are not effective. Distinguishing between appropraite advice and inappropriate advice is difficult and a styke checker relies on rules you may not be familiar with. Some word processing programs include a thesaurus which is useful for looking up synonyms for words you've been using too much or for finding more specific words than the ones you have used.

changing the appearance of key features of your writing
Change active verbs to bold letters, put passive constructions in italics, use larger fonts for descriptive words, underline your thesis statement, and so on. By changing the appearance of these features, you may see that you have too many passives or that you don't have many descriptive words.

editing on hard copy
It may be easier for you to print out a draft and mark it for editing changes. If you do, put marks in the margins to indicate lines where changes are to be made, so you can easily find them again.


【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（7）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933473-1-1.html
【Fundamental Course of Writtng】基础写作每日一讲（8）-（11）
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-933980-1-1.html

（7-11电子版：D盘——GRE——语法——每日一讲）
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-10 23:26:18

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-21 09:38 编辑

GRE分析性写作概要
GRE分析性写作是于2002年10月引进的新考试项目，（目的在于）考察批判性思维和分析写作能力，它用来评估清晰表达、支持复杂观点、分析论点论据并提供集中的、联系紧密的论述的能力。它不考察具体内容的知识（专业知识）

AW包括两个独立时间限制的分析性写作
*•        45分钟完成一篇表述你观点的ISSUE
*•        30分钟完成一篇分析论点论据的ARGUMENT
你将有两个ISSUE题目可选.每个题目都包含一个广泛性的观点，并且要求你从任何你喜欢的角度来论述这个题目，只要你能给出恰当切题的理由和支持你观点的例子即可

ARGU的题目不可选择.ARGU提出了与ISSUE不同的要求:i它要求你用你觉得合理的方式来批判一篇论述.
比起是否同意文中的立场，你需要更加关注文章中逻辑关系的合理性
这是两个互补的写作，一个ISSUE要求你用表明你的立场并提供证明你支持的观点的证据，从而构建你自己的论述；另一个ARGU要求你批判性地评价别人的主张并衡量它提供的证据

AW的准备工作
每个人——即使是最熟练和最自信的人，在最终到考试中心之前，也需要花一些时间准备AW。复习AW的既定规则是非常重要的，如何评分，判分指南和不同分数水平的标准，样本主题，被评分的范文和读者评论与注释。

AW的题目取材广泛，从艺术到人性再到社会和自然科学，但是不包括专业知识。实际上，每个题目都经过了现场实验以确保他们具有以下重要特征：
*•参加GRE考试的人，不用关心专业领域的知识或者特殊的兴趣，理解题目本身就能够很容易地论述它
*•题目从那些大学教员认为对在研究生院的成功很重要的一些复杂观点和劝说性文章提取抽象出来
*•回答在内容上是多样的，并且在笔者的思路上能够发展其观点和构想
为了帮助你准备AW，GRE项目已经出版了完整的题目库，你考试中的题目将在这个题目库中选出。你（也许）能发现它对你检查与温习ISSUE和ARGU 题库有所帮助。你可以在 www.gre.org/pracmats.html找到题库，或者写信到GRE Program,PO Box 6000,Princeton,NJ 08541-6000.取得复印版本

AW考试策略
如何规划好你的时间是很重要的
在ISSUE项的45分钟里，你需要有足够的时间去选择两个题目当中的一个，思考你所选择的题目，准备作答和创作你的文章
在ARGU30分钟的时间限制里，你需要有足够的时间分析文章，计划批判并创作出你的文章
尽管GRE读者知道写作是有时间限制的，并且认为你自己的答题为“初稿”，但是你仍然想让它成为你在考场环境下所创作出的尽可能好的文章

在每一个限时任务后留下几分钟检查明显错误，尽管偶然情况下拼写或语法错误不会影响到你的分数，但是严重错误和连续性错误会降低你整体写作的有效性并减低你的分数

遵循考试的进程，你将会有10分钟的休息时间，在另外的考试部分你将会有1分钟的休息时间（没明白？）在每个规划好的休息时间里你可以重新补充你的草稿纸。There is a one-minute break between the other test sections.

AW如何评分
按照GRE出版的AW评分指南中的评分标准，每一篇回答将被整体上按照6个进阶分数评判。整体评判意味着每篇回答作为一个整体被评价：审阅者不会把文章当做单独分开的部分，运用特别的评判标准或赞赏孤立的组成要素例如观点，联系，句子结构或语言。实际上是，审稿者会用综合的方法考虑到文章的整体特点，在此基础上，根据整体的文章质量评判分数
例如，优秀的组织结构或粗劣的组织结构，将会影响到文章给审稿者留下的整体印象，并因此影响到分数，但是组织结构，作为一个单独的特点，没有特别的作用。

一般来说，GRE审稿者是学院或者大学富有教课经验的教工，在这些学院或大学里，写作能力和严谨的思维都很重要。所有的GRE审稿者都经过了细致的训练并经过了严格的资质认证，这说明他们有能力把握评分的精准度。

为了确保评分的公平性和客观性
*•答卷时随机分派给审稿者的
*•所有可辨别身份的考试者信息对审稿者都是隐藏的
*•每份答卷由两个审稿者评分
*•一个审稿者不知道另一个可能已经决定的分数
*•整个评分过程要求每份答卷得到两个审稿者完全相同或相近的分数，任何其他情况下的分数组合将会交由第三个审稿者评判

两篇文章最终的分数来自于成绩单上分数的平均分，考试说明的29页提供了如何解释分析性写作中分数的说明。分析性写作最主要强调思维的严谨性和分析性写作技巧。在判分过程中，你分析性写作的文章答卷将会由ETS的侦查软件和经验丰富的审稿者复审，根据美国研究生院和大学对智力成果的的价值有很高程度的重视。在有实质的证据证明答卷有以下情况的，但并不只局限于以下情况的，ETS保留取消任何参加考试者成绩的权利。
*•文章大体上和以往GRE考试中的一篇或几篇文章相似
*•引用或者改写出现在已出版或未出版资源中的语言或论点，同时未标明出处
*•对与他人共同研究完成的，但未标注他人贡献的作品的不被承认的作品
*•应试者上交的应试文章中的观点和语言事实上是从其他地方来的或是由他人准备的

上述情形有一个或更多发生的话，在ETS专业的评判下，你的文章会被认为没有反应考试要考察的独立性、分析性写作技巧。因此，ETS一定会取消考试成绩并被视为无效，并且将无法报告GRE综合考试，因为分析性写作是整个考试不可或缺的一部分。

被取消考试的应试者将会被没收他们的考试费用，也只能再参加今后的考试。分数取消或者取消分数的原因，将会出现在将来投递至各大学和学院的成绩报告上.


在ISSUE考试中呈现你的观点


了解ISSUE考试
“在ISSUE在考试中呈现你的观点”旨在于评估你对于普遍兴趣偏好的主题的严谨思考能力和清楚表达你关于此的写作能力。每一个主题，以引用语的形式出现，要求每个应试者能够从不同角度来论述并适用于不同的场景和条件。你的任务就是展示展示出强有力的情况，来支持你在文章论述中的立场。确保认真阅读题目中的要求并从不同观点的角度来思考它，考虑到与这些看法相联系的，观点的复杂性。然后记下你想要进一步说明的立场并列出能够支持你立场的观点和事例。
ISSUE考试允许在多种解答题目需求的方式上的自由，尽管你写出具有核心思想的文章，并能自由选自己的表达方式这一点非常重要。

例如，你可能
*•完全同意或完全不同意题目中的论述，也或者部分同意部分不同意        
*•质疑题目中陈述的、可能是编造的假设
*•限定题目中任何条目，尤其是你定义或适用的条目对于扩展你文章中的观点非常重要的时候
*•指出为什么题目所宣称的在一定条件下是有效的但在其他条件下却没有根据        
*•评估与你的观点相对立的观点  
*•用有几个恰当例子或者一个充分表述的例子来支持你的的观点，并在此基础上扩展你的立场  
      
GRE的审稿者不是通过寻找一个“正确”的答案来评判你的分数，事实上，没有可以作为正确的立场可以判断。取而代之的是，审稿者会评估你清晰表达的能力和能够有足够的论据来支持你在文章中的立场。


了解上下文：意向和读者
ISSUE是一个关于批判性思维和说服性写作的习作。这项任务的目的在于决定你能在多大程度上提出强有力的论据，来支持你在文章中的观点，并且将文章中的论证，有效地传达给学术界的读者群。你的读者群包括大学和学院的教员，他经过训练成为GRE审稿者，运用在评分指南中“呈现你的观点”中规定的评分原则（27页）

为了对GRE审稿者是如何运用评分指南对实际答卷作出判断这个问题有更加清晰的认识，你应该温习那些已经被评判过的范文和审稿者的评论。范文，尤其是5分和6分水平的，将会向你展示多种关于组织、扩展和传达说服性论证的写作策略。审稿者的评论将会特别探讨分析和写作，如例子的运用，论证扩展和论证支持，语言的流畅度和词语的选择。对于每一份答卷，评论都会指出特别具有说服性的方面，同时也会说出整体上减弱了文章效力的地方。

ISSUE的准备工作

因为ISSUE考试意在评估你通过你各处受到教育所得到的，说服性写作的能力，它的设计既不需要任何的专业领域知识，也不会使受过某种专业训练的学生有特别的优势。

虽然很多有关写作的大学课本上会提供说服性写作建议，并能使你觉得从中获益，但是这些建议比起你真正需要的、能用在ISSUE里的，可能更加偏重技术层面和专业化。你不需要了解特别专业的批判性思维方式或者写作要素或写作策略，取而代之的是你应该能够运用理由、证据和例子来支持你在论证文章中的观点。例如，假设ISSUE题目问你是否觉得政府对艺术博物馆的财政支持是必要的 如果你的立场是肯定的，你可以用“艺术是重要的”和“艺术博物馆是公共场所并且对每个人都是有用的”这两个原因的讨论来支持你的立场。另一方面，如果你的立场是政府不应该支持博物馆，你可以指出，政府财政资助的有限性，跟其他重要的社会机构相比，艺术博物馆不值得获得政府资金支持。或者，你支持政府对艺术博物馆的资金支持只适用于特定环境下，你可能会关注艺术的规范，文化范畴或政治环境——那些你认为能够决定艺术博物馆怎样或是否接受政府资金支持的因素。 在你扩展你立场的过程中，你的立场远没有你批判性思考的技能重要。


准备ISSUE的一个很好地方法就是用已经刊出的题目来练习写作。没有“最好”的途径：有些人更喜欢不限时写作，另一些人喜欢开始计时写作然后限时写作。无论你联系ISSUE时采用哪种方法，你都应该反复温习写作指导，然后
*•认真阅读题目中的所声称的问题，并确保你能理解与问题的相关之处，如果它看上去是不清楚的，跟朋友或老师讨论一下。
*•思考问题跟你自己的想法和经验，或者你读到过或观察过的事件，或者你认识的人有什么联系，这是知识基础，从中你可以发展出强有力的理由和例子，在你的论述里用某种方式加强、否定或限定题目论述。
*•决定在在文章中要站在什么立场，怎样对自己的观点进行辩护——记住你可以自由选择完全不同意或同意或者同意其中一部分、或者一些要求，而不同意另一部分。
*•决定强有力的证据（理由和例子），可以让你用来支持你的立场

记住这是一个考察批判性思维和说服性写作的考试。因此，用问以下几个问题的方式来探索题目论述的复杂性可能对你有所帮助。
*•确切地说，什么是核心问题？
*•我同意题目中所述的任何哪个部分吗？为什么同意或为什么不同意？
*•这个论述的假设成立吗？如果成立，那么假设合理吗？
*•题目中的论述只在特定条件下存在吗？如果是的话，条件是什么？
*•我需要解释我是如何解读题目中确定的条目或者概念吗？
*•如果我确定了我在论述中的立场，什么样的原因能支持我的立场？
*•什么样的例子——真实的或虚构的——能用来阐明理由和提升我的观点呢？哪些例子最强有力？


一旦你决定了要进行辩护的立场，要考虑到那些可能不同意你立场的人的观点。问自己
*•不同立场的人会用什么样的理由来反驳或者削弱我的立场呢？
*•我应该怎样在文章里回击或反驳这样的观点呢？

为了计划你的答卷，你可能像先概括出你的立场并作出简短的笔记，明确你将如何支持你想要支持的立场。当你做完了这些的时候，检查你的笔记并决定你将如何组织你的回答。然后写出能够扩展你立场的回答。即使你没有充分回答，你应该也会发现联系一些ISSUE题目并勾勒出你大概的回答是有所帮助的。再练习了一些题目之后，试着在45分钟之内写出答卷，这样你就会对真正考试时的时间有清晰的概念。


从你教授批判性思考和写作课的老师那里得到一些反馈，或者跟同学互相讨论同一题目，并按照评分标准的要求讨论他人习作，对你将会有所帮助。试着去评判每份答卷是如何迎合了或者没有符合各种档次的评分要求的，对照你的答卷将会帮助你在什么地方需要改进或者如何改进。

记住，综合性考试将包含从已出版的题库中抽取的两个ISSUE题目，你必须选择其中之一。因为45分钟的计时是从你一看到两个题目时就开始的，所以你不应该在选择题目上浪费过多的时间，而是应该试着相当快地选出能使你感觉能更好讨论的那一个。


作出决定之前，仔细阅读题目，然后选择你能够更有效、更有道理地扩展论述的那个题目，在作出决定的时候，你肯会问自己：
*•我觉得哪个题目更有趣或更吸引人？
*•哪一个题目跟我的学术背景或个人经历有更近的联系 ？
*•选择哪个题目我可以更清楚地表达或为我自己的观点辩护 ？
*•选择那个题目我可以更容易地想到有力的理由和例子来支持我的立场？
回答这些问题可以帮助你做出选择


你的答题形式

在组织和扩展回答的方式上，你有自由选择你认为能有效连结你的想法和这篇论述的方式。你的回答可以，但不是必须加入英语创作中的，或者大学文字密集课程上学到的特殊写作策略。GRE审稿者是经受过训练的，他们看过数以百计的ISSUE答卷，尽管答卷在内容和形式上都各不相同，却都展示出了相似水平的批判性思维和说服性写作的特点。审稿者将会看出，例如，一些ISSUE答卷，在开头就概括了作者关于论述的立场并且告知了即将要论述的要点，是在6分的水平。他们也会看到，另一些用预先猜测的方式引出作者的观点，提出一系列问题，描述一种方案，或者定义引文中值得批判的条目。审稿者值得一个作者可以靠提供大量例子或呈现一个单独的、扩展的例子来取得高分。看看范文，尤其是5分或6分的，看看那些作者是如何成功地扩展和组织文章的。


你应该用你认为适用于你论述的，尽可能多的或尽可能少的段落——例如你可能需要另起一个新段落，当你的论述要转换到一个新的意群。例子的数量、段落的数量或者你的论述形式是无关紧要的，重要的是你关于论证的理念有没有让人信服的力量，还有你把自己理念传达给审稿者时，表现出了文章的清晰度和技巧。

题目实例
“In our time, specialists of all kinds are highly overrated.  We need more generalists—people who can  provide broad perspectives."

关于上述题目的策略

这个题目提出了几个相关问题：通才或专才意味着什么，他们对社会都有什么价值？社会真的需要更多通才吗，专才实际上被“高估”了吗？

有几个基本性的立场供你选择：是的，社会需要更多通才并且高估了专才的能力。不，相反的才是真实的。或者，这取决于多种因素。或者，二者都对今天的文明很重要，二者中的一个被高估了。 你的分析中可能会引用社会或国家中的特例，从社会的一方面或者多方面，或者是在不同的情形下。分析可能会将注意力放在通才和专才在传播、运输、政治、信息、技术领域所扮演的角色上。任何途径都是有道理的，只要你能运用相关的理由和例子来支持你的立场即可。

在你审视自己的立场之前，花一点时间再读一遍题目中的论述，为了分析它，考虑如下问题：
*•通才和专才的区别在哪里？他们的优势都在哪里？
*•这些区别通常存在于不同的专业或者情形下吗？是否有专才，例如，同样需要广泛的知识和综合的能力以在工作中有出色的表现？
*•专才和通才在他们的领域是如何行使其功能的？
*•社会应该怎样看待通才和专才的价值?专才是否在某些情况下被高估了，而在其他情况下却没有？
*•社会真的需要更多的通才吗？如果是这样，他们将会满足怎样的需求？  

现在你可以把你的想法组织成两段：
*•理由和例子用来支持你的论述
*•理由和例子用来支持相反的观点

如果你发现一个观点比另一个更具有说服力，那么就要考虑从那个看法扩展论述。当你建立了自己的论述，要时刻记住另一个，你可以驳斥的观点。


如果两组观点势均力敌，要考虑扩展一个立场，来支持更加有局限的或更加复杂的题目论述，而不是既定的那个题目论述。那么你就能够用理由和例子两方面来替你的立场辩护。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-10 23:26:34

范文及评论

* 所有的在本刊物的答卷是被按照原本完整出版的，包括错误、拼写错误等等，如果存在的话。

Essay Response *– Score 6

  In this era of rapid social and technological  change  leading to increasing life complexity and
psychological displacement,  both positive and negative effects among persons in Western society call for a balance in which there are both specialists and generalists.

  Specialists are necessary in order to allow society as a whole to properly and usefully assimilate
the masses of new information and knowledge that have come out of research and have been widely disseminated through mass global media. As the head of Pharmacology at my university once said (and I paraphrase):"I can only research what I do because there are so many who have come before me to whom I can turn for basic knowledge. It is only because of each of the narrowly focussed individuals at each step that a full and true understanding of the complexities of life can be had. Each person can only hold enough knowledge to add one small rung to the ladder, but together we can climb to the moon." This illustrates the point that our societies level of knowledge and technology is at a stage in which there simply must be specialists in order for our society to take advantage of the information available to us.

  Simply put, without specialists, our society would find itself bogged down in the Sargasso sea of
information overload. While it was fine for early physicists to learn and understand the few laws and ideas that existed during their times, now, no one individual can possibly digest and assimilate all of the knowledge in any given area.

  On the other hand, Over specialization means narrow focii in which people can lose the larger
picture.No one can hope to understand the human body by only inspecting one's own toe-nails. What we learn from a narrow focus may be internally logically coherent but may be irrelevant or fallacious within the framework of a broader perspective. Further, if we inspect only our toe-nails, we may conclude that the whole body is hard and white. Useful conclusions and thus perhaps useful inventions must come by sharing among specialists. Simply throwing out various discovieries means we have a pile of useless discoveries, it is only when one can make with them a mosaic that we can see that they may form a picture.

  Not only may over-specialization be dangerous in terms of the truth, purity and cohesion of
knowledge, but it can also serve to drown moral or universall issues. Generalists and only generalists can see a broad enough picture to realize and introduce to the world the problems of the environment. With specialization, each person focusses on their research and their goals. Thus, industrialization, expansion, and new technologies are driven ahead. Meanwhile no individual can see the wholisitc view of our globalexistence in which true advancement may mean stifling individual specialists for the greater good of all.

  Finally, over-specialization in a people's daily lives and jobs has meant personal and psychological compartmentalization. People are forced into pigeon holes early in life (at least by university) and must conciously attempt to consume external forms of stimuli and information in order not to be lost in their small and isolated universe. Not only does this make for narrowly focussed and generally pooprly-educated individuals, but it guarantees  a sense of loss of community, often followed by a feeling of psychological displacement and personal dissatisfaction.

  Without generalists, society becomes inward-looking and eventually inefficient. Without a society that recongnizes the impotance of braod-mindedness and fora for sharing generalities, individuals become isolated. Thus, while our form of society necessitates specialists, generalists are equally important.Specialists drive us forward in a series of thrusts while generalists make sure we are still on the jousting field and know what the stakes are.

Reader Commentary for Essay Response – Score 6

这是一篇出色的分析性写作——有深刻见解，理由合理充分，运用了非常有利的语言。介绍性的段落表明了作者关于论述的立场，并提供了作者将要论述立场的背景:"In this era of rapid social and technological change leading to increasing life complexity and psychological displacement . . ."

论述分为两部分，第一部分为说明专业化展示了一个有力的情况，即起初在医药领域的情况。第二部分展示了同样有力的、组织良好的情况来反驳基于以下三个理由的过分专业化：

*•逻辑（经过偏狭训练的专才经常会不了解全局）
*•道德（通才通常明白“更好的利益”所需的是什么）
*•个人（过早的专才化会导致心理损伤）

这篇文章细致的推论脉络，通过对证据的熟练运用被更进一步加强（来自权威医学调查的引证）和生动的隐喻（只看到了脚趾头而忽略了全身）

不仅是推论是使文章出彩，同时语言精准且修饰丰富（“被信息过多的马尾藻海困住”“一堆没用的发现”“专才强制我们前进，而通才确保我们一直在竞技场内”）审稿者通过过渡词和那些有组织作用，并不断把论述推进的理由被逐渐深入引导。这是对应主题非常好的答卷。


Essay Response – Score 5

  Specialists are not overrated today.More generalists may be needed,but not to overshadow the specialists.Generalists can provide a great deal of information on many topics of interest with a broad range of ideas.People who look at the overall view of things can help with some of the large problems our society faces today.But specialists are necessary to gain a better understanding of more in depth methods to solve problems or fixing things.

  One good example of why specialists are not overrated is in the medical field.Doctors are necessary for people to live healthy lives.When a person is sick,he may go to a general practitioner to find out the cause of his problems.Usually,this kind of"generalized"doctor can help most ailments with simple and effective treatments.Sometimes,though,a sickness may go beyond a family doctor's knowledge or the prescribed treatments don't work the way they should.When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed as a disease that requires more care than a family doctor can provide,he may be referred to a specialist. For instance,a person with constant breathing problems that require hospitalization may be suggested to visit an asthma specialist.Since a family doctor has a great deal of knowledge of medicine,he can decide when his methods are not effective and the patient needs to see someone who knows more about the specific problem;someone who knows how it begins,progresses,and specified treatments.This is an excellent example of how a generalied person may not be equipped enough to handle something as well as a specialized one can.

  Another example of a specialist who is needed instead of a generalist involves teaching.In grammar school,children learn all the basic principles of reading,writing,and arithematic.But as children get older and progress in school,they gain a better understanding of the language and mathematical processes.As the years in school increase,they need to learn more and more specifics and details about various subjects.They start out by learning basic math concepts such as addition,subtraction,division,and multiplication. A few years later,they are ready to begin algebraic concepts,geometry,and calculus.They are also ready to learn more advanced vocabulary,the principles of how all life is composed and how it functions.One teacher or professor can not provide as much in depth discussion on all of these topics as well as one who has learned the specifics and studied mainly to know everything that is currently known about one of these subjects.Generalized teachers are required to begin molding students at a very early age so they can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic subjects and finding out new facts on the old ones.

  These are only two examples of why specialists are not highly overrated and more generalists are not necessary to the point of overshadowing them.Generalists are needed to give the public a broad understanding of some things.But,specialists are important to help maintain the status,health,and safety of our society.Specialists are very necessary.

Reader Commentary for Essay Response – Score 5  

作者用讨论通才与专才的需求，展示了一个关于论述复杂性的充分扩展的分析。

论述根植于两个展开的精选的例子。第一个介绍段论述了医学通才与专才的必要性（一般的从业者），同时转移到了例证部分（呼吸问题和哮喘病专才）。从普遍到特殊的延伸同样在下一段以例子的形式来塑造。如此，论述把重点放在从小学到高中、从基础计算到微积分 a的教育过程上。

通过恰当的过渡，达到了流畅扩展的效果：“但是”，“通常”，“例如”等等。文章末尾再次提到了作者的论题。考虑到作者的语言掌握能力和良好的语法，一些明显的失误让这篇否则应该是6分的文章被排除在6分之外。问题来自于多方面，从代名词对对象指示不清（"When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed, . . . he may be referred to a specialist"）到平行结构的错误（"how it begins, progresses and specified treatments"），再到松散的语法和不精确的语言（"Generalized teachers are required to begin molding students at a very early age so they can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic subjects."）


Essay Response – Score 4

  Specialists are just what their name says: people who specialize in one part of a very general scheme of things.  A person can't know everything there is to know about everything. This is why specialists are helpful. You can take one general concept and divide it up three ways and have three fully developed different concepts instead of one general concept that no one really knows about. Isn't it better to really know something well, than to know everything half-way.

  Take a special ed teacher compared to a general ed teacher.  The general ed teacher knows how to deal with most students.  She knows how to teach a subject to a student that is on a normal level.But what would happen to the child in the back of the room with dyslexia?  She would be so lost in that general ed classroom that she would not only not learn, but be frustrated and quite possibly, have low self-esteem and hate school.  If there is a special ed teacher there who specializes in children with learning disabilities, she can teach the general ed teacher how to cope with this student as well as modify the curriculum so that the student can learn along with the others.The special ed teacher can also take that child for a few hours each day and work with her on her reading difficulty one-on-one, which a general ed teacher never would have time to do.

  A general ed teacher can't know what a special ed teacher knows and a special ed teacher can't know what a general ed teacher knows.  But the two of them working together and specializing in their own things can really get a lot more accomplished.  The special ed teacher is also trained to work on the child's self-esteem, which has a big part in how successful this child will be.  Every child in the United States of America has the right to an equal education.  How can a child with a learning disability receive the same equal education as a general ed student if there was no specialist there to help both teacher and child?

  Another thing to consider is how a committee is supposed to work together.  Each person has a special task  to accomplish and when these people all come together, with their tasks finished, every aspect of the community's work is completely covered.  Nothing is left undone.  In this case there are many different specialists to meet the general goal of the committee.

  When you take into account that a specialist contributes only a small part of the generalist aspect, it seems ridiculous to say that specialists are overrated.  The generalists looks to the specialists any time they need help or clarification on their broad aspect.  Specialists and generalists are part of the same system, so if a specialist is overrated, then so is a generalist.

Reader Commentary for Essay Response – Score 4  

这是一篇有足够分析的文章。在介绍段有点让人迷惑的、关于“专才”的定义之后，作者展示了切题的例子（专门教育的老师）来说明专才的重要性。这个例子占据了答卷的主要地位并对4分的成绩有积极的作用。

第二个例子，关于委员会如何运作，在说服性上就偏差一点。但是他似乎对阐述作者关于“通才”的定义有所帮助，即一个涵盖性的术语，意为专才对于一个主题所知道的全部集合However, it does seem to help clarify the writer's definition of "general" as an umbrella term meaning the total collection of what specialists know about a topic. （这句话怎么翻译啊！）

虽然作者关于通才与专才之间关系的观点不同寻常，但它们在文章结论中变得明晰。但是，这些观点没有被足够深度展开或者有更充足的关于逻辑的把握，从而应得到更高的分数。

尽管措辞偶尔不精确或口语化，但文章大体上没有错误，在句子结构、语法和用法方面几乎没有问题。总的来说，这份试卷清晰展示了足够的，对英语写作的控制能力。


Essay Response – Score 3

  To quote the saying, "Jack of all trades, master of none," would be my position on the statement.  I feel specialists in all areas of knowledge lead to a higher standard of living for everyone.  Specializing in different areas allows us to use each others talents to the highest level and maximize potential. As an example, if a person required brain surgery, would they rather have a brain surgeon or a general practitioner doing the work?  Clearly a specialist would do the better job and give the patient a chance at a better life.

  A university education starts by laying the groundwork for general knowledge but then narrows down to aspecific field.  General knowledge and a broad prospective are important, but if there was no focus on specific areas, our overall knowledge as a population would be seriously lessened.

  Another example of specialists not being overated would be international trade.  Not every nation can provide for themselves.They need to get products and ideas from other parts of the world because they are better at providing them.  This allows for a growing economy if two different nations can provide each other with two different products.If one country can produce oranges better than another, it should trade the oranges for the fish that it can not produce.  If generalizing was the normal thing to do and both countries tried to produce all kinds of products,  the countries would probably survive, but not have the standard of living they presently have.

Reader Commentary for Essay Response – Score 3  

作者观点明确：专才很重要且必要。但是对立场进行支持的理由和逻辑例证不足。

第一段展示了一个关于脑外科医生和普通从业者的恰当例子。但是第二段的关于大学教育逐渐的局限性，只包含了两个句子并且展开不完全，对推进作者的立场几乎没有帮助。

第三段提供了另一个例子，展开最完全。不幸的是，例子的逻辑不清晰，作者试着论证“专才”国家（一个更好的橘子生产者）比一个“通才”国家 更好（大概能和其他生产者生产的一样多）。通才国家，就像作者所述，与他人相比处于更低的地位。这个结论在逻辑上从作者的论述中形成，而且似乎与日常的现实不符。

尽管语言的不准确贯穿文章始终，但是作者的意思并不模糊，得到3分的主要原因是对论述扩展的不足和例子的不当使用。


Essay Response – Score 2

  In the situation of health I feel that specialists are very important. For example if a person has heart problems, choose a heart specialist over a genral medicine Dr. However if a person is having a wide range of syptoms, perhaps choose a Dr. with a wide range of experience might be more helpful. It also depends on the type of problem you are having.  For example I would not suggest taking a troubled child to a theorpist who specializes in marriage problems.  In some cases have a specialists helps to insure that you are getting the best possibly treatment.  On the other hand dealing with a person who has a wide range of experience may be able to find different ways of dealing with a particular problem.

  Since the quotation did not state exactely what type of specialist we are dealing with it is also hard to determine the importance of having a specialist is.  For example the could be health or problems with a car,or basically anything else. I feel that this information should not have been left out.  I guess the bottom line is that I feel sometimes a specialist is very important.

Reader Commentary for Essay Response – Score 2  

这是一篇错误严重的论述，文章支持专才，但是理由和例证都不具有说服力，“一个麻烦的孩子去接受在婚姻方面专家的治疗”的例子过分单纯化且离题，因为这是两个专才之间的不同而非一个专才和一个通才间的不同。

语言组织贫乏，论证中的惯用语难以理解，而且这不是一篇文章，作者展示了自己的立场，用薄弱的分析来扩展自己的立场，有些观点传达是清晰的。

Essay Response – Score 1

  I disagree with the statement about specialists, we need specialists who take individual areas and specialize. A generalists can pinpoint a problem. He or she cannot determine the magnitude of the problem. Aspecialist can find the root of the problem. When he or she has years working in that specific field. For example, when i got sick i went to a doctor. He did blood work, x-ray, talk to me, ect. He prescribed me a medicine.I got worst.  So i decided to go another doctor.  Now, i am doing great.  A specialist knows the facts right away. Otherwise, it will take longer or not at all.

Reader Commentary for Essay Response – Score 1  

这篇答卷展示了一种根本上的对题目的探讨不足

第一句话说明了作者与专家持相反态度，但是作者写出立场后，没有紧接着写出联系紧密的论述。某些观点似乎是相对抗的（e.g., "通才无法指出问题所在") 例证让人迷惑不解。如果文章解释说第一个（不成功）的医生是个通才，并且第二个（不成功）的医生是个专才，那么这个例子将会是有效的。但是，如文中所写，例证不清楚甚至有误导作用，结论陈述只是加在这些混乱之上的。

因为大多数的句子都是短句而且是突变的，所以它们连接的理由都是急变的，作者需要提供过渡词和理由来使论述的逻辑关系紧密相连。同时，基本错误的用法和语法错误普遍存在，但是最主要的就是论述之间的逻辑关系缺失。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-10 23:34:35

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-12 12:01 编辑

ARGU的分析


理解ARGU考试


“分析一段论述”的考试需要考察你理解、分析、评价一段论述，并且能够在写作中清晰表达你的分析的能力。考试包括了一段简短的段落，其中包括通过展示一些背景理由和例证，来表达一些行动计划或者对事件的解读。你的任务就是用对其理由和例证主线的批判性的逻辑审查，来讨论作者的案例中，逻辑是否严谨。考试要求你仔细阅读题目短文。你可能想尽可能多读几遍，然后把你想充分在你的答卷中表达的要点做一个简短的笔记。在阅读过程中，你应该注意：

*•什么被作为证据、支持、或证据
*•什么被清晰地表述了、声称了或得出了什么结论
*•哪些被猜测和假设的，是没有正当理由或证据的
*•有哪些有必要被接着陈述的，实际上没有被陈述


另外，你应该考虑到论证的结构——这些因素被连接在一起，成为推论的脉络的方式。即你应该识别出在思考过程中分散的，有时是不清晰的步骤，同时考虑到段落与下一段连接是否在逻辑上是严谨的。追随着这条主线，寻找能够表明题目作者试图建立的逻辑关系中的过渡词或过渡短语(e.g., however, thus, therefore, evidently, hence, in conclusion).

要在ARGU考试中有出色表现，很重要的部分就是记住你没有被要求做什么。

你没有被要求讨论题目中的论述是否是真实的或者是精确的；取而代之的是，你被要求考虑题目中的陈述是否是有根据地被引出。
你没有被要求同意或不同意题目陈述中的立场，取而代之的是，你被要求评论基于题目中陈述的思想。
你没有被要求在被讨论的主题上表达自己的观点（就像在ISSUE考试中），你被要求评价题目中作者论述的逻辑严密性，并且通过此举说明大学教员认为对于在研究生院的成功学习很重要的品质：批判性思维，充分理解的阅读水平，和分析性写作的技巧。

“分析一篇论述”首先是一种关于批判性思维的写作考试。因此，在你的批判法中展示出的分析性技巧对你的得分举足轻重。




理解写作背景：目的和读者


考试的目的在于看你能够多大程度上对他人所写的论述进行具有深度与洞察力的分析，能否把你的批判写作有效传达给有学术背景的读者群。你的读者包括大学和学院的教员，通过适用已经过鉴定的“分析论述”的评分标准（28页），教员们被培训成为GRE的审稿者。


为了对GRE审稿者是如何把AGRU的评分标准运用到实际文章当中的，你应该温习ARGU的范文答卷和审稿者的评论。尤其是5分或6分的范文，将会向你展示多种组织语言、扩展出有深度见解的批判的成功策略。你将会看大很多有效运用语言的范例。审稿者的评论讨论了关于分析性写作的特殊方面，例如想法包含使人信服的力量，扩展和支持，组织结构，句法的多变和语言的灵活运用。这些评论将会指向特别具有有效性和洞察力的方面，同时也会指出在答卷整体有效性中有降低作用的方面。






ARGU的准备工作



因为ARGU考试意在评估，你通过教育而获得的，分析性写作和非正式的推论能力，考试的设计既不需要任何的专业领域知识，也不会使受过某种专业训练的学生有特别的优势。虽然很多有关修辞学或写作的大学课本上会有关于非正式的逻辑和批判性思维的部分，并能使你觉得从中获益，但是这些可能比考试的要求更加复杂和专业化。你不需要知道写作的方法和专门化的条目。例如在一个议题中，一个小学校长可能会声称新操场设施改善了学生的出勤率，因为缺勤率在设施安装后已经下降了。你不需要看到校长在事后得出了结论，而因此支持这个谬误，你只需要看到还有其他可能的关于出勤率改善原因的解释，举一些常识性的例子，也许能说明什么是能够真正能证实这个结论的因素。例如，缺勤率下降因为天气不好。这肯能就排除了校长的结论的合理性。



尽管你不需要知道特殊的分析技巧和用辞，但是你应该熟悉ARGU考试指导和一些关键概念，包括以下几条：

*•替代的解释——一个同样能造成问题事件的可能的、有竞争力的解释；一个替代性的解释，可以削弱或加强原始解释，因为替代解释同样可以表明既成事实。
*•分析——把事物分解成组成它的部分的过程，为了了解这些部分是如何整合在一起并作为一个整体来运行的；同时也是一个通过这种分析达到的，以书面表达形式的陈述。
*•论述——一个或一系列的用理由和证据支持的主张；一条推理主线意在说明事物的正确或错误性。
*•假设——一个未经声明或未经验证的，却因为某人要保持一定的立场而必须坚持的看法；理所当然的事物，但是一定要真实以保证结论是真实的。
*•结论——在一连串推论后得出的最终结果，如果推论是合理的，那么主张的结果就是有效的、可靠的
*•反例——例子，无论真实或虚构，起到反驳或证明论述中的陈述为假的作用

准备“分析论述”考试很好的方法就是按照已经出版的ARGU题目进行写作练习。没有最好的联系方式，一些人喜欢不限30分钟时间限制的练习。如果你遵循这种方式，用一切你所需要的时间分析论述，无论你使用哪种方法，你都应该：

*•认真阅读题目论述——你可能会想多读几次
*•识别尽可能多的主张、结论和基础假设。
*•尽你所能想出多个替代的解释和反例
*•想出额外的证据来削弱或支持主张
*•问自己如果使推论更加有力的话，会给论述带来什么变化


用简单的笔记记下每一个这样的想法。当你尽可能分析时，仔细检查笔记同时把它们排好顺序以便讨论（例如用数字标记）。然后按顺序充分扩展每一个要点，写出批判性的评论。即使你不选择一点不漏地写出文章答卷，但你应该会发现练习一些题目文章和为你的答卷打个草稿是很有帮助的。当你写作更快且更自信时，你应该练习在30分钟内限时写作，以便于你能在真实考试有好的考试意识与节奏。例如，你不会想用尽一切力气去讨论一个观点或者提供多个同样的例子，而同时你在浪费处理其他重要要点的时间。


你肯能会想从写作教师、哲学老师，或在自己课上强调批判性思维重要性的老师那里获得一些反馈。跟你写同样主题的同学互换文章或跟他人按照评分标准来讨论文章也是 扩展你知识的好方法。不要只把注意力集中在得出“准确的分数”上，而是要看答卷是如何迎合或不符合每档分数的，你应该因此如何做才能有所提高。




如何论述里的解读数字、比率和统计数据


一些论述包含了数字、比率或者统计数据，作为支持论述结论的证据。例如，一个论述可能会说，一项社区竞赛今年没有去年受欢迎，原因是100人参加了今年的活动而去年有150人参加，即今年的到场率下降了33%。记住你的任务不是处理关于数字、比率或统计数据，这一点很重要。重要的是你应该衡量这些证据最终想要支持的结论。在上面的例子中，结论是今年的社区活动没有去年受欢迎。你应该问自己：100人和150人的差别支持这个结论吗？注意，在这个案例中，还有其他的解释；例如，今年的天气不好，今年的活动举办时间不方便大家参加，今年的活动花费上涨了，也许同时间还有别的受欢迎的活动也在举办。每个理由都能解释到场率的不同，也就能够驳斥今年活动“更不受欢迎的结论。相似的，百分比削弱或巩固结论与否，在于百分比是否反映了真实的数据。考虑一下一所学校的戏剧社应该得到更多的资助，因为他们的成员增加了100%。如果成员是从100人增加到200人，那么这个100%的增长比率将会很重要，同时，如果成员是从5人增加到10人，那么100%的增长率就会不那么重要了。记住，任何题目论述中的数字、比率和统计数据只是用来作为支持结论的证据，你应该考虑到它们是否真的支持了结论。



关于你答卷的形式


你有自由选择组织和扩展你批判性文章的方式，以便能有效地传达你对题目论述的分析。你的回答可以，但不是必须加入英语创作中的，或者大学文字密集课程上学到的特殊写作策略。GRE审稿者不会刻意追求专业化的扩展策略或写作风格，事实上，当GRE审稿者被训练的时候，他们就审阅过数以百计的ARGU答卷，尽管答卷的风格和内容不相同，但是都展示出了相似水平的批判性思维和分析性写作。审稿者将会看到，例如，有些6分水平的文章，开头简单总结了论述，然后就是明确的陈述和对批判性药店的扩展。审稿者认识到，通过分析和扩展要点来进行批判性写作，或通过辨识题目中论述的核心缺失，通过广泛展开批评，作者可以得到很高的分数。你也许会想看尤其是5分或6分的ARGU范文，看看作者是如何成功地扩展和组织他们的批判性文章的。

你应该按照你想要增强整体文章批判方面的有效性的方式，来做出对整体结构则组织形式的决定。这就意味着要用你认为，对于你的批判性文章尽可能多的或尽可能少的段落——例如，当你的讨论要转换一个新的分析点是，需要重起一个新段落。你可能想围绕题目论述本身来组织和批判，逐字逐句地讨论题目论述。或者你可能想先举出处于核心的可疑假设，然后再讨论题目论述的推论过程中，那些相关的缺陷。 相似的，你可能会想用例子帮助说明你批判中的要点或者推进你的讨论（记住，然而，考虑到你能够有效完成ARGU的能力，考试要考察的是你的批判性思维和分析写作，而非你处理问题的能力）重要的不是你答卷的形式，而是你能多大程度上有见识地分析题目论述和你能多大程度上清晰地把你的分析传达给那些有考试背景和学术背景的审稿者。




样题



Hospital statistics regarding people who go to the emergency room after roller skating accidents indicate the need for more protective equipment.  Within this group of people, 75 percent of those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protective clothing (helmets, knee pads, etc.) or any light-reflecting material (clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads, etc.).  Clearly, these statistics indicate that by investing in high-quality protective gear and reflective equipment, roller skaters will greatly reduce their risk of being severely injured in an accident.



关于这个议题的策略


这个论述引用了一个个别的医院统计数据来支持这个结论——“投资在高水准的保护工具和深思熟虑的设备上”将会减少由轮滑事故造成的严重伤害的风险。



在扩展你的分析的时候，你应该问自己这个医院的数据是否真的能够支持这个结论，你可能会问自己：
*•因轮滑事故而被送进急救室的比率是多少？
*•那些在轮滑事故后被送进急救室的人是否能代表普通轮滑者？


*•在轮滑事故中受伤的人有没有不去急诊的情况？
*•那些去急诊室的轮滑者受伤严重吗？
*•25%穿了保护装置的轮滑者跟75%没穿保护装置的轮滑者伤势严重程度一样吗？
*•在街道上或停车场轮滑比其他轮滑场所更危险吗？
*•中等质量的保护装置跟高品质的保护装置在减少轮滑事故带来的伤害风险方面同样有效吗？
*•比起保护装置，有没有另外的因素——例如天气状况，能见度，轮滑者技术水平——可能跟轮滑伤害的风险由更紧密的联系？
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-12 12:07:49

12.11
单词总结后，再拿起来就像背新词~而且还有那么多~
草木的写作方法打印下来又看了一遍，因为学校晚上熄灯之后看电脑那叫一个费劲~
ARGU迟迟下不了笔，感觉自己能从他人那里学习更多，不过AWINTRO说的对，还是要亲自练一练才好。
TIME读了两篇，感觉不错，叙述平实，画了生词，希望生词越来越少
还干嘛了？我想不起来了~╮(╯▽╰)╭
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-13 22:03:05

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-13 22:14 编辑

小灵易碎学习笔记
语法：虚拟语气

4、虚拟条件句的倒装
虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should, 或had, 可将if省略，再把were, should或had 移到从句句首，实行倒装。
例句：Were they here now, they could help us.=If they were here now, they could help us.

Had you come earlier, you would have met him.=If you had come earlier, you would have met him.　

Should it rain, the crops would be saved. =Were it to rain, the crops would be saved.
Should my car fail, I would have to return home on foot. = If my car should fail, I would have to return home on foot.
Had the letter been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship. = If the letter had been sent out, it would have ruined our friendship.

6.比较if only与only if：
only if表示"只有"；if only则表示"如果……就好了"。If only也可用于陈述语气。
例句：I wake up only if the alarm clock rings. 只有闹钟响了，我才会醒。
　　　If only the alarm clock had rung.　　　当时闹钟响了，就好了。
　　　If only he comes early.　　　　　　　但愿他早点回来。

7、It is (high) time that
It is (high) time that 后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形，但should不可省略。
例句：It is time that the children went to bed.
　　　It is high time that the children should go to bed.


注意2：在一些惯用语之后经常需要用虚拟，来表示与事实相反或者难以实现的事情
这类习语有：as if , as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only, for fear that, unless, in case, lest等

例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
(如果没有你的帮助，我就不能准时到达)
Without your help, I would not arrive here in time.
She put a blanket over the baby for fear that he should catch cold. 她在那个婴儿身上盖上了毯子以免他着凉。
The bad man was put in the soft-padded cell lest he injure himself.

注意5：如suggest, insist不表示"建议" 或"坚持要某人做某事时"，即它们用于其本意"暗示、表明"、"坚持认为"时，宾语从句用陈述语气。
例句：The guard at gate insisted that everybody obey the rules.


语法：主谓一致

主谓一致是指：
1） 语法形式上要一致，即单复数形式与谓语要一致。
2） 意义上要一致，即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。
3） 就近原则，即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语，
一般来说，不可数名词用动词单数，可数名词复数用动词复数。

2） 当主语是一本书或一条格言时，谓语动词常用单数。
3） 表示金钱，时间，价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语 时，通常把这些名词看作一个整体，谓语一般用单数。(用复数也可，意思不变。)
1） 用half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等词引起主语时，动词通常与of后面的名词，代词保持一致。



语法：冠词、数词
⑥用在江河、湖泊、海洋、山脉、群岛等的名称前。例如：     
the Yellow River 黄河the Black sea 黑海     
the West Lake 西湖 the Himalayas 喜马拉雅山     
the Tianshan Mountains 天山山脉 the Indian Ocean印度洋     


注意.   “the+姓氏复数”作主语，谓语动词用复数。 例如：     
The Greens are watching TV at the moment. 格林一家人现在正在看电视。     
The Whites do their cooking at home only at the weekend. 怀特夫妇仅在周末才在家做饭。      
  

⑨用在乐器前面。例如：     
the piano 钢琴   the violin 小提琴     

(12)用在表示方向的名词前。例如：     
in the east 在东方 in the west 在西部     
in the northeast of China 在中国的东北部 in the south 在南方     

(14)the常用于一些固定搭配中。例如：     
in the morning 在早上（上午） in the early morning 一大清早     
in the evening 在晚上 in the beginning 在开头（端）     
in the afternoon 在下午 by the way 顺便问     
in the end 最后，终于 the next day 第二天     
at the end of 在……快结尾的时候 the day after tomorrow 后天     
at the age of 在……岁的时候 in the front of 在……（内部）的前面     
the day before yesterday 前天 on the right(left)在右（左）边

1.在专有名词和不可数名词前。例如，Class Two，Tian’an Men Square，water

2.可数名词前已有作定语的物主代词（my，your，his，her等）、指示代词（this/these，that/those）、不定代词（some，any等）及所有格限制时。例如my book(正)；my the book(误)

7.在表特定的公园，街道，车站，桥，学校等之前。例如：No.25 Middle School

8.某些固定词组中不用冠词。

(2)名词词组：day and night日日夜夜；brother and sister兄弟姐妹;hour after hour时时刻刻；here and there到处
(3)介词词组：in surprise；on foot；on duty；at work；on time；in class；on show；in bed等

六.用与不用冠词的差异

in hospital住院/in the hospital在医院里
go to sea出海/go to the sea去海边
on earth究竟/on the earth在地球上，在世上
in front of在……(外部的)前面/in the front of在……(内部的)前面
take place发生/take the place(of)代替
at table进餐/at the table在桌子旁
by sea乘船/by the sea在海边
in future从今以后，将来/in the future未来
go to school(church…)上学(做礼拜…)/go to the school(church…)到学校(教堂…)去
on horseback骑着马/on the horseback在马背上
two of us我们当中的两人/the two of us我们两人(共计两人)
out of question毫无疑问/out of the question不可能的，办不到的
next year明年/the next year 第二年
a teacher and writer一位教师兼作家(一个人)/a teacher and a writer一位教师和一位作家(两个人)



数词

一.基数词

基数词相当于名词，在句中可做主语、表语、定语、状语等。如：
Three of my classmates are from Shanghai.
I am twenty this year.
They have four classes in the morning and three in the afternoon.

二.序数词

1)序数词的构成：
★大多数的序数词是由基数词加-th构成。如：seven—seventh；ten—tenth
★以-t结尾的基数词只在词尾加-h。如：eight—eighth
★以-ve结尾的基数词改-ve为f再加-th。如：five—fifth；twelve—twelfth
★以-y结尾的基数词改-y为-ie再加-th。如：twenty—twentieth，thirty—thirtieth
★几十几的序数词只在个位数体现。如：twenty-one—twenty-first；thirty-three—thirty-third
★特殊的序数词：
one—first；two—second；three—third； nine—ninth

5)序数词前加冠词“a”表示“再一次”。如：Can I try a second time?
6)在hundred，thousand，million，billion前有数词时为实数意义，它们的词尾不能加复数。前无数词时为虚数意义，hundred，thousand，million，billion可加复数，并可和of连用，构成短语。如：five hundred students；millions of people

四.分数的构成

分子用基数词，分母用序数词，分子大于1时，分母加s，如：
1/5：one fifth
2/3：two thirds
2-：two and three quarters

五.小数的表示法

0.09：point zero nine
2.7：two point seven

六.百分数的表达法

90%：ninety percent
0.5%：point five percent

七.倍数表达法

表示两倍时用twice，表示三倍以上的倍数时用times。如：
The earth is 49 times the size of the moon.
This desk is twice as large as that one.

八.算式表达法：

5+6：five plus six(or five and six)
7-6：seven minus six
2×3：two multiplied by three(or two times three)
8/4：eight divided by four



2)如果名词词组中心词是“分数或百分数+of-词组”，谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于of-词组中名词或代词的单、复数形式：如果of-词组中名词或代词是单数或不可数名词，谓语动词用单数形式；如果of-词组中名词或代词是复数，谓语动词也用复数形式。如：
Two thirds of the earth is covered with water.
Two thirds of the people present are against the plan.

3)如果主语是many a，more than one+单数名词构成，尽管从意义上看是复数，但谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：
Many a student in this class has hoped a long break.

4)a+单数名词+or two做主语，谓语动词用单数形式。one or two+复数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。如：
A word or two is missed in the sentence.
One or two words are missed in the sentence.


语法：情态动词
情态动词在托福写作中的运用

托福的写作中关于情态动词的使用经常存在漏用和误用的情况，而大作文本身就是要求写对某个事物或者现象的评价，所以不可避免要出现带有情态动词的观点句。下面是常见的问题的分析：
首先是情态动词，尤其是Will的漏掉。中国考生受汉语影响，一提到“将来”才会有意识地用will, 实际上will可以表达“能、将、会、要、就”等多种意义。只是涉及到这样的地方很多学员就把这几个词当作虚词忽略掉了，以至于经常出现“观点”与“事实”不分的句子, 如：
Riding bicycles reduces air pollution.
如果没有情态动词，这个句子就是一个表示目前存在的状态或者事实，而不表示个人对骑自行车的评价。
其它的常见的漏用还体现在与if引导的状语从句一起连用的主句中， so that或者 in order that引导的从句，或者是与without, in case of等介词短语连用的主句，不论条件还是目的都是写作中经常出现的句式。如:
If I have time tomorrow, I drive to pick you up.
Xiao Zhang gets up very early so that he catches the earliest bus to work.
Without enough time to stay inside campus, college students don't have time to improve themselves.
其次是情态动词的误用，主要问题是中国学生在亮观点时对“can”情有独钟，而英式的学风历来讲究严谨，像can 这样语气过于绝对的表达最好换成may/ will, 或者是语气更委婉的might/would probably等，同时还要搭配一定程度的副词，如：
indulgence in computer games can lead to social violence especially of teenagers.上句中can不如might用起来更加客观，因为几乎每个小孩都玩游戏，但绝不是每个人都会犯罪。
另外一个容易误用的词是should，多表示根据社会风俗习惯个人的责任，而在比较正式的议论文写作中，多数句子是以客观事物做主语的， 所以用should就有些不太恰当，如：
To tackle the problem of youth crimes related with computer games, advertisement enterprises should restrict the large-scale promotion.
一般我们会用另外一个更客观性的短语be to do来代替， 或者是shall，但是这里的shall不是用于第一人称后的将来时符号，而表示的是一种情态。
至于must, 因为语气实在强硬，所以一般在社会性的问题的论述上我们要慎用，建议多换成need/ shall/ be to do 或者是be expected to do形式。如：
To help students get better employment, universities must increase the skillful courses.
虽然情态动词不是关系是否上6分的语法项目，但也会在一定程度上影响到分数，所以希望能引起足够的重视。



语法：倒装
2、有些让步状语从句中又是也有倒装的情况，（主要把标语或部分谓语提前）：
Clever though he was, he couldn’t conceal his eagerness for praise.
Try as I would, I couldn’t make her change her mind.
Talented as he is, he is not yet ready to turn professional.
Search as they would, they could find no one in the wood


【一些谓语前移的情况】
1、<状语前置>有些句子没有宾语且主语又比较长。又是可把状语提前，而把主语放在谓语后面去。
Before him lay miles of undulating moorland: 他前面是一片高低起伏的荒原
After the banquet came a firework display in the garden. 宴会后花园里燃放了烟火。
From the distance came occasional shots. 从远处传来零星的枪声。
In the distance could be seen the purple mountains. 远处可以看见紫色的群山。
2、为了描绘更生动，有些与介词同行的副词可以移到句首，把主语放在谓语后面。
Up went the arrow into the air. 嗖的一声箭射上了天。
She rang the bell. In came a girl she had not seen before. 她按铃，进来一个她从未见过的姑娘。
Down flew the eagle to seize the chicken 老鹰飞下来抓小鸡。


1、进行时态中的分词有时可移到句首，来对这个动作加以强调。
Lying on the floor was a boy aged about seventeen.
Standing beside the table was an interpreter
Watching the performances were mostly foreign tourists.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-13 22:20:00

单词④——①——③——④
开始早起锻炼身体了，好开始，要继续↖(^ω^)↗
忍不住又看了遍草木的写作基础，感觉每次看都有新的体验和感悟，写得真是好，说真的。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-15 21:22:31

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-15 21:23 编辑

语法：名词
2）单复同形　如：
　　deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese
　　li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin　
但除人民币元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。
如:
a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters

6）
另外还有一些名词，其复数形式有时可表示特别意思，如：goods货物，waters水域，fishes（各种）鱼

2）
抽象名词有时也可数。
　　four freedoms 四大自由
　　the four modernizations四个现代化
　　物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量。
　　如：
　　a glass of water 一杯水　
　　a piece of advice　一条建议

1) 用复数作定语。
　　
如：sports meeting 运动会
　　students reading-room 学生阅览室　
　　talks table 谈判桌　
　　the foreign languages department 外语系

4) 数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。
　如：two-dozen eggs　两打/（二十四个鸡蛋)　
　    a ten-mile walk 十里路　
　    two-hundred trees 两百棵树
      a five-year plan.　一个五年计划
个别的有用复数作定语的，如： a seven-years child

1．容易误用为复数的不可数名词：(这些名词一般不能用作复数，谓语动词用单数)
　　advice 建议，忠告 living 生活，生计
　　equipment 装备，设备 progress 前进，发展
　　furniture 家具，设备 scenery 风景，景色
　　information 通知；信息 machinery 机器，机械
　　knowledge 知识，学问 traffic 交通流量
　　baggage / luggage 行李，皮箱 trouble 烦恼，麻烦
　　cash 现金 thunder 雷声，轰隆声
　　apparatus 仪器 weather 天气，处境
　　clothing 衣服 work 工作，劳动
　　paper 纸，钞票 luck 运气，幸运
    technology 工艺，技术 jewelry 珠宝

5． and连接两个名词表示一个概念做主语时，谓语用单数; 若表示的是多个不同的概念时，谓语动词用复数。
　　War and peace is a constant theme in literature.
　　战争与和平是文学中永恒的主题。(War and peace是一对概念，看作一个主题)
　　同例： ham and eggs n.火腿蛋 s
               team and bread
　　          law and order
               bread and butter
　　         apple pie and ice cream
               folk and knife
　　         wheel and axle 轮轴
               needle and thread
　            love and hate
               egg and rice 蛋炒饭


8． 由 every …and every …; each … and each…; no … and no…; many a …and many a … 等连接的并列主语，谓语动词用单数。
　　Every man and every woman working here is getting along well with me.
　　No difficulty and no hardship has discouraged him.
9. 由 all of, most of, half of , a lot of, part of 等加名词构成的主语，谓语动词的数取决于该名词的单复数。
　　 All of us are going to see the game.
　　 All of his time was spent on gambling
　　 Three-fourths of the people are illiterate.
　　 同例： plenty of…， one fourth of…， none of…， some of …， majority of …，         percent of …， the rest of …， reminder of …。

11. 定语从句的谓语动词注意与先行词保持一致，但注意the only one of… 的用法。
　　 One of those men likes to drive fast.
　　 One of those men who like to drive fast is her son.
　　 He is the only one of those men who likes to drive fast.
13. the + adj / v-ed 表示一类人时， 用复数谓语动词; 表示抽象概念时， 谓语动词用单数。
　　The sick have been cured and the lost have been found.
　　病人得到了医治，失踪的也找回来了。
　　同例： the poor / dumb / innocent / guilty / unemployed / aged / oppressed / exploited…
　　We can do the difficult first. The impossible takes a little longer.
　　我们先从难题开始，不会的可能花的时间长一些。
　　The best is yet to come. 好戏还在后头。
15. 当主语被one ( a ) and a half 修饰时，谓语动词用单数。
　　One and a half apples is left on the plate.

16. 当主语由 a series of…， a portion of …， a species of …， a kind of …， a sequence of …， a chain of…， a piece of … 加名词(单数或复数)构成时， 谓语用单数。
　　A series of lectures on psychology is said to be given by Mr. Li.
　　A large portion of her poems was published after her death.

语法：时态
关于时态问题，尤其是应用到AW的写作中，请注意三点：
1、基础用法不要出错
2、彼此衔接的时候要保证一个通顺语法顺序
3、作文主时态没有严格限制，一般现在时或这个过去时都可以，选择你觉得最好驾驭最不容易出错而且预期rater可以比较好理解的一个时态去做主时态

语法：连词
第二句：and 连接两个并列的动词不定式，第二个不定式往往省略to，因此sang 应改为 sing

1) but表示转折，while表示对比。

Some people love cats, while others hate them.

典型例题
--- Would you like to come to dinner tonight?
--- I'd like to, ___ I'm too busy.
A. and B. so C. as D. but
答案D。but与前面形成转折，符合语意。而表并列的and， 结果的so，原因的as都不符合句意。

6 比较so和 such

其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副
词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。

so + adj. such + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + a(n) + n. such + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. [不可数]such +n. [不可数]

so foolish such a fool
so nice a flower such a nice flower
so many/ few flowers such nice flowers
so much/little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people


so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。

so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。


语法：从句
用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
　　　 a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句
　　　　　It is necessary that…　　有必要……
　　　　　It is important that…　　重要的是……
　　　　　It is obvious that…　　很明显……　　

　　　 b. It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句
　　　　　It is believed that…　　　　　人们相信……
　　　　　It is known to all that…　　　从所周知……
　　　　　It has been decided that…　　已决定……

　　　 c. It + be +名词+ that-从句
　　　　　It is common knowledge that…　 ……是常识
　　　　　It is a surprise that…　　 令人惊奇的是……
　　　　　It is a fact that…　　　　 事实是……

　　　 d. It +不及物动词+ that-分句
　　　　　It appears that…　　　　　　似乎……
　　　　　It happens that…　　　　　　碰巧……
　　　　　It occurred to me that…　　 我突然想起……

2)关系代词的省略
在从句中作宾语的关系代词常可省略。关系代词紧跟介词，作介词宾语时不可用that，只可用which或whom引导从句，并且不可省略，但当介词位于宾语从句句末时，作为介词宾语的关系代词仍可用that，也可省略。
This is one of those things with which we have to put up.
This is one of those things (which\that) we have to put up with.



比较：because, since, as和for

1）　because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或 since。
　 I didn't go, because I was afraid.
　 Since /As the weather is so bad, we have to delay our journey.

2）　由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。
　 He is absent today, because / for he is ill.
　 He must be ill, for he is absent today.
结果状语从句引导结果状语从句的连词有：so...that, such...that, so that, that, so等。
Mickey Mouse is so attractive that the children are reluctant to leave.

比较： so和 such

　其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so 是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。 so 还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little连用，形成固定搭配。
　so foolish　　　　　　　such a fool　　　　　　　
　so nice a flower　　　　such a nice flower　
　　
　so many / few flowers　 such nice flowers　　　　
　so much / little money. such rapid progress　　　
　so many people　　　　　such a lot of people　
　
（ so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。）
　 so…that与 such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。
　 The boy is so young that he can't go to school.
　 He is such a young boy that he can't go to school

第一组错题
2. I believe _____ you’ve done your best and _____ things will improve very soon.
A. whether; that        B.  不填; that       C.  that; which        D.  if; that
正确答案B

6. _____ he was, he sat up late studying last night.
A. As tired        B.  Though tired       C.  Tired as        D.  Tired although
正确答案C，我也有疑问，为什么不是B

第二组错题
4. When she came back from abroad, Lucy told us about the cities and the people _____ she had visited.
A. that        B.  who        C.  where        D.  which
正确答案A

5. Because of the traffic jam _____ I was caught, I was late for the meeting.
A. by which        B.  in which        C.  that        D.  where
正确答案C

第三组
话说这个13题是什么状况？
13. It was an unforgettable moment that our volleyball team won the gold medal again.
        A. that        B.  which        C.  when        D.  while

7. Mr. Smith wanted to buy the house and he told me that _____ the house cost, it would be _____ it.
A. however; worth        B.  how much; worth       C.  whatever; worth        D.  what; worthy
正确答案C，记住了 be worth it ,不是be worthy of.

18. I felt somewhat disappointed and was about to leave, _____ something occurred, which attracted my attention.
        A. unless        B.  until        C.  when        D.  while
正确答案C

19. Determination is a kind of quality --- and that is _____ it takes to do anything well.
A. that        B.  which        C.  why        D.  what
正确答案D
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 09:46:31

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-21 09:51 编辑

AWINTRO笔记
①判卷子的是大学里的教员，所以他们是以研究生的基础写作水平为判断标准的，切记。

②考场及评分过程中的规则：
  *•答卷时随机分派给审稿者的
  *•所有可辨别身份的考试者信息对审稿者都是隐藏的
  *•每份答卷由两个审稿者评分
  *•一个审稿者不知道另一个可能已经决定的分数
  *•整个评分过程要求每份答卷得到两个审稿者完全相同或相近的分数，任何其他情况下的分数组合将会交由第三个审稿者评判

③ISSUE有用的几个自问自答
  *•确切地说，什么是核心问题？
  *•我同意题目中所述的任何哪个部分吗？为什么同意或为什么不同意？
  *•这个论述的假设成立吗？如果成立，那么假设合理吗？
  *•题目中的论述只在特定条件下存在吗？如果是的话，条件是什么？
  *•我需要解释我是如何解读题目中确定的条目或者概念吗？
  *•如果我确定了我在论述中的立场，什么样的原因能支持我的立场？
  *•什么样的例子——真实的或虚构的——能用来阐明理由和提升我的观点呢？哪些例子最强有力？

④ISSUE范文的观察：整体感觉是逻辑条理十分清晰，支持理由也是十分有力，有大量例子，且与支持理由有密切的对应关系，感觉逻辑连接词很多，读起来比较顺畅，也觉得成文比较合理，学习学习。

⑤ARGU有用的几个自问自答
  *•替代的解释——一个同样能造成问题事件的可能的、有竞争力的解释；一个替代性的解释，可以削弱或加强原始解释，因为替代解释同样可以表明既成事实。
  *•分析——把事物分解成组成它的部分的过程，为了了解这些部分是如何整合在一起并作为一个整体来运行的；同时也是一个通过这种分析达到的，以书面表达形式的陈述。
  *•论述——一个或一系列的用理由和证据支持的主张；一条推理主线意在说明事物的正确或错误性。
  *•假设——一个未经声明或未经验证的，却因为某人要保持一定的立场而必须坚持的看法；理所当然的事物，但是一定要真实以保证结论是真实的。
  *•结论——在一连串推论后得出的最终结果，如果推论是合理的，那么主张的结果就是有效的、可靠的
  *•反例——例子，无论真实或虚构，起到反驳或证明论述中的陈述为假的作用

⑥如何论述里的解读数字、比率和统计数据
一些论述包含了数字、比率或者统计数据，作为支持论述结论的证据。例如，一个论述可能会说，一项社区竞赛今年没有去年受欢迎，原因是100人参加了今年的活动而去年有150人参加，即今年的到场率下降了33%。记住你的任务不是处理关于数字、比率或统计数据，这一点很重要。重要的是你应该衡量这些证据最终想要支持的结论。在上面的例子中，结论是今年的社区活动没有去年受欢迎。你应该问自己：100人和150人的差别支持这个结论吗？注意，在这个案例中，还有其他的解释；例如，今年的天气不好，今年的活动举办时间不方便大家参加，今年的活动花费上涨了，也许同时间还有别的受欢迎的活动也在举办。每个理由都能解释到场率的不同，也就能够驳斥今年活动“更不受欢迎的结论。相似的，百分比削弱或巩固结论与否，在于百分比是否反映了真实的数据。考虑一下一所学校的戏剧社应该得到更多的资助，因为他们的成员增加了100%。如果成员是从100人增加到200人，那么这个100%的增长比率将会很重要，同时，如果成员是从5人增加到10人，那么100%的增长率就会不那么重要了。记住，任何题目论述中的数字、比率和统计数据只是用来作为支持结论的证据，你应该考虑到它们是否真的支持了结论。



看AWINTRO觉得非常有用，因为看到的很多细节问题都是自己以前忽略的，希望能够结合AWINTRO和草木的写作基础知识，把这些概括性的写作技巧内化在自己的文章里，加油~！！！
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 10:03:56

看来俺还是不够努力呀~拖拖沓沓的作业一直做不完~还有杯具的期末考试~人参啊~~~~~~~~！
谁也帮不了我，谁也救不了我，谁也保佑不了我~！！！！

单词是我最有希望的部分，已经不需要纠结，直接变成每天生物周期里的一部分鸟~~继续努力~
最重要的事还没落地，我心难平，即使是GRE这种大石头也不成，所以，先慢慢蹭吧~等俺心里的大石头落地了~等俺重生了~就是另一番天地啦~！
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 11:21:31

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-21 11:24 编辑

语法：动词、动词语态

6 助动词shall和will的用法

shall和will作为助动词可以与动词原形一起构成一般将来时，例如：
I shall study harder at English. 我将更加努力地学习英语。
He will go to Shanghai.他要去上海。
说明：
在过去的语法中，语法学家说shall用于第一人称，will 只用于第二、第三人称。现在，尤其是在口语中，will常用于第一人称，但shall只用于第一人称，如用于第二、第三人称，就失去助动词的意义，已变为情态动词，试比较:
He shall come.他必须来。（shall有命令的意味。）
He will come.他要来。（will只与动词原形构成一般将来时。）

7 助动词should, would的用法

1）should无词义，只是shall的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，只用于第一人称，例如：
I telephoned him yesterday to ask what I should do next week.
我昨天给他打电话，问他我下周干什么。
比较：
"What shall I do next week?"I asked.
"我下周干什么？"我问道。（可以说，shall变成间接引语时，变成了should。）

2） would也无词义，是 will的过去形式，与动词原形构成过去将来时，用于第二、第三人称，例如：
He said he would come. 他说他要来。
比较：
"I will go," he said. 他说："我要去那儿。"
变成间接引语，就成了：
He said he would come.
原来的will变成would，go变成了come.。

1 let 的用法

1）当let后只有一个单音节动词，变被动语态时，可用不带to 的不定式。
They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.
不是所有主动变被动都要加“to”

2） 若let 后宾补较长时，let 通常不用被动语态，而用allow或permit 代替。
The nurse let me go to see my classmate in the hospital.
----> I was allowed / permitted to see my classmate in the hospital.

4 不用被动语态的情况
1) 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand
break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
After the fire, very little remained of my house.
比较： rise, fall, happen是不及物动词；raise, seat是及物动词。
(错) The price has been risen.
(对) The price has risen.
(错) The accident was happened last week.
(对) The accident happened last week.
(错) The price has raised.
(对) The price has been raised.
(错) Please seat.
(对) Please be seated.
要想正确地使用被动语态，就须注意哪些动词是及物的，哪些是不及物的。特别是一词多义的动词往往有两种用法。解决这一问题唯有在学习过程中多留意积累。

6 被动形式表示主动意义
be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
He is graduated from a famous university.
他毕业于一所有名的大学。
注意： 表示同某人结婚，用marry sb. 或get married to sb. 都可。
He married a rich girl.
He got married to a rich girl.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 11:25:00

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-21 11:28 编辑

语法：动词不定式

4)there be+不定式
believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, undrstand
We didn't expect there to be so many people there.我们没料到会有那么多人在哪里。
注意 ： 有些动词需用as 短语做补语，如regard, think believe, take, consider.
We regard Tom as our best teacher.我们认为汤姆是我们最好的老师。
Mary took him as her father .玛丽把他当作自己的父亲。
there be的特殊情况，要记住。

1）不定式作目的状语
To… only to (仅仅为了),in order to,so as to,so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus.他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。
I come here only to say good-bye to you.我来仅仅是向你告别。
2）不定式作结果状语，表事先没有预料到的，要放在句子后面。
What have I said to make you angry.
He searched the room only to find nothing.
典型例题
The chair looks rather hard, but in fact it is very comfortable to ___.
A. sit B. sit on C. be seat D. be sat on
答案：B.如果不定式为不及物动词，其后应有必要的介词。当动词与介词连用时，常位于"形容词+动词不定式"结构的末尾。


3） 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。
注意：在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。
7） but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。
8） 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：
9） 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：

3)当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是：非常… 等于very。
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高兴能帮助你。
He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。


语法：分词

6 分词作插入语
其结构是固定的，意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。
generally speaking一般说来
talking of (speaking of) 说道
strictly speaking 严格的说
judging from 从…判断
all things considered 从整体来看
taking all things into consideration全面看来

Judging from his face, he must be ill.从他的脸色看，他一定是病了。
Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs. 总的来说，狗比猪跑得快。 (speaking 并不是dogs 的动作)


1）动名词作主语
Fighting broke out between the South and the North.
南方与北方开战了。

2）作宾语　
a. 动词后加动名词doing作宾语 V. + doing sth
admit 承认　appreciate 感激,赞赏　avoid 避免　complete 完成　 consider 认为　 delay 耽误　 deny 否认　 detest 讨厌　endure 忍受　enjoy 喜欢　escape 逃脱　prevent阻止   fancy 想象　finish 完成　imagine 想象　mind 介意 miss 想念　 postpone 推迟　practice 训练　 recall 回忆　 resent 讨厌　resist 抵抗　resume 继续　risk 冒险     suggest 建议　　face 面对　 include 包括　stand 忍受　understand 理解　 forgive 宽恕   keep 继续

举例：
(1)　Would you mind turning down your radio a little, please?
(2)　The squirrel was lucky that it just missed being caught.　　　

b. 词组后接doing
admit to　　 prefer…to　　　　　be used to　　　 lead to　　　devote oneself to　 object to　　　stick to　　 busy　　　　look forward to(to为介词）

no good,　no use,　It's worth…,　 as well as,
can't help,　It's no use /good　 be tired of
be fond of　 be capable of　 be afraid of　
be proud of　 think of / about　 hold off　　　　
put off　 keep on　 insist on　　count on / upon
set about　 be successful in　 good at　　take up
give up　　burst out 　　prevent … from…　

2 worth 的用法

worth，worthy，worth-while都为adj.　意为"值得"。
1. worth： be worth + n.　 当名词为金钱时，表示"…… 值得……"
be worth doing sth.　"……某事值得被做"
The question is not worth discussing again and again.

2. worthy： be worthy of +n.　当名词为抽象名词时表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
The question is not worthy to be discussed again and again.

3. worth-while： be worth-while to do sth　 "值得做某事"
worth while： It is worth while doing sth
It is worth while sb to do sth.

典型例题
It is not ____ to discuss the question again and again.
A.worth　B.worthy　C.worth-while　D.worth while
答案C. 由worth的用法可知，此句只适合词组be worth-while to do sth.。因此选C。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 18:10:43

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-21 18:12 编辑

语法：独立主格
1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：
当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.
( hand前不能加his)。

2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语（逻辑主语：是非谓语动词动作的执行者或承受者；它们在逻辑上存在着主谓关系或动宾关系，但不能直接作非谓语动词的主语，因此叫逻辑主语。）时，及物动词用现在分词，不及物动词用过去分词。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.
典型例题：
Weather___, we'll go out for a walk.
A permitted B permitting C permits D for permitting
答案 B. 本题中没有连词，它不是复合句，也不是并列句。句中使用了逗号，且we 小写，可知其不是两个简单句。能够这样使用的只有独立主格或with的复合结构。据此判断，本句中使用的是独立结构， 其结构为：名词+分词。由于permit在这里翻译为'天气允许'，表主动，应用现在分词，故选B。
如果不会判断独立结构作状语的形式，不妨将句子改为条件句，例如本句改为If weather permits, we'll go out for a walk. 然后将if 去掉，再将谓语动词改为非谓语动词即可。

语法：特殊词

5 cease doing/to do
cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事。
cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做。
That department has ceased to exist forever.
那个部门已不复存在。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
姑娘们在老师走过时，停了会聊天。


6 try doing/to do
try to do努力，企图做某事。
try doing 试验，试着做某事。
You must try to be more careful.
你可要多加小心。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
我试着种果木花卉，但未成功。

8 be afraid doing/to do
be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。
She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬着，而不敢在草丛中再走一步。
She was afraid to wake her husband.
她不敢去叫醒她丈夫。
She was afraid of waking her husband.
她生怕吵醒她丈夫。

9 be interested doing/to do
interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 对某种想法感兴趣，doing 通常为想法。
I shall be interested to know what happens.
我很想知道发生了什么事。 (想了解)
I'm interested in working in Switzerland. Do you have any idea about that?
我对在瑞士工作感兴趣。你想过这事吗? (一种想法)

12 感官动词 + doing/to do
感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do 表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性
I saw him work in the garden yesterday.
昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调"我看见了"这个事实)
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.（强调"我见他正干活"这个动作）
昨天我见他正在花园里干活。
典型例题
1）They knew her very well. They had seen her ___ up from childhood.
A. grow B. grew C. was growing D. to grow
答案：A。因题意为，他们看着她长大，因此强调的是成长的过程，而非正在长的动作，因此用see sb do sth 的句型。
2）The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing B. to be playingC. play D. to play
答案A. 本题强调其动作，正在河边玩，应此用see sb. doing sth句型。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 19:03:54

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-21 19:05 编辑

语法：Active and Passive Voice

In a sentence using active voice,the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.主动语态就是句子中的主语是动作的发出者

Active voice is used for most non-scientific writing.Using active voice for the majority of your sentences makes your meaning clear for readers,and keeps the sentences from becoming too complicated or wordy.Even in scientific writing,too much use of passive voice can cloud the meaning of your sentences.主动语态多用在非科学写作上，的好处是清晰、少冗余

In a sentence using passive voice,the subject is acted upon;he or she receives the action expressed by the verb.The agent performing the action may appear in a"by the..."phrase or may be omitted.被动语态是句子中主语是动作承受者，句尾的by……可以省略

Choosing Passive Voice

Also,writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses.Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious,unimportant,or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all.The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.用主动，因为主动语态能把代词表示清楚，能高亮关键动作

1.Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.不要在一句中转换主被动。
Unnecessary shift in voice
Revised
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.

2.Avoiddangling modifierscaused by the use of passive voice.A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dangling modifier with passive voice
Revised
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.


3.Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software.Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions,but you may want to keep some that are flagged.Trust your judgment,or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.相信自己的判断而不是语法软件

Indicative,Imperative,and Subjunctive Mood:

Most verbs we use are in the indicative mood,which indicates a fact or opinion指示性语态:
Examples:
He was here.
I am hungry.
She will bring her books.

Some verbs are in the imperative mood,which expresses commands or requests.Though it is not stated,the understood subject of imperative sentences is you.命令性语态
Examples:
Be here at seven o'clock.(Understood:You be here at seven o'clock.)
Cook me an omelette.(Understood:You cook me an omelette.)
Bring your books with you.(Understood:You bring your books with you.)

When verbs show something contrary to fact,they are in the subjunctive mood.虚拟语气
When you express a wish or something that is not actually true,use the past tense or past perfect tense;when using the verb'to be'in the subjunctive,always use were rather than was:
Examples:
If he were here...(Implied:...but he's not.)
I wish I had something to eat.(Implied:...but I don't.)
It would be better if you had brought your books with you.(Implied:...but you haven't brought them.)
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-21 19:13:02

语法：撇号和连字符的使用

The apostrophe has three uses:
1.to form possessives of nouns
2.to show the omission of letters
3.to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters

add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money

1.Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street
chocolate-covered peanuts
well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.
The author was well known.

3.Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:
re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
semi-independent (but semiconscious)
shell-like (but childlike)

8.Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:
lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)写作格式问题
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:02:10

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-24 01:05 编辑

语法：平行结构
Example 2
Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions. （所有动作都是针对一个对象才叫平行）

Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form

Proofreading Strategies to Try:校对平行的方法

Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.

If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.

Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:02:37

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-24 01:49 编辑

语法：逗号的用法
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.（用一对逗号把不重要的成分“孤立”起来~~）
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.（之前都只在日期中间点一个小点儿，这下知道了，记住小细节）
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.

Introductory elements often require a comma, but not always. Use a comma in the following cases:
·After an introductory clause. (Does the introductory element have a subject and verb of its own?)
·After a long introductory prepositional phrase or more than one introductory prepositional phrase. (Are there more than five words before the main clause?)
·After introductory verbal phrases, some appositive phrases, or absolute phrases.
·If there is a distinct pause. (When you read the sentence aloud, do you find your voice pausing a moment after the introductory element?) to avoid confusion. (Might a reader have to read the sentence more than once to make sense of it?)

Do not use a comma in the following cases:
·After a brief prepositional phrase. (Is it a single phrase of less than five words?)
·After a restrictive (essential) appositive phrase. (See our document on appositives.)
·To separate the subject from the predicate. (See below.)

Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. For example:
I am going home, and I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon, but we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark, so they decided to camp for the night.

Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words. For example:
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc. For example:
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.

Rule: Use commas before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements embedded in the sentence that interrupt it without changing the essential meaning.
If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.（判断能在词句前后用逗号的方法是，取出成分对句子整体意思不改变）
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:02:56

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-24 01:50 编辑

语法：主语、宾语指代
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

最重要的是弄清楚动作的doer
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:03:18

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-24 01:47 编辑

语法：大写字母
Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)专有名词
Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving（中间如果有of之类的词应该就不用大写）

Family relationships (when used as proper names)家庭关系（这个之前没注意过，要记住）
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?


Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
（不要大写普遍意义上的“神”）

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.
（表示“南部地区”“北部地区”用大写，而不是真正指“方向”）
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:03:45

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-24 01:47 编辑

语法：音近词
Conscious, Conscience

·conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.

·conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.


Idea, Ideal

·idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization:
Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!

·ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor:
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.

·ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best:
Jennifer was an ideal student.


貌似那几个exercise打开都是一样的，不过Purdue OWL还是灰常好用滴~
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:13:58

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2009-12-24 01:48 编辑

语法：写作顺序
Keep in mind, however, that moving between HOCs and LOCs might be a natural process for you. Experienced writers may begin with HOCs and dip into the LOCs as they revise.
写作的时候按照重要性逐渐增加的原则，校对的时候按照重要性逐渐减低的原则

Thesis or focus:

·Does the paper have a central thesis? 中心主题
·Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about? 一句话概况主题
·Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss. 能不能在第一段或第二段被读懂

Audience and purpose:

·Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them? 确定读者群
·Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?写作目的
·Why would someone want to read this paper?激发读者兴趣
·Does the purpose match the assignment? 目的和写作是否一致

Organization:

·Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way? 逻辑组织
·Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization. 改善整体组织结构
·Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part? 条理清晰顺畅
·Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?

Development:

·Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed? 细节需要
·Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? (For more help, see our handout on paragraphing.)
·Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.

Some LOCs

Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling

·Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those. 总结自己的常见错误并对照着找错
·Read the paper aloud watching and listening for anything that sounds incorrect.
·Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in certain places. Do you need to check any punctuation rules? (For more help see our handouts on punctuation.)
·For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 01:44:58

Go from old to new information（先捡读者熟悉的说）
Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.

Transitional words（过渡词）
There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the handout on Transitional Devices (Connecting Words). There you'll find lists of words such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses（避免用从句扰乱主句）
Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion

Use active voice

Use parallel constructions

Avoid noun strings（不要一大堆名词黏在一起）
Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."

Avoid multiple negatives（不要多重否定）
Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.

Choose action verbs over forms of be（动词多样化）
When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:10:36

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-14 02:39 编辑

语法：关系代名词

限定性从句和非限定性从句的关系代名词的使用
（表格方便明了）
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses:

Function in
the sentence

Reference to


People
Things / concepts
Place
Time
Reason
Subject
who, that
which, that
Object
(that, who, whom)*
(which, that)*
where
when
why
Possessive
whose
whose, of which

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses:

Function in
the sentence

Reference to


People
Things / concepts
Place
Time
Reason
Subject
who
which
Object
who, whom
which
where
when
why
Possessive
whose
whose, of which



Defining vs Non-Defining Clauses: Difference in Meaning
限定性从句和非限定性从句在意思上的不同
There is a difference in meaning between defining and non-defining clauses that depends on the presence or absence of the comma. For example:

They have two sons who are doctors.
Defining clause; the meaning is that there are more sons in the family, e.g.:
They have two sons who are doctors and one who is an architect.
Compare:
They have two sons, who are doctors.
non-defining clause; the meaning is that there are no more sons in the family.

代词的选择（选择更有具象意义的那个）
5.If you choose between who or that, use who in writing;
6.If you choose between which and that, use which in writing;

标点的使用（这个我挺怵的，每次都只会用逗号句号之类的还瞎点一气，学习了~）
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

两个独立的句子，但是主语是相同的，中间用分号。

Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with an independent marker.
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

在上面那种情况下两句中间加了连词，用逗号标在逻辑连词后面。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:11:19

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-14 02:52 编辑

语法：标点符号

Semicolon分号

Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis. 两句对等关系，之间用分号连接
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.

Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.

Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas. 区分并列成分，如果还有下属描述就用逗号
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.


Dash破折号

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses. 破折号后的内容通常更重要
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.

Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it. 连接中间已经有逗号的一个整体
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.


Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.对话时使用
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."

Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word. 指出作品，讽刺意味或保留某个词的意思（待讨论的单词）
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.不要间接使用引号（引号套引号）
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:11:33

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-14 19:28 编辑

语法：a和an的用法
With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h.
·an honorable peace
·an honest error

With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.
·a union
·a united front
·a unicorn
·a used napkin
·a U.S. ship
·a one-legged man

Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would make a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.
总结起来就是元音音标前用an,辅音音标前用a
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:11:48

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-14 20:30 编辑

语法：冠词a\an\the
English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns. We call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article

In writing, "a historical event" is more commonly used.

Count and Noncount Nouns
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
·"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
·"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).

Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
·Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
·Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
·Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:12:01

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-16 21:53 编辑

语法：可数与不可数名词

Enough: Enough modifies both countable and uncountable nouns.
·"There is enough money to buy a car."
·"I have enough books to read."

·furniture 家具也是不可数名词啊~

The Rule
From the definitions of mass and count given above you may have already guessed the rule for pluralizing them:
·most count nouns pluralize with -s
·noncount nouns don't pluralize at all
This rule works for all of the nouns in the lists of examples in the first section. Check this rule for yourself before reading further.

Note: A special case of the use of noncount nouns in a count sense has to do with classification. Sometimes a usually noncount noun can be understood as one item separate and distinct from other items of the same category. The nouns that function in this way often denote foods and beverages: food(s), drink(s), wine(s), bread(s), coffee(s), fruit(s), and so on.如果表示不可数名词的种类，可以加S，例子应该还包括people(s)

两个表格发不上来，只好在这里提醒自己一下，温习的时候多看一眼了。。。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:12:14

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-15 22:15 编辑

语法：独立、非独立句子

1. Coordinating Conjunction
The seven coordinating conjunctions used as connecting words at the beginning of an independent clause are and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.

2. Independent Marker Word
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.
Some common independent markers are: also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.


Comma Splices

A comma splice is the use of a comma between two independent clauses. You can usually fix the error by changing the comma to a period and therefore making the two clauses into two separate sentences, by changing the comma to a semicolon, or by making one clause dependent by inserting a dependent marker word in front of it.
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.
·Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
·(or) I like this class; it is very interesting.
·(or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.
·(or) I like this class because it is very interesting.
·(or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class.


2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:12:26

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-16 22:01 编辑

语法：形容词和副词

So, generally speaking, adjectives answer the following questions:
·Which?
·What kind of?
·How many?

So, generally speaking, adverbs answer the question how. (They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.)

Avoiding Common Errors

1.Bad or Badly?
When you want to describe how you feel, you should use an adjective So you'd say, "I feel bad." Saying "I feel badly" would be like saying you play football badly. "I feel badly" would mean that you are unable to feel, as though your hands were numb.

2.Good or Well?
Good is an adjective, so you do not do good or live good, but you do well and live well. Remember, though, that an adjective follows sense-verbs and be-verbs, so you also feel good, look good, smell good, are good, have been good, etc. So:
"My mother looks good." This does not mean that she has good eyesight; it means that she appears healthy.

4.Near or Nearly?
Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition. Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite."
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:12:40

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-17 18:52 编辑

语法：形容词和副词

Little/Few:
"Little" modifies only uncountable nouns.
·"He had little food in the house."
·"When I was in college, there was little money to spare."
"Few" modifies only countable nouns.
·"There are a few doctors in town."
·"He had few reasons for his opinion."

A little bit of:
"A little bit of" is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.
·"There is a little bit of pepper in the soup."
·"There is a little bit of snow on the ground."

Rule #2: An adjective always follows a form of the verb to be when it modifies the noun before the verb. Here are some examples that show this rule.
·I was nervous.
·She has been sick all week.
·They tried to be helpful.

Rule #3: Likewise an adjective always follows a sense verb or a verb of appearance — feel, taste, smell, sound, look, appear, and seem — when it modifies the noun before the verb.
·Sharon's cough sounds bad.

·Near or Nearly?
·Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition. Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" of "almost but not quite." Here are some examples that demonstrate the differences between various uses of near and nearly.
·The moment of truth neared.
·Here neared is a verb in the past tense.
·Here nearly is an adverb that modifies the verb finished.
·The cat crept near.


·Scarcely and hardly are already negative adverbs. To add another negative term is redundant, because in English only one negative is ever used at a time
·They found scarecely any animals on the island. (not scarcely no...)
·Hardly anyone came to the party. (not hardly no one...)

·Here bad is an adjective that modifies the noun cough. Using the adverb badly here would not make sense, because it would mean her cough isn't very good at sounding.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:13:26

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-17 19:55 编辑

语法：同位语的标点符号

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Here are some examples.（这三个句子很有帮助）

The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
Here we do not put commas around the appositive, because it is essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "The popular US president was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We wouldn't know which president was being referred to.

John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.
Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We still know who the subject of the sentence is without the appositive.

John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband.
Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without the appositive.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:14:49

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-19 00:45 编辑

语法：不规则动词
In English, regular verbs consist of three main parts: the root form (present), the (simple) past, and the past participle.三种形式

三个表格（很重要）：https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=982710&page=1&extra=
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:15:02

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-19 00:50 编辑

语法：数词

Days and Years
December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965
A.D. 1066
in 1900
in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
the eighties, the twentieth century
the 1980's or the 1980s

Decimals and Percentages
a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.
two apples, six oranges, and three bananas

NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed

Write out numbers beginning sentences.
Six percent of the group failed.

NOT: 6% of the group failed.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.
Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who were born in the city. (may cause the reader to read '690' as one number.)
Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who were born in the city.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:15:13

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-19 19:43 编辑

语法：介词

One point in time
On is used with days:
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
Extended time
To express extended time, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from—to, from-until, during,(with)in
Place
To express notions of place, English uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at.
Higher than a point
To express notions of an object being higher than a point, English uses the following prepositions: over, above.
Lower than a point
To express notions of an object being lower than a point, English uses the following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below.
Close to a point
To express notions of an object being close to a point, English uses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.

与名词、动词搭配
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare
She took a quick glance at her reflection.(exception with mirror: She took a quick glance in the mirror.)
You didn't laugh at his joke.
I'm looking at the computer monitor.
We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
That pretty girl smiled at you.
Stop staring at me.
Of: approve, consist, smell
Of (or about): dream, think
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:15:34

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-19 19:51 编辑

语法：代名词

2. Agree in person

If you are writing in the "first person" ( I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" ( you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
只用一个人称，不要转换成其他

3. Refer clearly to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous.
NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)
NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)
NOT: Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is coming soon?)
NOT: George worked in a national forest last summer. This may be his life's work. (What word does "this" refer to?)
NOT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can refer to it. (What does "it" refer to, the sheet or your notebook?)
指代要清楚，指的具体对象是什么

·Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.
·Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.
·Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.
表格https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=982713&page=1&extra=

2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:

He is taller than I (am tall).
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).
Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.
Not: He is taller than me.
(Would you say, "than me am tall"?)

3. In formal and semiformal writing:

正式或非正式的说法
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
Formal: It is I.
Informal: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: Who am I talking to?
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:16:16

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-23 19:26 编辑

语法：主谓一致

This handout gives you several guidelines to help your subjects and verbs agree.

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
She and her friends are at the fair.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
The book or the pen is in the drawer.

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.

9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
In some cases, a sentence may call for the use of a plural verb when using a collective noun.
The crew are preparing to dock the ship.
This sentence is referring to the individual efforts of each crew member. The Gregg Reference Manual provides excellent explanations of subject-verb agreement (section 10: 1001).

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:16:44

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-23 19:20 编辑

语法：时态

Simple Present: They walk
Present Perfect: They have walked
Simple Past: They walked
Past Perfect: They had walked
Future: They will walk
Future Perfect: They will have walked

The most common auxiliaries are forms of "be," "can," "do," "may," "must," "ought," "shall," "will," "has," "have," "had," and they are the forms we shall use in this most basic discussion.

General guideline: Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or state is the same.不要在同一结构下转换时态
Examples:
1. The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers and streams.
Contains is present tense, referring to a current state; washed down is past, but should be present (wash down) because the minerals are currently continuing to wash down.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.

General guideline: Establish a primary tense for the main discourse, and use occasional shifts to other tenses to indicate changes in time frame.设置一个主要时态，利用时态转换来只是时间变化
Hints:
·Rely on past tense to narrate events and to refer to an author or an author's ideas as historical entities (biographical information about a historical figure or narration of developments in an author's ideas over time).
·Use present tense to state facts, to refer to perpetual or habitual actions, and to discuss your own ideas or those expressed by an author in a particular work. Also use present tense to describe action in a literary work, movie, or other fictional narrative. Occasionally, for dramatic effect, you may wish to narrate an event in present tense as though it were happening now. If you do, use present tense consistently throughout the narrative, making shifts only where appropriate.
·Future action may be expressed in a variety of ways, including the use of will, shall, is going to, are about to, tomorrow and other adverbs of time, and a wide range of contextual cues.

相关表格地址：https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=982716&page=1&extra=
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:16:57

语法38
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:17:09

语法39
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:17:41

语法40
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2009-12-24 02:18:02

真希望快快到语法41~加油
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-11 11:40:30

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-2-2 19:15 编辑

ISSUE汇总

153https://bbs.gter.net/thread-1050280-1-1.html

130https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=1050809&extra=

13https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=1038560&;extra=

50https://bbs.gter.net/thread-1051359-1-1.html

208https://bbs.gter.net/thread-1052323-1-1.html

104https://bbs.gter.net/thread-1056692-1-1.html
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-13 02:26:22

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-2-2 19:15 编辑

ARGUMENT汇总

ARGU2http://bbs.gter.ce.cn/bbs/viewthread.php?tid=1052548&;

147https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=1056693&amp;extra=page%3D1%26amp%3Bfilter%3Dtype%26amp%3Btypeid%3D102
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-13 02:26:57

chinglish是硬伤，盖层楼看《中式英语之鉴》吧！
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-14 00:54:09

杂货铺——各种帖收集
语法https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=959505&highlight
关于AW好网站https://bbs.gter.net/thread-709051-1-1.html
阅读能力基础自测https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=910464&highlight
机经收集https://bbs.gter.net/thread-808227-114-1.html
基础写作每日一讲https://bbs.gter.net/thread-930785-1-1.html
错别字收集帖https://bbs.gter.net/thread-981640-1-1.html
作者: 洋心月    时间: 2010-1-14 11:16:03

提示: 作者被禁止或删除 内容自动屏蔽
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-24 00:12:04

1.23
a sense of perspective 具有远见的
devastation 蹂躏，荒废
wild-west era 荒蛮时代
curb on （事情）被束缚在（……方面）
get liquidity support  顺利得到支持
state-backed 国家支持
making a decent fist of rewriting 得当地处理（某事）
dysfunctional 不正常的
doomed to 命中注定的
recoup 收回，取回
a self-fulfilling prophecy 自然会实现的
halfway house 中途歇脚的客栈（引申为暂时喘息的机会）
glorified 美其名曰的
to ring-fence 用栅栏围护的

comment
The motto "The government is best which governs least" seems to be not applicable in the Subprime Mortage Crisis last year, for it is necessary to exercise the governmental force when the whole nation is trapped in the economics delimma.The essay points that the relaitonship between the society and banks plays a significant role in addressing the problem and helping the US getting away from depression,however, the free market can not offer a morderate way to both investmental banks and the general, while it is time for Obama Administration to formulate constant stream of policies to keep a balance of two sides.

For a long-term run, the government should have a sense of perspective, instead of being curbed on political authority. After all, whether the banks could function well depends on domestic liquidity support rather than state-backed subsidy.
作者: 银落    时间: 2010-1-24 00:51:30

刚刚仔细看了一下。。很细致的日志。。赞一个。。
不过还是希望小灵按照我在帖子里发的要求那样写一下。。不用重新发帖。。接在这个日志后面写就行了。。》《。。
另外小灵辛苦下哈。。因为你看的东西比较多。。所以个人水平这里要多多描述下。。比如。。练了多少篇issue和argu。。peter的读了多少。。自己领会到什么程度。。草木语法的帖子看了多少。。掌握了多少。。单词背了几遍。。现在对单词是什么感觉。。这样我比较好总结。。也可以根据水平来策划下以后的工作量。。布置任务。。

最后。。提个建议。。小灵你看的很多。。但是我觉得你缺少总结。。这是其一。。其二。。可以说。。精华帖你已经浏览过不少了。。切记。。精华不可太多。。选择最适合自己的一种。。牢牢把握。。然后其他的全都抛弃掉。。这样才会精进。。

少而精+温故而知新。。以你这样的认真和毅力。。我觉得是没有问题的。。加油。。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-24 01:06:26

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-24 01:22 编辑

小灵的BASIC INFORMATION
考试时间：2.25
考试地点：鼎钧
ISSUE 写过5篇
ARGU 写过2篇，目前还在准备模板中（I和A都贴在日志里了）
草版的基础写作已经看完了，语法这两天就能看完
单词不知道背了几遍，我总结了没记住的单词，大约2500个（红宝总共多少个单词？），目前正在分析韦氏里的相关解释
PETER是什么？我没看过哎╮(╯▽╰)╭comment 和debate我得闲了就看一些，但是没有笔记……
杂志会看TIME，目前从大讲堂里获益不少，也开始看长难句了
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-24 01:14:42

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-2-3 01:16 编辑

ECO汇总
https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=1054685&extra=
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-24 01:23:14

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-2-3 01:19 编辑

ECO DEBATE
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-949685-2-1.html


小灵DEBATING
作者: 银落    时间: 2010-1-24 08:09:30

本帖最后由 银落 于 2010-1-25 09:38 编辑

welcome~。。。
keep in mind
淡定+定时总结。。
不要看自己读了多少好东西。。而是要看自己从这些里面掌握了多少。。得到了多少。。
加油。。~

组里的作业已经布置了。。在招新贴的第二楼有更新。。按要求先做起来哈。。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-26 22:01:55

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-31 01:39 编辑

https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=203735
追星剑特训：基本元素

识别关键字
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=200638

比较级
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=201072
举个例子。当初在分析跑题文章的时候拿过一篇issue73做例子：题目说imagination is more important than knowledge，文章给了个回应叫做both are important云云，对题目进行了彻底的藐视。再往下看，人家的b1写imagination的重要性，b2写knowledge的重要性，b3写only the interaction will do us good云云——整个一篇下来，连一点儿补救的机会都没有。完全跑题。——人家要的就是做这个比较，对more的response在哪里？？？从thesis到body，等效于只字未提。

事实上，可以猜得到，原作者的本意是强调imagination和knowledge“都重要”，“都不可少”，但是这件事到了英文就有点麻烦。我们在中文里面说“哪件衣服好？”“两件衣服都好”的时候，往往imply的是“两件衣服同样好”——在这里潜在的给出了“比较”；但是到了英文，如果说“both of them are important”，这里面挖地三尺从北京挖到阿根廷也找不出来“they are of the same importance”的含义来。前者是对彼此的独立定性，后者才涉及比较。如果按照中文的“两个都好”来写“both are good”，中文的潜台词可才没带过去。这也是一个超典型的语言背景背叛思维的例子。
============================================
个人觉得分析很受用，识别关键字很重要，但是ISSUE题目中也存在逻辑关系，这些不能忽视，有时可以用来充实正反论证。

得寸进尺
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=201436
issue226. "people are mistaken when they assume that the problems they confront are more complex and challenging than the problems faced by their predecessors. This illusion is eventually dispelled with increased knowledge and experience."

上文的issue226的破题，简单说来就是：题目前半提出人们的看法是个illusion，是吗？——是/不是/取决于历史条件/社会背景…；后半提出illusion的消除，能消掉吗？——能/不能/不一定/根本不是illusion何谈的“消”……潜在写法的丰富程度根本不亚于刚才分析的issue52，只要明确破题思路，做出正面response，找到支持你的看法的论据，一篇文章的构架就基本出来了。
============================================
题目中存在的“陷阱”既是使文章“陷入僵局”的重点，同时也是提出refute,然后加以驳斥的好机会，所以在对现象的描述中，要注意是否使用了有偏向性的词语。


事实与倾向
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=201853
1．倾向不能拿来证明事实
2．不涉及价值判断的事实不能拿来证明倾向
============================================
之前总认为《5.5》里面对“事实类”的题目划分很无厘头，觉得跟“建议类”的题目太相似，不好分析，只能跟着讲解走，但是同时又觉得没道理……现在看来分类是正确的，事实是既成的，而倾向带有感情色彩，比起事实来要有更进一步的倾向性分析。

Not But选择题
issue5. "A nation should require all its students to study the same national curriculum until they enter college rather than allow schools in different parts of the nation to determine which academic courses to offer."
必然是从这里入手。Why a nation should require all its students to study the same national curriculum？
上次谈到，对倾向性陈述进行支持必然要有涉及价值判断的事实性陈述，具体一点就是判断a nation到底should还是不should需要有一个判断标准。
＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝
AWINTRO不说究竟谁对谁错，但在凡事都是有缘由的——无论是哪种立场，只要说出了理由，倾向即成立（不过个人认为极端语气和立场还是不可取，因为会让判卷子的人读着不舒服），最好的支持就是事例，我觉得历史事件要比个人经历来得有说服力，因为个人经历ＭＳ有点散漫的感觉……不过找历史事件挺难的，只好尽最大努力。

Conditioning 拆分
说到case by case，就必然要说一说case by case应该怎么写。原先在讨论“一边倒”和“中庸”的时候就存在各种各样的误解，包括对case by case的误解。实际上，把一个issue题目写成case analysis是一点问题都没有的，关键要看“怎么写”成case analysis. 正确的做法应当是：明确对case进行区分和界定的这个“纲”，并且严格按照“纲”来展开分析。例如上面的No matter what the situation，如果从这里入手，肯定是提出situation不同。有的人可能写成：Thesis : Different situations different conclusions, for example when A … how ever when B的样子。而同样的内容有的人可能写成：Thesis: The conclusion depend on a specific quality of the situation. When quality=A ….. However when quality=B … 在这里：后者对situation的quality的明确，对文章有很大的提升和帮助，效果就比前者大为加强。可以看出，前者只是识别了不同的场合下的happening，而后者从开始就提出场合不同背后实质性的性质差异，然后依照这一差异进行展开。
说得比较晦涩。实际体会一下两种TS
1．In some fields people must depend on outsiders….. However, in some other fields people need not to…..
2．In fields derived from the cross linking and interaction of the fundamentals people have to depend…. However in those fields so fundamental that they are self-sustainable…..
=======================================
这是“知其然知其所以然”的最好例证，如果只是列出“在A情况下应该……，而在B情况下应该……”那么就是假定看文章的人已经知道判断A和B的标准是什么了……我自己还没用过拆分，所以一定要注意

没有明显的绝对化关键字，照样有能拆的。自力更生艰苦奋斗，挖掘能拆的字眼：
issue115. "It is through the use of logic and of precise, careful measurement that we become aware of our progress. Without such tools, we have no reference points to indicate how far we have advanced or retreated."
看看这里的progress——不同类型的progress是不是都要用logic measurement？是不是都能用logic measurement？这么一拆，跟issue116的效果也差不多了。
==========================================
“同理“题目分析

Conditioning其实就是这样：如果说写balance写两者都必须两者都不可少比较绕的话，conditioning无疑写起来又方便又舒服。一定条件下A成立，一定条件下A不成立，前面这个分支一搭好了，务必把这个“一定条件”是“什么条件”给说清楚了，后面就只管往里填就是。

但是注意了:
issue102 "For better or worse, education is a process that involves revising the ideas, beliefs, and values people held in the past."
这道题，恐怕没人会去拆ideas，beliefs和values——事实上从没见人这么写过。必须指明的是拆分的选择是相当个人化的和单题化的，应当随机应变。而且例如issue83，写成一边倒，一点问题都没有——如果你是这个论点的强烈追随者。
===========================================
这跟我最近写的28"Students should memorize facts only after they have studied the ideas, trends, and concepts that help explain those facts. Students who have learned only facts have learned very little."很像，当时无论如何都觉得把ideas,trends and concepts分开看不可行，最后只好一并broadly defined了……

Supreme 练习
作文题目超级长
issue108. "In many countries it is now possible to turn on the television and view government at work. Watching these proceedings can help people understand the issues that affect their lives. The more kinds of government proceedings --- trials, debates, meetings, etc --- that are televised, the more society will benefit."
==========================================
好，开始练习了。长题目会容易产生ARGU的感觉，因为逻辑上的错误会更加明显一点的说。第一句是阐述事实，没什么可讨论的，讨论只能画蛇添足。正面观点是“看这些政府办公过程可以让人们了解这些影响他们生活的事务”：是一种pulic对official的监督，因为历史上曾经因为监督不力产生了很多丑闻。负面观点是“不应该如此，因为有些政府事务不能公开”“即使通过televised也无法给society带来benefit”或者“benefit不一定要televised才能实现”


issue114. "Humanity has made little real progress over the past century or so. Technological innovations have taken place, but the overall condition of humanity is no better. War, violence, and poverty are still with us. Technology cannot change the condition of humanity."
==========================================
这篇算高频，写详细一点
分析：技术革新----->没有带来人类处境的整体变好----->人类几乎没有进步，战争……表现就是----->技术无法改变人类处境
整体观点：同意speaker所说
1.（+）技术革新带来了物质文明的丰富是事实
2.（—）但是就是技术是人类陷入各种僵局并无法自拔
   1）技术解决了海上使用开采问题，但是引发了国家间对领海的争夺。eg.海湾战争
       技术带来了工业化和流水线生产，却让食品变得越来越不安全。eg.《Food Company》
   2）从更深层面来说，技术带来了物质文明，正是这点使精神层面造成缺失，人类在思想与道德上退化。eg.abortion\clone
3.小（+）大（—）技术可以在未来发展得更加先进时改变人类处境，但是（—）观点历史经验告诉我们，每当技术被发明并被使用时，都会带来unexpected不好的影响，而这种影响在当初我们只看到它的好处，并发明它时被忽略了，历史如此，没有理由相信未来会解决。
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-26 22:02:12

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-2-3 02:08 编辑

追星剑特训：题材练习
https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=203735

2.1教育类
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=132579
1.目的


不论哪一类的题目，教育的目的绝对都是一个关键的话题，直接讨论的题目也不算少数。就我看来目的要分作用事物的方面来看，侧重点会不一样，而目的的实现与否，则直接关系到教育的效率。讨论的时候，既可以分开并列，也可以一层一层递进。


对社会： 我觉得有两方面，一是为社会输送有用的人才，通过他们所学得知识促进社会的进步prepare new generations of citizens to function in society；一是塑造人们的品德和约束他们的行为，以保证社会处在平和中而维持其稳定。


对文化； 通过教育，人类的文化遗产才得以保存与流传甚至通过一定的修正才发扬光大，促使社会也进步，而对于文化中与政府所控制的社会的稳定有一定冲突的是否会会遭到抑制甚至排除我则表示保留的肯定，因为教育的施放者的关系，在不同学校，不同老师（包括家庭，社会）的情况的会略有不同。（这个处理方式不错）



2.内容


内容方面其实有很多的分类方法，但总的来说可以先分为两部分，一部分是教授的知识类课程，包括自然科学，人类学，社会科学等等有着完整体系的学术或技术；另一部分则是关系到学生思想行为及品德方面的传授，它包括参加体会生活，对怀疑别人和承认错误的意识及勇气的培养还有信仰的选择和坚持。内容的各方面都有其特定的作用，但是在不同的情况下的平衡很重要，题目中的论述对于不同的目的，可以做出不同的选择。还有，教育中参与的各部分的反应也和重要，这样就至少有两个方面的话题了。

2.2政治类
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=172468好帖好帖，就是写不成英文=。=



2.3学习类

最重要的是学到了这个很好的破题方法
https://bbs.gter.net/showthread.php?s=&threadid=130665


How children are socialized today determines the destiny of society. Unfortunately, we have not yet learned how to raise children who can help bring about a better society.
破题
What is a society? How is it determined? Are there shared characteristcs between societies? Who determines or controls the major institutions in a society and why? What about minority society?

What is socialization? What does it consist of? Why? When does socilization start? Or end? Why?

What does destiny have to do with anything? Using 'destiny' in this passages assumes what?

Who is the 'we'? In any society there are multiple kinds of groups of different peoples. Does the 'we' include voices from all of them? Why or why not? Who controls or suppresses those other voices? Why?

What does 'better society' mean - democray, equality between men and women, voting, free press, freedom of association? When the concept 'better society' is used, if it is not to be empty, includes discussion of all these other concepts and others. How are children taught those? How are adults taught those?

作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-26 22:03:29

追星剑特训：综合练习
作者: 小灵易碎    时间: 2010-1-31 03:19:12

本帖最后由 小灵易碎 于 2010-1-31 03:52 编辑

66的笔记

文中链接笔记
https://bbs.gter.net/thread-976493-1-1.html

.我们经常会说一个人的论证很“单薄”，就是因为他省略了很多应该要说的东西，你这段其实也是一样的，从整个段落的表达来看，你要批的实际上是“新的JAZZ CLUB不一定会有这么多客人”，基于这个主题，我帮你完善一个分论点你学习一下这种论述方式好了：比如在 “The nearest jazz club is 65 miles faraway, doesn' t mean there is no other kind of club which also plays jazz music even if it is not a special jazz club.”这句话后面加上“The jazz fans might be accustomed to play in the clubs which do not prohibit jazz music. And even if the new special jazz club is built up, they might be unwilling to switch places for they do not want to change their old customs. Therefore, whether the new jazz music club can attract all jazz fans does not merely depend on its location”,接下来在论述你的other factors，这个部分就需要你自己去补充了。


https://bbs.gter.net/viewthread.php?tid=927873&highlight=
事实上，任何一个论述，都是有一套完整的前提A，推论B和背景C的，正是这三个东西加上一些推理性的词语，构成了整个逻辑的链接，一般来讲就是：A à B(基于C的背景下)，无论ABC哪一个出了问题，都无法支持这个推理，现在我们所面临的最大问题就是：思维僵化，只会从A当中找突破口。其实如果是从B或C为基点出发，找到一些与A有关的可能性，同样能够推翻作者的推理。


从上面两个例子我们可以看出，当各位焦头烂额的想不到合适的论证方式的时候，不妨从背景和结果的角度来重新审核你所要批驳的内容，从而启发灵感，使文章更加有说服力。在熟练的分析题目的段落逻辑结构以后，可以很快的明确A,B,C的关键词从而综合的考虑辩证角度。当然，对于投机的同学来讲，很不幸，这个是需要专门训练之后才能达到熟练的一个东西，短时间内是无法速成了。
==========================================================
开始接触ARGU时，总是苦于“只找到了问题所在，而没找到如何扩展和解释”，如果早看这帖就好了……不用等了这么久才自己悟出来……不过现在知道了总是好的~~^++++^y


作者: AdelineShen    时间: 2010-2-1 11:53:40

来取66大叔的笔记，(*^__^*) 嘻嘻……



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