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GRE Argument 写作基本要素 及 实例解说
以下资料颇多，请配合大纲模式、或线上模式( 开启文件引导模式 )，以了解资料安排方式，以利检阅。
简介
1、段落基本要素 : 如何发展段落? 要不要作模版? 如何作模版 ?
2、文章基本要素 : 首段、尾段写些什么? 「2,3,4 主段落」的方向如何选择? 如何铺排?
3、各类谬误实例解说 : 依谬误分类，配合范文解说。
4、句型 : 常用句型。
段落基本要素
看过 ETS 的评分标准后，应该都知道即使举出了许多的谬误，但若每个谬误都只是轻轻点到, 仍然不会高分。 所以了解 一个「谬误」 (通常为一个段落 ) 如何 well-development , 就是一个很重要的事了。
以下是解析 Arco 范文的段落而得的8个要素。
其中最重要的为 「4、具体的他因、替代性看法句」，看看6分( 满分 ) 的文章，在这部份都充份发挥; 甚至有时一个段落只有2行字，这2行所发展的也就是这部份。
要素 5,6,7,8 看实际情况及时间决定是否要加入。
8个要素看似很复杂，其实了解之后不过就是两个概念。
1、一个普通的 argu题目( topic )其长度约10行， 阅卷者如何知道你这个段落是在攻击题目原文的那个部份?什么错误? 所以指出原文谬误之处及谬误型态，常为段落之首 ( 有时谬误在原文中所指涉的是特定名相，这时引题即可省略 )，也可算是这段落的主题句，这部份有写到表示有初步认识到原文的谬误。 在8要素中包含 1, 2, 3 引题、定罪、罪名解释。
2、指出攻击对象及问题后，就要强化使其有说服力。这部份算是段落的精华所在，其架构可事先模块化，但具体内容细节则不易。
有时看到一些模版段落，硬加了一堆字在引题部份，若是具体他因部份没有足够行数与之相衬，看起来奇怪乏味，而分数也不会高。
1. 引题 :
2. 定罪 :
3. 罪名解释 :
不甚建议。即使要用，适度的1句或2 句就够了。
范例1 : 模版讲义。 ( 有些太过了 )
4. 具体的他因、替代性看法句 :
5. 彻底颠覆 :
在 A --> B 的论述中，不但不是A导致B的好现象 ( 4. 的工作 )，甚至A 还会起相反的破坏作用。
6. 提出建设性方案 :
7. 怀疑作者动机 :
8. 小结 :
见下文章基本要素 的小结段
文章基本要素
首段:
引题 :
包含原题结论、支持论点。
批评 :
指出原题的错误。( 用几个描述性的形容词 )
引导 :
1. 说明应该要仔细检查，或 经过彻底检查后发现了一些错误。
2. 给出以下批评的几个方向 ( 也就是 「2,3,4 主段落的方向 」)。
「2,3,4 主段落的方向」 ? :
也就是主结构，即全文如何开展。常用的方法如下:
1. 依原文的论据 ( 即行文次序 )：
适度切割，分段反驳。
2. 依原文结论 :
有时文章会出现一堆证据，及3个结论。如果3 个「结论的重要性」差不多，即可依此3 个结论( 及相关证据 )，形成3个主段落。
如何判断「结论的重要性」? ：
依相关证据的数目，及出现在文章中的行数，及文意决定。
3. 依特定要素 ：
如商业题，有时即可依 竞争对手、消费者心态、价格政策..等为主轴，展开攻击。
4. 依特定 logic 结构 ：
如东施题, survey 题
5. 依比较 :
整个题目就是一个比较，2选1等，此时可用 point by point , 或 先讲A再讲B .
「尾段」 :
小结 ? 废话 ? --必要性的冗言
段1
In the second place, the mere fact that the rate of cure at the Saluda hospital is higher than at MegaviUe's hospital proves nothing about the quality of care at either hospital. It is entirely possible that more Saluda patients suffer from curable problems than Megaville patients do. Without considering this possibility the author cannot justifiably rely on curerates to draw any conclusions about comparative quality of care.
without considering / without ruling out
注意第三句。 第一句 指出错误，第二句指出具体的可能替代性状况。到此说明完毕，但是太短了，于是加了一句算是小结论的废话 ( 因为没有给出新的或更具体的信息，故名废话 )。在攻击点有限的情况下，不失为一必要性的冗言。
再冗言的说一下 : 上文中的第三句的句意是 : without 第2句，则第1句不可。
只有简单的 2句话，须要这样的整理吗？
****** 段落加小结论的情形：
1. 说明式小结 : 所给的信息与 所要申论的方向不易连结或理解时的。
2. 总结式小结 : 当段落充份发挥，句数多，或文意已转到较远的方面，这时用小结拉回主题，并算是整理。
3. 加强式小结 : 为了修辞、或强化某论点、或其它目的。
*******
段2 [引题 ] [ 小结 ]
Another problem with the argument is that the speaker provides no evidence that the proposed advertising techniques will have the intended effect. Perhaps fewer men than women notice dental advertisements. Or perhaps the proposed advertising techniques will have the opposite effect--by calling attention to the very sorts of images that cause distress and fainting. The speaker must address these possibilities and rule them out before we can accept the recommendation.
最后句为 小结
其它小结句子
Either scenario / Any of the scenarios , if true, would seriously undermine the manager's contention that KNOW should discontinue R&R programming.
各类谬误实例解说
「例证」 的反驳段 :
心法总纲 :
要支持一个论述或结论，必须要有一个或数个证据。然而，
1. 证据的基本形式是什么? 或者证据以什么形态出现 ?
2. 为什么题库中有那么多的东施题及科学研究题 ?
型态
(1) A 成功 ，所以B要向A 学习。
(2) A 比 B 好，所以B要向A 学习。
(1) A 成功
段1
Finally, the mere fact that one certain airplane manufacturer adopted a similar plan with some success is scant evidence that this car company will succeed if it follows the manager's plan. The memo provides no information about how many airplanes the airplane manufacturer produced. Nor does the memo identify what constituted "success" for the airplane manufacturer. Perhaps that company considered itself successful by producing only an additional 10% more airplanes, or by merely managing to avoid bankruptcy. In short, as it stands the anecdotal evidence about the airplane company is far too vague to lend meaningful support to the manager's argument. [ a-216 Arco ]
在题目中，此种例证的描述通常很短，即所提供的资料很少，所以常可用上文方式。
1. provides no information about ....
2. Nor does the memo identify " X ".
段2
Finally, it is unwarranted to infer from the success of all-news stations in nearby dries that KNOW will also succeed by following the same format. Those stations might owe their success to their powerful transmitters, popular newscasters, or other factors. Besides, the very success of these stations suggests that the area's radio listeners might favor those well-established news providers over the fledgling all-news KNOW. [ a-225 Arco ]
第2 句改为 下句较有力: Those stations' success may be due to their X, Y, or other factors.
但论证的development 尚不完整( 因为无上文之接续 ), 须加入作者认为这例子所要指出的有利点 : 成功是因为 news 受欢迎。试改如下 :
The author believes that their success is resulted from the popularity of news in the area, but the success may be due to their X, Y, or other factors.
或
Their success may not be due to the popularity of news in the area assumed by the author, but due to their X, Y, or other factors.
(2) A 比 B 好
段3
Finally, a series of problems with the argument arise from the scant statistical information on which it relies. In comparing the number of accidents at Alta and Panoply, the author fails to consider that the per-worker accident rate might reveal that Alta is actually safer than Panoply, depending on the total number of workers at each company. Second, perhaps accident rates at the two companies last year were aberrations, and during other years Alta's accident rate was no greater, or even lower, than Panoply's rate. Or perhaps Panoply is not representative of industrial companies generally, and that other companies with shorter work shifts have even higher accident rates. In short, since the argument relies on very limited statistical information I cannot take the author's recommendation seriously.
One problem with the argument is that it fails to consider the fact that
a series of problems with the argument arise from
第2 句是 数据比例, 第3 句是 Survey时间, 第4句是 survey代表性 , 错误模拟
「2 选1 」 的反驳段 :
段 [ 二物比好坏 ]
[错误比较]
As a first salvo against A: Mcadam, the author observes that A: . By comparison, B: .. At first blush, this seems to reflect badly on A . But after a monent's reflection, it becomes a clear that the comparison may not be fair. It is entirely possible that A: Route 101 is far more heavily trafficked--perhaps by heavier, more punishing vehicles-- than is Route 66. The fact that A的缺点: the road is falling apart is still cause for concern. But it is not legitimate to compare the quality of the roads if they do not receive the same volume and type of traffic. Had it received the same level of use as A: Route 101, B: might also be in pretty sorry shape. [No.223 Merica P138]
论证到 It is entirely possible 这句时，已够完整，然而可再补强如下:
注意此句 But 之后2句，语意的发展方式。
末句可算是 "彻底颠覆"句。
「survey」 的反驳段 :
段 [ survey时间 ]
[ 定罪名 ] + [ 罪名解释 ] ------ 没有 [ 替代性看法 ] 的段落
First of all, the argument does not indicate how much time passed between the two studies. During a sufficiently long interim period the demographic makeup of LeeviUe might have changed, or the reading habits of the first study's respondents might have changed. In other words, the longer the time between studies the less reliable the conclusion that respondents in the first study misrepresented their reading habits.
上文 也没有 [ 引题 ], 或者 "the two studies " 就是了。
段 [ sample数 ] [ sample回报比例 ]
Finally, the reliability of the first study rests on its statistical integrity. The argument fails to indicate what portion of the people surveyed actually responded; the smaller this portion, the less reliable the results. Nor does the argument indicate how many people were surveyed, or whether the sample was representative of Leeville's general population. Again, the smaller the sample, the less reliable the results.
段 [ survey代表性 ] [ 数据比例-无比较 ]
Thirdly, the mere fact that most respondents to a recent survey considered EZ's service satisfactory provides little support to the author's recommendation. The author fails to provide assurances that these respondents are representative of the overall population of people whose trash EZ collects. Moreover, even if that population is generally satisfied it is entirely possible that they would be even more satisfied with ABC's services. [ a-007 Arco ]
「东施」 的反驳段 :
A 需要向 例证B 学习。 以下四段来自 [ a-139 Arco ]
段 [ A,B 二者的差异 , 可模拟吗 ]
First of all, the argument unfairly assumes that because ( the performance of auto-racing mechanics improves after the seminar ) so will the performance of aircraft mechanics. Common sense tells me that, even though aircraft and auto mechanics serve similar functions, aircraft repair and maintenance is far more involved than car repair and maintenance. Thus, a seminar that improves the performance of auto mechanics will not necessarily improve that of aircraft mechanics.
even though 后面是原文提供的理由 ; far more involved 是作者的 common sense
thus 此处的小结，是有需要的，否则语意交代不清楚。( 但有时会将该句直接放在 assumes that 的子句中 ; 或放在第二句 , 用 however 引导 )
段 [ A有学习的必要吗? A很烂吗? ]
Secondly, the argument assumes that the performance of Get-Away mechanics is subject to improvement. However, it is entirely possible that their performance level is already very high and that the seminar will afford little or no improvement. Perhaps Get-Away's mechanics have already attended a similar seminar, or perhaps they meet higher standards than the ones imposed on auto-racing mechanics.
段 [ 学习例证 B 成功的原因 ]
Thirdly, the argument concludes from the mere fact that the performance of auto-racing mechanics improved after the seminar that the seminar was responsible for this improvement. However, it is possible that some other factor, such as improved diagnostic technology or more stringent inspection requirements, was the reason for the improved performance. Without ruling out these and other such possibilities, I cannot accept the memo's final conclusion that enrolling in the seminar will improve the performance of Get-Away's mechanics as well.
段 [ 从 action 推到目的 ]
时原文没有说 "特定目的"，所以只要含糊反驳采该action ,会不会 " success " , 这部份的语意已含括在 二者差异部份 ( B采 action 成功，所以A 也成功 ) ;
然而 Even if 采该action 成功, 是否会 达到 "特定目的" ?
Finally, the argument concludes without adequate evidence that improved performance on the part of Get-Away's mechanics will result in greater customer satisfaction and therefore greater profits for Get-Away. Admittedly, if a low performance level results in accidents,customer satisfaction and profits will in all probability decrease. Otherwise, however, improved mechanic performance will in all likelihood have no bearing on customer satisfaction; in other words, customers are unlikely to be aware of the level of performance of an aircraft's mechanics unless accidents occur.
「其它」 反驳段 :
段
Even if Williamsville's overall crime rate has declined in the last four months, the decline is not necessarily attributable to the curfew. Perhaps WilliamsviUe has also enhanced its police enforcement, or established social programs that help minors avoid delinquency.
段 [ 数据比例 ]
Finally, the mere fact that the Saluda hospital receives fewer patient complaints than MegaviUe's hospital proves nothing about either efficiency or quality of care. Even though the number of complaints is smaller, the percentage of patients complaining might be higher. Also, MegaviUe's staff might openly encourage patient feedback while Saluda's does not. This scenario accords with my observation that for-profit organizations are generally more concerned with customer satisfaction than non-profit organizations are.
段 [ 开设新店 ]
When make an important business decision like the plan to open an additional drugstore in the argument, we should consider not only motivation of the buyer but also the situation of the provider, requirement of the market and space for expanding. unfortunately, the arguer failed to take into account such factors. What's the total population in the region? Whether or not Medicine Inc. is in debt? How much fund does it have? Have there any other drugstore there? The answer to these questions are all essence elements to an business decision . To neglect such elements might lead to terrible mistake, What if one drugstore has already satisfied the whole need of the region? What if another drugstore have a preponderant customers? If the answer is "yes", to open an additional drugstore is surely not a wise decision, even worse since it may cause problems such as ( unmobility ? ) of the fund and increasing of the pay out . [ 孙远作文书范文 a-073 ]
句 [ 错误解释 ]
The author assumes that . This is a specific, and perhaps unwarranted, interpretation of the scientists' comment that the acids "play a key role in mental health." [ Merica -P.99 )
段 [ 错误解释 ]
The arguer also misperceived some concepts and such misperception makes the conclusion he draws open to doubt : what the business analysts mentioned in the argument stated is that drugstore's profits are unlikely to decline appreciably, however what the arguer implied is another thing : that the profits will increase. besides, unlikely to decline appreciably does not means nondecline, there might be still slight decrease. misunderstanding these concepts may leads us to a totally different conclusion. [ 孙远作文书范文 a-073 ]
注意: 文法有错。
段
The writer then mentions that our ascestors .........,than we do. He claims they were less likely to suffer from depression, and assumes that the omega-3 fatty acids are responsible. This assumption may not be warranted. Many other factors might explain our ancestor's lower rates of depression, just as factors other than high fish consumption may explain why Japanese and Taiwanese people are less likely to suffer from depression than are Americans. [ Merica P.99 ]
让步句
yyy ---> xxx ， 再由原因 yyy, 模拟到另一件事
Even if xxx, it is not necessarily that yyy is responsible. Perhaps ......
Even if xxx, it is possible that factors other than yyy is responsible. One factor is ... .
Even if xxx, it is possible that other factors such as zzz1,zzz2,zzz3, is responsible.
yyy ---> xxx ， 再由结果 xxx, 产生到另一件事 uuu
Even if xxx, it is not necessarily that uuu will follows. Perhaps ......
Even if xxx, it is not necessarily a warn sign: .
句型
英文实力好的同学，以下请略过不看。
「引题」「定罪」句
(1) evidence 因型 ( 因 作主词 )
A is scant evidence of B.
A is scant evidence that B.
A provides little support to B.
is weak evidence of / proves nothing about /
(2) evidence 人型 ( 人 作主词 )
人 provide no evidence that ( A--> B )
人 concludes without adequate evidence
Another problem with the argument is that the speaker provides no evidence that A ：the proposed advertising techniques will have B ：the intended effect .
参考 (4)
(3) 推论性动词型
It is unwarranted to infer from A that B.
人 concludes from A that B
It is unwarranted to say B because of A. ( 有时会混淆! because of 词组 修饰 B 或 修饰 to say ? 最好移到句首 )
人 cannot justifiably rely on A to draw any conclusions about B
(4) claim 型
The author's claim that ( A is responsible for B ) is unwarranted/dubious.
( ) 中可替换成无数的标准因果句
claim that / that / the fact that
(5) assumption 型 ( 但有时,要能看出作者的假设所在 )
A or A--> B ： the speaker's recommendation relies on two unsubstantiated assumptions about
参考 (4)
assumption / assume /
(6) 双句型
The author claims / believes / says that B ,because A. This is unwarranted. / This is not always the case.
「替代性看法」句
(1) It is possible that......
(2) Perhaps... / Or perhaps... / Second, perhaps....
(3) The author( argument ) + fails to consider that .... + (2)
/ fails to consider the possibility that ...... + (2)
/ fails to account for the possibility that...... + (2)
/ fails to take into account other facts that might contribute to the result that 果.
It is likely that ; it is also likely that [ 模版讲义, 勿用! ]
(4) The author provide no information about .
They had to take the baby into account when they wanted to go out.
「因果」句
有人做主词 :
人 attribute/ owe 因片 to 果片
He attributed his good health to exercise.
We owe to Newton the principle of gravitation.
人 infer from 因片 that 果句
人 infer 果片 from 因片
无人做主词 :
动词
因 is responsible for 果
lead to / result in
Heavy rains were responsible for the shortage of vegetables.
果 resulted from 因
be the result of / be attributable to
介系词词组
because of / owing to 因片 , 果句
Owing to the rain the match was cancelled.
连接词、副词
because 因句 , 果句 |
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发表于 2004-8-10 11:02:33
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1.自我介绍2.你的专业背景和工作经历可以怎么帮助你学习这个项目3.职业规划4.工作中遇到的困难，你是如何应...
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