1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by dingyi0311——改变从现在开始

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

What is a thesis?
A thesis statement declares what you believe and what you intend to prove. （主题句说明你的观点和要论证的论点）A good thesis statement makes the difference between a thoughtful research project and a simple retelling of facts.（事实和论据不是主题句！）
A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a writer are setting out to tell them. The kind of thesis that your paper will have will depend on the purpose of your writing.
A good tentative thesis will help you focus your search for information. But don't rush! You must do a lot of background reading before you know enough about a subject to identify key or essential questions. You may not know how you stand on an issue until you have examined the evidence. You will likely begin your research with a working, preliminary or tentative thesis which you will continue to refine until you are certain of where the evidence leads.
The thesis statement is typically located at the end of your opening paragraph. (The opening paragraph serves to set the context for the thesis.) 注意，这里明确的指出了，主题句（thesis statement）必须出现在开头段（opening paragraph）的最后！
主题句一般出现在开头的最后一两句．这个规定我搜索了不下２０个网站，都是这样要求的，可见，这个规定大家最后遵守，我想，阅卷人一定会在你的Introduction里边的最后一两句找你的Thesis，你就是要确保他在这里找到！
Remember, your reader will be looking for your thesis. Make it clear, strong, and easy to find.使主题句清晰！
对于AW，主题句属于：
Argumentative Thesis Statements
In an argumentative paper, you are making a claim about a topic and justifying this claim with reasons and evidence. This claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation. However, this claim must be a statement that people could possibly disagree with, because the goal of your paper is to convince your audience that your claim is true based on your presentation of your reasons and evidence. An argumentative thesis statement will tell your audience:
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your claim or assertion
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the reasons/evidence that support this claim
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the order in which you will be presenting your reasons and evidence
Example: Barn owls' nests should not be eliminated from barns because barn owls help farmers by eliminating insect and rodent pests.
A reader who encountered this thesis would expect to be presented with an argument and evidence that farmers should not get rid of barn owls when they find them nesting in their barns.
Questions to ask yourself when writing an argumentative thesis statement:
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What is my claim or assertion?
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What are the reasons I have to support my claim or assertion?
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In what order should I present my reasons?

二、什么是好的主题句的属性？
Attributes of a good thesis:

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It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree. A strong thesis is provocative; it takes a stand and justifies the discussion you will present.
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It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned.
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It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything about …” Instead of music, think "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about it. （注意，主题不要假，大，空，要具体针对问题！）
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It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. （我记得是谁又曾经说过assert是个贬义？？所以说，有了根据，再发表意见！）Note: Be flexible. The evidence may lead you to a conclusion you didn't think you'd reach. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
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It provides the reader with a map to guide him/her through your work.
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It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments
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It avoids vague language (like "it seems").
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It avoids the first person. ("I believe," "In my opinion") （强烈注意，不要使用第一人称！！！！）
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It should pass the So what? or Who cares? test (Would your most honest friend ask why he should care or respond with "but everyone knows that"?) For instance, "people should avoid driving under the influence of alcohol," would be unlikely to evoke any opposition. （不要说那些大家都知道的废话，要有可质疑性，可辩论性．）
·
附：什么是the So what? or Who cares? test：
The "So What?" Test
Whenever you plan on writing a research paper, there is an extremely important point that you must constantly keep in the forefront of your mind--even English teachers frequently mention it as something students fail to do time and time again. What is it? To be sure to choose a topic worth arguing about or exploring. This means to construct a thesis statement or research question about a problem that is still debated, controversial, up in the air.(悬而未决)
So arguing that drinking and driving is dangerous-- while you could find a ton of evidence to support your view --would be pretty worthless nowadays. Who would want to read something they already knew? You wouldn't be persuading them of anything and all your work would be pretty meaningless.
What this means is that during the topic-formulating stage and again now, always keep asking "SO WHAT?", "WHO CARES?" or to paraphrase the famous Canadian journalist Barbara Frum: "Tell me something new about something I care about."
That will automatically make your paper significant and interesting both for you to write and the reader to study.
总结一下：
主题句的dos and don’ts
Dos:
表明立场，具体，并且中心明确，表明自己的观点和结论，出现在开头段的末尾，同时提示读者作者的行文思路．
Don’ts:
不要说废话，说空话，说大话，不要出现第一人称，不要含糊不清．

公式：

Specific topic + Attitude/Angle/Argument = Thesis

What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis

三、如何检验自己写好的主题句是否合格？

Try these five tests:

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Does the thesis  inspire a reasonable reader to ask, "How?" or Why?" 吸引读者思考
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Would a reasonable reader NOT respond with "Duh!" or "So what?" or "Gee, no kidding!" or "Who cares?" 避免出现so what问题
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Does the thesis  avoid general phrasing and/or sweeping words such as "all" or "none" or "every"? 避免绝对的论调
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Does the thesis lead the reader toward the topic sentences (the subtopics needed to prove the thesis)? 主题句是否引导了下文的分论点或者段主题？
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Can the thesis be adequately developed in the required length of the paper or project? 主题句是否可以适合被展开论述？
If you cannot answer "YES" to these questions, what changes must you make in order for your thesis to pass these tests?

下面是一些好的主题句的例子：
E-coli contamination should not happen.
The causes of the Civil War were economic, social, and political.
The Simpsons represents the greatest animated show in the history of television.
The Simpsons treats the issues of ethnicity, family dynamics, and social issues effectively.
Often dismissed because it is animated, The Simpsons treats the issue of ethnicity more powerfully than didthe critically praised All In The Family.
Although many parents of teens struggling with body image may blame television models and other such stars, these body issues and their disorders stem back to their daughters' younger days of pigtails and Barbies.

Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s.

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

四、如何写出好的主题句？（思维的步骤）
１．Rank with justification　考虑重要性
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Most important to least important
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Least important to most important
2.Contrasts (of perspectives of sources) 对比，考虑流行和反对观点
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Although newspapers at the time claimed ……, the most significant cause/explanation/reason, etc. is ……
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While Sb. and Sb. maintains that  ................, more accurately/importantly, etc, # 2's position is the stronger one. (Substitute "most historians" for  So and So and the appropriate person or view or source for #2.)
3.Perception versus reality; 感觉与现实
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Although Turner himself may have believed X, the real causes were Y and Z.
4.Good versus bad reasons:
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Historians generally list six reasons as the cause for X, but among these are four that are valid and two that are not.
５． Cause and Effect: 因果关系
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Certainly, X was the cause and Y was its effect, but between the two are two other factors of equal importance.
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Separately the causes would have not necessarily led to a rampage; however, together their effect was inevitably murderous.  
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Although the effects of the rampage were . . ., the causes were understandable/justifiable/inevitable.
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The more important effects of Nat Turner's rebellion went beyond those of  the local rampage.
６．Challenge:质疑，否定
Nat Turner's rebellion not a righteous response to the injustice of slavery; it was motivated purely by disturbing psychological issues.   

７．提出系列问题：
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What should the audience/reader do/feel/believe?

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Who are the major players on both/each side and how did they contribute to?

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Which are the most important?
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What was the impact of?

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Can I compare? How is X like or unlike Y?

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What if?  Can I predict?

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How could we solve/improve/design/deal with?
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Is there a better solution to?
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How can you defend?
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What changes would you recommend to?

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Was it effective, justified, defensible, warranted?
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Why did this happen?
Why did it succeed?
Why did it fail?
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What should be? What are/would be the possible outcomes of?

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What are the problems related to?
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What were the motives behind?

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Why are the opponents protesting?

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What is my personal response to?
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What case can I make for?

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What is the significance of?
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Where will the next move(s) occur?

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How is this debate likely to affect?
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What is the value or, what is/are the potential benefit(s) of?
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What are three/four/five reasons for us to believe?（这个好像一开始的20问就有了）

五、对于主题的头脑风暴：
Thesis Brainstorming
注意下面的三点：
As you read look for:

• Interesting contrasts or comparisons or patterns emerging in the information
• Is there something about the topic that surprises you?
• Do you encounter ideas that make you wonder why?
• Does something an "expert" says make you respond, "no way! That can be right!" or "Yes, absolutely. I agree!"

Example of brainstorming a thesis:
Select a topic: television violence and children
Ask an interesting question: What are the effects of television violence on children?
Revise the question into a thesis: Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in preschool children.
Remember this argument is your “preliminary” or “working” thesis. As you read you may discover evidence that may affect your stance. It is okay to revise your thesis!（可以修改自己原来设定的主题，就是说通过对题目的理解和论据的权衡，修改主题以利于论证）

论据：As you write and revise your paper, it's okay to change your thesis statement -- sometimes you don't discover what you really want to say about a topic until you've started (or finished) writing! Just make sure that your "final" thesis statement accurately shows what will happen in your paper.

Create a list of sample questions to guide your research:

• How many hours of television does the average young child watch per week?
• How do we identify a "violent" program?
• Which types of programs are most violent?
• Are there scientific research studies that have observed children before and after watching violent programs?
• Are there experts you might contact?
• Which major groups are involved in investigating this question?

六、主题示例：注意下面的例子中前一个不是Thesis而后一个是！

How to Tell a Strong Thesis Sentence from a Weak One.1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.明确表明立场！Remember that your thesis needs to show your conclusions about a subject. For example, if you are writing a paper for a class on fitness, you might be asked to choose a popular weight-loss product to evaluate. Here are two thesis statements:
There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase “negative and positive aspects” is vague.
Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.
This is a strong thesis because it takes a stand.
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.留给大家质疑和讨论的余地．Your thesis should indicate the point of the discussion. If your assignment is to write a paper on kinship systems, using your own family as an example, you might come up with either of these two thesis statements:
My family is an extended family.
This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.
While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.表达一个主要观点Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If your thesis expresses more than one idea, then you might confuse your readers about the subject of your paper. For example:
Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.
This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear. One way to revise the thesis would be to write:
Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.
This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and “however.”
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.具体而不抽象A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep your paper to a manageable topic. For example, if you write a paper on hunger, you might say:
World hunger has many causes and effects.
This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, “world hunger” can’t be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, "many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects. A revised thesis might look like this:
Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.

其他例子：

I would like to become a chef when I finish school

Although both chefs and cooks can prepare fine meals, chefs differ from cooks in education, professional commitment, and artistry.

I enjoy white water rafting.

A first water rafting experience can challenge the body and spirit and transform an adolescent into an adult

Men are chauvinists.

Our American family structure encourages men to repress their true feelings, leaving them open to physical, psychological, and relationship difficulties.

Steroid abuse

Steroids, even those legally available, are addictive and should be banned from sports.

Hip hop is the best thing that has happened to music in twenty years

Though many people dismiss hip hop as offensive, hip hop music offers urban youth an important opportunity for artistic expression, and allows them to articulate the poetry of the street.

Many people object to today's violent horror movies.

Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

段落间的关系

原来正确的顺序应该是从不重要得到重要得，这好像跟我固有得思维相反，我总是写成了从重要得到不重要得
一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
说明：本人由于不小心在网站上看到了所谓的ascending order或者是climactic order,然后发现它和我们固有的一些思维由所冲突，我就几乎找遍了能搜到的类似的网站，我搜索到以下论据：
关于权重排序的资料：
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支持论据１：
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
A third common principle of organization is climactic order or order of importance. In this pattern, items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, and description.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern or organization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention to what is in the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include
general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive; even more painful than passing a kidney stone; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly

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支持论据２：
In a historically-oriented paper (e.g. "The Early Conquests of Alexander the Great"), you might simply want to move the paper along chronologically.

In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…" Ascending or climactic order adds power to a paper by leading the reader into increasing tension, much like an action movie builds to a climax. Resist giving away the most exciting parts of your paper early on – if you use up the good stuff early, you’ll have little left to keep the reader interested in the rest of what you have to say.

If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing?
Your outline might look like this:
Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion

You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science   before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation,   you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
Introduction
Is All Science Legitimate?
Yes
          Maybe not
Can We Trust The Scientists?
Yes
Not always
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Risks?
Yes
Maybe not
Conclusion
Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.
Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper (just like leading someone down a winding path creates more confusion than leading the same person down a short city block with sights to see on all sides).  How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings?  You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.  Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.  This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.  See the outlines above for examples of useful ways to do this.

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支持论据３：
After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order, that is, ascending from least to most important. You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.

l
支持论据４：
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.



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反例一：
DECREASING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: when you want to tell your readers that something new has happened and why they should be interested -- then fill them in on the details
INCREASING COMPLEXITY: a sequence that leads your readers gently into a complex subject
STEPS OF A PROCESS: when you want to focus on a process itself, not the end result
A SPATIAL SEQUENCE: when you want your reader to see the way different aspects of your subject are spatially interrelated or lie in contrast
A TEMPORAL SEQUENCE: for emphasizing the time relations among things or events

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反例２：
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Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors
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Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
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There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors
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A businesslike, courteous, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
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The writing style flows smoothly
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The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
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反例４：you have for each in a logical order and one that most effectively organizes your argument:
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect

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反例5：
A possible outline template for an analytical paper
This is for an essay that happens to have three main answers, again listed in ascending order as in our argumentative paper template. How you order them will entirely depend on which ones you feel, given all the evidence, are the most or least convincing. If we take our research question example from before, perhaps the first answer would be from researchers who believe music has no effect on studying, the second about studies that show how detrimental it is, and the third one pointing out the positive aspects. In your conclusion, you might point out how certain conditions (e.g., absence of lyrics, tempo, volume, type of studying student is engaged in etc.) appear to be incredibly important.
  
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
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What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
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Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")

_________________________
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(You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
· Answer #3 = _________________________
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one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
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strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
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another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
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best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
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why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
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sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
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critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
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look at the implications

通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１．
并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２．
实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -
Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions:
The Parts of an Essay


A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.


It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim.)

"What?"
The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.

"How?"
A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.

"Why?"
Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular.
一、
文章地图法：
Mapping an Essay

Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in understanding your idea.

Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:

*
State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.

*
Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)

*
Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.


Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what, how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.

注意不要写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").
千万不用用first then another secondly one

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段落内部的关系

一、段落的基本概念：
１．段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
l
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
l
一个合理的逻辑顺序
l
没有无关细节

注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.

２．段落的长短问题：
首先原因一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
n
但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
n
过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。

一、段落的组成结构：
１．The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２．Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３．The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。

段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before.
Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors.
Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,划双线的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.

二、段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：

·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
１．
为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them, not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.

２．怎么做？
Whenever you introduce a new idea, your readers will appreciate definitions, examples and comparisons with things they already know. They will feel more comfortable with your new information if they have a familiar reference to hang on to. Three ways to do this are with orienting words and phrases, by letting the old amplify the new, and by adding explanatory words and phrases, where necessary.
（１）
USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
·
of course
·
as you know
·
until now
·
obviously
·
normally
·
previously
·
everyone is familiar with
·
remember that


（２）
LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：

As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
Isn't this version much more informative than one that would begin by listing the undesirable characteristics of the old machines, then told you what the latest ones are like? How often do you begin your news with a long historical background? Such background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.


（３）
ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：

Often, when you are introducing new ideas, you will have to expand and clarify them with definitions and explanatory material. Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
To decide how much explanatory material you need, you have to form a clear picture of your audience and how familiar they are with what you're saying. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.



三、段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
l
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
l
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
l
Connection－适当的连接句子

（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Even though the connections between your sentences may be clear to you, you can't count on your readers to supply those links. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit. If it doesn't create a single idea in your readers' minds, it's not doing its job.

English supplies us with useful linking words called connectives, （逻辑连接词）which form the logical bridges between ideas. If you keep these verbal guideposts in mind and use them as you write, you will almost automatically provide the interrelations among ideas that every reader looks for.
Here is a list of some connectives. Like the subordinating conjunctions, these are the good guys; use them liberally (but correctly and appropriately), and I guarantee that your writing will become more effective. They are hard to overuse.

（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:
TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.

这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:
利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）

For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
If you try to use these connective devices in your own writing, but have difficulty, be suspicious that the ideas that you're trying to link together in a single paragraph are merely a sequence (that is, a catalog) of logically unrelated ideas. Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
Another way to tie ideas together is with intensives. Intensives help you emphasize what's important and to set the important apart from the incidental -- a major goal of all scientific and technical writing. Compare the following two sentences, the first without intensives and the second with intensives added:
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives:

CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly. Eliminate intensives that are thrown in gratuitously or that don't make a definite contribution by emphasizing an important fact or idea. Littering your writing with intensives where they are not needed makes your writing sound trite and strains your credibility.
Here is an exercise to give you practice linking your ideas together. Add connectives, intensives (from the lists above, or make up your own) and repeated words to the following sentences to make a coherent paragraph:
·
Global Airlines carried three-million passengers last year.
·
They expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada.
·
The new DC-12 aircraft proved more fuel-efficient than the older 737's.
·
Older, unprofitable routes were dropped.
·
Passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing.
·
Only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago.
·
Their record has been accident-free since 1950.
·
Global planes have averaged 80-percent full last year.
·
Profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.
Though global airlines carried three-milion passengers last year,they expanded thir routes into the Pacific Northwest and Ccanada. New DC_12 air craft proved more fuel_efficient than the older 737’s.moreover,since passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketings older,unprofitable routes were droped.

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1．
如何使用论据论证？
（１）
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.$
（２）
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
（３）
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
（４）
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim

举例：
Weak Use of Evidence
1)
Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content
缺陷：论证和题目结合不紧密，不是论据无关，而是作者没有表现这种合理的关系在哪里，其实就是却一句话或者是一个逻辑连接词的问题．

Stronger Use of Evidence
2)
Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim
大家其实可以看出来这段的论证好在哪里：划线的部分首先是首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子，让你知道你在读什么，然后就是后边的几乎每个句子都有逻辑的连接词汇连接了起来．
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies(限制修饰) my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

1．
如何使用论据论证？
（１）
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.$
（２）
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
（３）
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
（４）
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim

举例：
Weak Use of Evidence
1)
Today, we are too self-centered. Most families no longer sit down to eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment . Everything is about what we want
This is a weak example of evidence because the evidence is not related to the claim. What does the claim about self-centeredness have to do with families eating together? The writer doesn’t explain the connection．
The same evidence, however, can be used to support the same claim, but only with the addition of a clear connection between claim and evidence, and some analysis of the quotation’s content
缺陷：论证和题目结合不紧密，不是论据无关，而是作者没有表现这种合理的关系在哪里，其实就是却一句话或者是一个逻辑连接词的问题．

Stronger Use of Evidence
2)
Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．
This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim
大家其实可以看出来这段的论证好在哪里：划线的部分首先是首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子，让你知道你在读什么，然后就是后边的几乎每个句子都有逻辑的连接词汇连接了起来．
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper，Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence

Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies(限制修饰) my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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Strategies for Writing a Conclusion

Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！） and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.

A conclusion should

• stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
• leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）

Suggestions

• Answer the question "So What?"
  （强调文章的重要性）

Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.

Play the "So What" Game. If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:

You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.

Friend: So what?

You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.

Friend: Why should anybody care?

You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.

You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.

• Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
  • Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.

• Redirect your readers
  • Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.

• Create a new meaning
  • You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
• Point to broader implications.

For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies

• Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.

Example

Introduction

From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.

Conclusion

I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）

• Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.

Example

Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges质疑 us to be interested and responsible citizens.

• Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

Example

Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）

• Posing questions:（提出问题） Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

Example

Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

Strategies to Avoid·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
·
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
·
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.
The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.
2.
The "Sherlock Holmes: Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" her with your main idea, much like a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.
3.
The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.
4.
The "Grab Bag" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

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Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness

1. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers

Writers sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to determine narrowly or to modify the meaning of a noun but don't actually add to the meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be meaningful in the appropriate context, they are often used as "filler" and can easily be eliminated.

Wordy

Any particular type of dessert is fine with me.

Balancing the budget by Friday is an impossibility without some kind of extra help.

More Concise

Any dessert is fine with me.

Balancing the budget by Friday is impossible without extra help.

Here's a list of some words and phrases that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer:

kind of sort of type of really basically for all intents and purposes

definitely actually generally individual specific particular

Wordy

For all intents and purposes, American industrial productivity generally depends on certain factors that are really more psychological in kind than of any given technological aspect.

More Concise

American industrial productivity depends more on psychological than on technological factors.

2. Change phrases into single words

Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes to wordiness. Convert phrases into single words when possible.

Wordy

The employee with ambition...

The department showing the best performance...

Jeff Converse, our chief of consulting, suggested at our last board meeting the installation of microfilm equipment in the department of data processing.

As you carefully read what you have written to improve your wording and catch small errors of spelling, punctuation, and so on, the thing to do before you do anything else is to try to see where a series of words expressing action could replace the ideas found in nouns rather than verbs.

More Concise

The ambitious employee...

The best-performing department...

At our last board meeting, Chief Consultant Jeff Converse suggested that we install microfilm equipment in the data processing department.

As you edit, first find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases.

3. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases

Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word contributes to wordiness. Convert modifying clauses into phrases or single words when possible.

Wordy

The report, which was released recently...

All applicants who are interested in the job must...

The system that is most efficient and accurate...

More Concise

The recently released report...

All job applicants must...

The most efficient and accurate system...

4. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences

Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions creates wordy prose. Take the following example: "It is imperative that we find a solution." The same meaning could be expressed with this more succinct wording: "We must find a solution." But using the expletive construction allows the writer to emphasize the urgency of the situation by placing the word imperative near the beginning of the sentence, so the version with the expletive may be preferable. Still, you should generally avoid excessive or unnecessary use of expletives. The most common kind of unnecessary expletive construction involves an expletive followed by a noun and a relative clause beginning with that, which, or who. In most cases, you can create a more concise sentence by eliminating the expletive opening, making the noun the subject of the sentence, and eliminating the relative pronoun.

Wordy

It is the governor who signs or vetoes bills.

There are four rules that should be observed: ...

There was a big explosion, which shook the windows, and people ran into the street.

More Concise

The governor signs or vetoes bills.

Four rules should be observed:...

A big explosion shook the windows, and people ran into the street.（这里得意思好像是不要用it is和there is的句子啊，我总是用。。。。。。）

5. Use active rather than passive verbs

See our document on active and passive voice for a more thorough explanation of this topic.

Wordy

An account was opened by Mrs. Simms.

Your figures were checked by the research department.

More Concise

Mrs. Simms opened an account.

The research department checked your figures.

6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as nominalizations. Sentences with many nominalizations usually have forms of be as the main verbs. Using the action verbs disguised in nominalizations as the main verbs--instead of forms of be--can help to create engaging rather than dull prose.

Wordy

The function of this department is the collection of accounts.

The current focus of the medical profession is disease prevention.

More Concise

This department collects accounts.

The medical profession currently focuses on disease prevention.我还觉得上面的那种好呢原来。。。。。我也走到误区了。。。。。。。

7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases

Some infinitive phrases can be converted into finite verbs or brief noun phrases. Making such changes also often results in the replacement of a be-verb with an action verb.

Wordy

The duty of a clerk is to check all incoming mail and to record it.

A shortage of tellers at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customers to become dissatisfied with service.

More Concise

A clerk checks and records all incoming mail.

A teller shortage at our branch office on Friday and Saturday during rush hours has caused customer dissatisfaction.

8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions

Circumlocutions are commonly used roundabout expressions that take several words to say what could be said more succinctly. We often overlook them because many such expressions are habitual figures of speech. In writing, though, they should be avoided since they add extra words without extra meaning. Of course, occasionally you may for rhetorical effect decide to use, say, an expletive construction instead of a more succinct expression. These guidelines should be taken as general recommendations, not absolute rules.

Wordy

At this/that point in time...

In accordance with your request...

More Concise

Now/then...

As you requested...

Here are some other common circumlocutions that can be compressed into just one word:

the reason for for the reason that owing/due to the fact that in light of the fact that considering the fact that on the grounds that this is why	=because, since, why
on the occasion of in a situation in which under circumstances in which	=when
as regards in reference to with regard to concerning the matter of where ________ is concerned	=about
it is crucial that it is necessary that there is a need/necessity for it is important that cannot be avoided	=must, should
is able to has the opportunity to has the capacity for has the ability to	=can
it is possible that there is a chance that it could happen that the possibility exists for	=may, might, could

Wordy

It is possible that nothing will come of these preparations.

She has the ability to influence the outcome.

It is necessary that we take a stand on this pressing issue.

More Concise

Nothing may come of these preparations.

She can influence the outcome

We must take a stand on this pressing issue.

9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail

Be sure always to consider your readers as you draft and revise your writing. If you find passages that explain or describe in detail what would already be obvious to readers, delete or reword them.

Wordy

I received your inquiry yesterday. Yes, we do have...

It goes without saying that we are acquainted with your policy on filing tax returns, and we have every intention of complying with the regulations that you have mentioned.

Imagine a mental picture of someone engaged in the intellectual activity of trying to learn what the rules are for how to play the game of chess.

Baseball, one of our oldest and most popular outdoor summer sports in terms of total attendance at ball parks and viewing on television, has the kind of rhythm of play on the field that alternates between times when players passively wait with no action taking place between the pitches to the batter and then times when they explode into action as the batter hits a pitched ball to one of the players and the player fields it.

More Concise

Yes, we do have...

We intend to comply with the tax-return regulations that you have mentioned.

Imagine someone trying to learn the rules of chess.

Baseball has a rhythm that alternates between waiting and explosive action.

10. Omit repetitive wording

Watch for phrases or longer passages in your writing in which you repeat words with similar meanings. Below are some general examples of unnecessary repetition contrasted with more concise versions, followed by lists and examples of specific redundant word pairs and categories.

Wordy

I would appreciate it if you would bring to the attention of your drafting officers the administrator's dislike of long sentences and paragraphs in messages to the field and in other items drafted for her signature or approval, as well as in all correspondence, reports, and studies. Please encourage your section to keep their sentences short.

The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter an unneeded luxury.

Our branch office currently employs five tellers. These tellers do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with the rush on Friday and Saturday.

More Concise

Please encourage your drafting officers to keep sentences and paragraphs in letters, reports, and studies short. Dr. Lomas, the administrator, has mentioned that reports and memos drafted for her approval recently have been wordy and thus time-consuming.

The supply manager considered the correcting typewriter a luxury.

Our branch office currently employs five tellers, who do an excellent job Monday through Thursday but cannot keep up with Friday and Saturday rush periods.

Redundant Pairs    这个很难注意啊，对我们中国人来说我总是写final result

Many pairs of words imply each other. Finish implies complete, so the phrase completely finish is redundant in most cases. So are many other pairs of words:

past memories various differences each individual _______ basic fundamentals true facts important essentials future plans

terrible tragedy end result final outcome free gift past history unexpected surprise sudden crisis

A related expression that's not redundant as much as it is illogical is very unique. Since unique means "one of a kind," adding modifiers of degree such as very, so, especially, somewhat, extremely, and so on is illogical. One-of-a-kind-ness has no gradations; something is either unique or it is not.

Wordy

Before the travel agent was completely able to finish explaining the various differences among all of the many very unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her future plans.

More Concise

Before the travel agent finished explaining the differences among the unique vacation packages his travel agency was offering, the customer changed her plans.

Redundant Categories

Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both. We know that a period is a segment of time, that pink is a color, that shiny is an appearance. In each of the following phrases, the general category term can be dropped, leaving just the specific descriptive word:

large in size often times of a bright color heavy in weight period in time round in shape at an early time economics field

of cheap quality honest in character of an uncertain condition in a confused state unusual in nature extreme in degree of a strange type

Wordy

During that time period, many car buyers preferred cars that were pink in color and shiny in appearance.

The microscope revealed a group of organisms that were round in shape and peculiar in nature.

More Concise

During that period, many car buyers preferred pink, shiny cars.

The microscope revealed a group of peculiar, round organisms.

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

Proofreading for Commas

Compound Sentence Commas

1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:

and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.

2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)

3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction. Examples:

She wanted to buy a new car, but she didn't have enough money to do so.
The wind blew fiercely, and the rain poured down.
Alaska was not the last state admitted into the US, nor does it have the lowest total population.

Comma Splices

1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.

2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.

3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:

• reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses)
• add a coordinating conjunction after the comma 不知道是不是每个comma后都要加连词啊，那样是不是会很多余呢，无数个but
• replace the comma with a semicolon
• replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause

comma splice: Americans speak too rapidly, this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Americans speak too rapidly; this is a common complaint by foreign visitors.
correct: Foreign visitors commonly complain that Americans speak too rapidly.

Introductory Commas

Introductory commas after dependent clauses

1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.

2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc. (see our Commas After Introductions).

3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause. Examples:

While I was writing, the phone rang.
Because the weather was bad, we decided to cancel our planned picnic.
After the last guests left the party, we had to begin cleaning the house.

Other introductory commas

1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.

2. Stop if the word or phrase . . .

·
ends in -ing

·
is an infinitive (to + verb)

·
is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)

3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase. Examples:

To get a good grade, you must turn in 交还？all your homework problems.
Walking to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
Yes, I agree that the exam was difficult.

4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause. Examples:

On his way to work, Jim stopped for coffee at the diner.
In those days we wrote with a pen and paper.
Across the street from the library, an old man waited for a bus.

Disruptive Commas

General guidelines

1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.

2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.

For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects

1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.

2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.

disruptive comma: They bought two pizzas, but ate only one.
correct: They bought two pizzas but ate only one.

For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs

1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.

2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.

disruptive comma: That man sitting in the train station, is the person I'm supposed to meet.

correct: That man sitting in the train station is the person I'm supposed to meet.

Series Commas

1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.

2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.

3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause). Examples:

People who are trying to reduce saturated fat in their diets should avoid eggs, meat, and tropical oils.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

Commas with Nonessential Elements

1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it. (See also our handout, Commas With Nonessential Elements.)

2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).

3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential. To understand the essential vs. nonessential distinction, compare the following sentences. In the first, the clause who cheat is essential; in the second, the clause who often cheats is nonessential.

Students who cheat only harm themselves.
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

Proofreading Your WritingThis resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by Jaclyn M. Wells, Morgan Sousa, and Mia Martini.
Last edited by Allen Brizee on September 15th 2008 at 10:47AM
Summary: Proofreading is primarily about searching your writing for errors, both grammatical and typographical, before submitting your paper for an audience (a teacher, a publisher, etc.). Use this resource to help you find and fix common errors.
Where do I begin?Though everyone has a unique proofreading process, there are some general strategies that can be helpful to most writers. Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines listed below.
General Strategies

·
Take a break! Allow yourself some time between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive 有效的，有用的because it will help you get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.

·
Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.

·
Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.

·
Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.

·
Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.

Personalizing ProofreadingIn addition to following the general guidelines above, individualizing your proofreading process to your needs will help you proofread more efficiently and effectively. You won't be able to check for everything (and you don't have to), so you should find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually. Here's how:

·
Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.

·
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.

·
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.

Finding Common ErrorsProofreading can be much easier when you know what you are looking for. Although everyone will have different error patterns, the following are issues that come up for many writers. When proofreading your paper, be on the lookout for these errors. Always remember to make note of what errors you make frequently—this will help you proofread more efficiently in the future!
Spelling

·
Do NOT rely on your computer's spellcheck—it will not get everything!

我就是老用。。。。。。汗

·
Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully. Moving a pencil under each line of text helps you to see each word.

·
If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.

·
Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.哈哈，老外也犯这样得错误，spelling nightmares 哈哈

Left-out and doubled wordsReading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
Fragment Sentences

·
Make sure each sentence has a subject. In the following sentence, the subject is "students": The students looked at the OWL website.

·
Make sure each sentence has a complete verb. In the following sentence, "were" is required to make a complete verb; "trying" alone would be incomplete: They were trying to improve their writing skills.

·
See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own. The following sentence is a dependent clause that would qualify as a fragment sentence: Which is why the students read all of the handouts carefully.

Run-on Sentences

·
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.

·
If there is more than one independent clause, check to make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.

·
Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.

Example run-on: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Edited version: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports, and all I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Another option: I have to write a research paper for my class about extreme sports. All I know about the subject is that I'm interested in it.
Comma Splices

·
Look at the sentences that have commas.

·
Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.

·
If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.

·
Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.

Example: I would like to write my paper about basketball, it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version: I would like to write my paper about basketball, because it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Edited version, using a semicolon: I would like to write my paper about basketball; it's a topic I can talk about at length.
Subject/Verb Agreement

·
Find the subject of each sentence.

·
Find the verb that goes with the subject.

·
The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.

Example: Students at the university level usually is very busy.
Edited version: Students at the university level usually are very busy.
Mixed constructionRead through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another. A sentence that does this is called a mixed construction.
Example: Since I have a lot of work to do is why I can't go out tonight.
Edited version: Since I have a lot of work to do, I can't go out tonight.
ParallelismLook through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
Example: Being a good friend involves good listening skills, to be considerate, and that you know how to have fun.
Edited version: Being a good friend involves knowing how to listen, being considerate, and having fun.
Pronoun Reference/Agreement

·
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.

·
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.

·
If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.

·
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.

Apostrophes

·
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe, as in Mary's book.

·
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.

·
Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."

Suggestions for Proofreading Your PaperOne of the most difficult parts of the writing process is proofreading. It is easy for us to see what we want to see, not necessarily what our readers will see. These suggestions should help you take a step back and view your writing more objectively.
Suggestions for Editing (Proofreading) your PaperRead your Paper AloudAny time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread your text, revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for your reader.
Examine your ParagraphsExamine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
Track Frequent ErrorsKeep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab for assistance in eliminating these errors.
Revising for CohesionThis material (adapted from Style: Ten Lessons in Clarity and Grace, by Joseph Williams) will help students revise sentences for cohesion.
Two Principles

·
Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.

·
In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.

Exercise: Diagnosis, Analysis, RevisionDiagnosis

1.
Underline the first few words of every sentence in a paragraph, ignoring short introductory phrases such as "In the beginning," or "For the most part."

2.
If you can, underline the first few words of every clause.

Analysis

1.
Read your underlined words. Is there a consistent series of related topics?

2.
Will your reader see these connections among the topics?

3.
Decide what you will focus on in each paragraph.

4.
Imagine that the passage has a title. The words in the title should identify what should be the topics of most of the sentences.

Revision

1.
In most sentences, make the topics the subject of verbs.

2.
Put most of the subjects at the beginning of your sentences. Avoid hiding your topic by opening sentences with long introductory clauses or phrases.

Sample Passage
Topics are crucial for readers because readers depend on topics to focus their attention on particular ideas toward the beginning of sentences. Topics tell readers what a whole passage is "about." If readers feel that a sequence of topics is coherent, then they will feel they are moving through a paragraph from a cumulatively coherent point of view. But if throughout the paragraph readers feel that its topics shift randomly, then they have to begin each sentence out of context, from no coherent point of view. When that happens, readers feel dislocated, disoriented, and out of focus.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You ReviseSentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"

1.
Readers must feel that they move easily from one sentence to the next, that each sentence "coheres" with the one before and after it.

2.
Readers must feel that sentences in a paragraph are not just individually clear, but are unified with each other.

Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
Paragraphs
Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?
Note: it is easier to see coherence and clarity in other people's writing. Why? Because by the time we reach a final draft, everything we write seems old to us. Improving on this takes practice.
Steps for Revising Your PaperWhen you have plenty of time to revise, use the time to work on your paper and to take breaks from writing. If you can forget about your draft for a day or two, you may return to it with a fresh outlook. During the revising process, put your writing aside at least twice - once during the first part of the process, when you are reorganizing your work, and once during the second part, when you are polishing and paying attention to details.
Use the following questions to evaluate your drafts. You can use your responses to revise your papers by reorganizing them to make your best points stand out, by adding needed information, by eliminating irrelevant information, and by clarifying sections or sentences.
Find your main point.What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?
Identify your readers and your purpose.What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
Evaluate your evidence.Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
Save only the good pieces.Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
Tighten and clean up your language.Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk to a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-CenteredTry to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved?

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

今天忘记背单词了，晕啊，明天
1背最新词汇
2做第三次作业
3做学校老师作业

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

分析写作部分综述
  分析写作部分是GRE一般测试从2002年10月开始的一个新的测试内容，它主要测试你的批判性思维和分析写作的能力。它检测你阐述支持复杂的思想，分析论证，和进行切题的一致的讨论的能力。但对某一方面的专业知识不作要求。
分析写作部分包括两个分开计时的分析写作任务：
●在45分钟以内阐述你对某一问题的观点
●在30分钟内分析一篇驳论文
你必须在两篇issue中选择一篇，每个题目都会给出任意一个方面的问题得观点并且要求你从任意的角度来讨论这个问题，只要你提供了切题的理由和例子来解释和支持你的观点。
你的argument的题目只有一个选择。Argument任务提供了和issue不一样的挑战：它需要你通过讨论它是如何解释来进行评论。你需要考虑它的逻辑的公正性而不是同意或者反对它表明的立场。
这两个任务是互补的，一个需要你通过选择立场和提供证据支持你的观点来构建你自己的论证，而另外一个需要你通过评估别人的观点和证据来批评别人的论证。



分析写作部分的准备
每个人，即使是最熟练和自信的作者都应该在考试前花时间准备分析写作部分。有必要了解所需要的写作技巧，这个部分如何评分，评分的指导和评分等级的描述，题库，样文，读者的评价。
分析写作部分的题目涉及到很广泛的主题，从艺术到人性到社会再到物理，但是所有的题目都不需要特殊的专业知识。事实上，每个题目的领域都经过测试以确保有一些重要的特点，包括：
●不论考试的人从事何种领域的研究都会理解题目，并能够容易地进行讨论。
●题目能够引出复杂的思考和有说服力的习作，大学老师认为这些讨论对一个毕业生的成功非常重要
●通过多种多样的方式来表达作者对该题目的观点
为了帮助你准备分析写作部分，GRE已经出版了完整的题库，你的考试题目将从中选择。你可以通过浏览issue和argument的题库来复习。还可以通过XXXXXX网址浏览已经出版的题库

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

分析写作部分的考试技巧
你需要在短短的45分钟内分配好你的时间，你需要有足够的时间来选择两个题目中的一个，思考你所选择的issue题目，计划如何回应，写出你的文章。Argument部分限时30分钟，你需要足够的时间来分析argument，计划如何反驳，并写出你的回复。尽管GRE的判分者知道你在有限的时间内写出文章，并且认为你写的只是初稿，你任然需要使你的文章表现出在考试的环境下的最好水平。
在考试的最后节省几分钟的时间来检查错误。尽管偶尔的拼写和语法错误不会影响你的分数，但是严重的，相同的错误会损害你的文章的效率降低你的分数。
分析写作部分后，你可以有十分钟的休息时间，在其它的部分也有一分钟的休息时间。你可以利用这些时间来补充你的草稿纸
                      分析写作部分是如何评分
每篇作文都会被整体评分，分数根据已经发布的品分标准导读来进行评判。整体评分的意思是每篇作文会整体地而不是分开地被评分员进行评判，不会被分成不同的部分，如思想，组织，句子结构，语言。评分员通过文章整体的质量来打分，以全局的角度来考虑所有的特点。好的文章组织或者坏的都只是文章整体印象的一部分并会影响到最终的分数，但是文章的组织不会是作为一个提别的特点也不会有特别的重要性。
一般来讲，GRE的评分员是大学和学院长期从事教写作和批评思考的教师。所有的GRE评分员都受到仔细的培训，通过了严格的GRE资格测试，并且证明他们的评分可以保持很高精确度。
为了保证评分的公正和客观
文章被随机发送给评分员
所有关于考生的标识信息都被保密
每篇文章都会被两个评分员进行评分
评分过程必须是两个评分员给出的分数相邻或者相同，如果有其它情况则由第三个评分员进行评分。
评分员给的分数会取中间值。分数等级的描述见29页，提供了如何对一个分析写作进行评分的解释。分析文写作部分评分最重要的是批判思维和分析写作能力。
你在分析文写作部分所写的文章会受到ETS文章相似度检测软件和有经验的评分员的评判。由于美国大学都看重独立自主的创作，ETS保留取消任何在文章中有大量证据表明有存在以下情况存在的测试的成绩。
文中有大量和其它GRE文章相似的部分
没有经过申明，引用或者改写在其它已经出版或者没有出版的文献中的语言或者思想
未经允许使用和其他人合作时的文章
考试者的文章的思想和语言从其他人处借用
如果上诉的一种或者多种现象发生，你的文章在ETS专业的评判来看没有反映你的真实的，独立的分析写作能力。因此必须取消论文成绩，不能报告这次成绩，因为这个部分的成绩是整体部分不可缺少的部分。
成绩被取消的考生失去他的考试费用，并在以后支付全部的一般测试的成绩。成绩取消的原因和记录都不会出现在以后寄送到其它大学的成绩单上。
                在issue考试中表明你的观点
理解issue测试
表明你对某一问题的观点的测试评价你对某一话题批判思维并且通过写作表达你的观点的能力。每个题目通过一种平衡的方式来表达，可以让考生可以从各种不同的角度来进行讨论，你的任务是展示你对这一问题的独特的立场。写之前要仔细阅读并从不同的角度进行思考，并考虑和这些观点相关的复杂思想，然后记录下你想展开的观点，列出主要的理由和例子来支持你的观点。
Issue考试允许很大的言论自由。尽管你对问题的中心的表达十分重要，你可以自由的选择你自己的方式。例如你可以：
完全同意或者完全不同意或者同意部分题目的观点
质疑文中的言论的假设
限定任何某一词语，特别是你对某一词的定义对你展开你对这个问题的观点十分重要
指出为什么声明在某些情况下是真实的在某些情况下不是
评价与你相反的观点
通过有几个相关的例子或者一个扩展的例子支持的论证展开你的论点
GRE评分员不会看你是否正确，事实上，这些问题本来就没有一个正确的观点。评分员是通过你表述和展开你的论证来支持你的观点的能力来对你进行评价。
了解写作的内容： 目的和观众
Issue测试是为了锻炼批判性的思维和说服力。这个测试的目的在于决定你通过展开论证支持你对某一问题的的看法和有效地和你的读者通过写作交流你的论证的能力。你的读者由大学里经过训练的老师组成，他们的评分标准见27页
为了更好

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为了更好为了弄清楚GRE评分人是怎样应用这些评分准则对实际的作文进行评分的。这些范文，尤其是5分和6分层次的，将向你展示文章组织，展开，和表达说服力上的成功策略。评分人的评论论述了具体方面的分析和写作，例如使用例子，展开和支持论点，文章结构组织，语言流畅性，和选词。对于每一篇范文，评论都指出了尤其具有说服力的方面和影响文章整体效果的方面。

5.3 怎样准备ISSUE
由于ISSUE是为了评估你在你的学习中培养的有说服力的写作技巧，因而他既不要求特定课程的学习，也不优势于特定训练的学生
       你会发现许多大学关于写作的课本提供的关于有说服力的写作都是很有帮助的，但是即使是这种建议对于你在ISSUE中需要的来说也是过于技巧性和特殊性。你不必知道具体的批判性思维或者写作条款或者策略，相反你应该能够使用理由，证据和例子去支持你ISSUE中的观点。例如，假设一篇ISSUE的题目要求你考虑政府为艺术博物馆提供经济支持是否重要。如果你的观点是政府应该为艺术博物馆投资，你就要通过说明艺术非常重要的理由和解释博物馆是一个可以使艺术为大家所用的公共场所来支持你的观点。另一方面，如果你的观点是政府不应该支持博物馆，你将要指出政府资金有限，艺术博物馆相对于其他更具社会重要性机构来说还不值得拨款。或者如果你支持政府在某些特定的条件下拨款时，你应该着眼于技术标准，文化关注或者政府的情况，这些你认为应该确定怎样或者是否让技术博物馆得到政府的拨款。你是什么立场不是问题的关键，关键在于你展开你观点的批判性思维的技巧。
       一种有效的准备ISSUE的办法就是练习写一些公布的题目。没有最好的办法（方法因人而异）：一些人喜欢开始练习的时候不考虑45分钟的限制，另一些人喜欢先定时测验和限时练习。在练习ISSUE的时候不管你使用哪种方法，你都应该先阅读任务指示，然后：
l仔细阅读题目的观点，以确保你能理解这个ISSUE说的是什么，如果你觉得他不清楚，可以和朋友或者老师讨论。
l思考将这个ISSUE与你自己的思想和实际联系起来，或者和一些你读到过或者看到过的事件联系起来，又或者是你知道的人。这些都是基于你将要发展的令人信服理由的知识和例子，他们将在你的论述中用于支持，反对或者某种程度上的认可题目观点的。
l决定你将要在ISSUE中提出或者辩护的观点——记住你可以自由的决定你是完全同意或者完全不同意或者同意其中的一部分，而另外的不同意。
l确定你能使用哪些有说服力的证据（理由和例子）去支持你的观点
记住：这是一个考察批判性思维和有说服力写作的任务。因此你应该发现通过问自己一下问题来探索题目论点的主张的复杂性是非常有用的。
l题目的准确中心问题是什么
l我是否同意全部的观点，是否同意任何一个观点，同意是为什么，不同意又是为什么？
l是否题目的观点只在某些特定的条件下才有效？如果是，那么这些特定的条件是什么？
l如果我确定了一个特定的观点，那么有哪些理由可以支持我的观点呢
l我能使用哪些例子（现实的或者假象的都可以）来说明理由和推荐我的观点？哪一个例子最具有说服力
一旦你确定了你要辩护的观点，考虑一下其他有可能不同意你观点的人可能会有的观点，并问你自己：
l其他人会用什么样的理由来驳斥或者推翻我的观点
l我应该怎样确认或者辩护我文章中的观点
为了计划你的作文，你可能想要总结你的观点，对你将怎样支持你要写的观点做一个简要的说明。当你做完这个，查看你的笔记，然后决定你将怎样组织你的作文，你会发现这对于练习几个ISSUE作文和作文的提纲是非常有用的。当你练习完几个题目之后，试着在45分钟之内完成一些题目，以便你能在现实的考试中很好的把握好你的时间。
       如果你能从一些教批判性思维或者写作的老师那里得到一些关于你写的文章的反馈和指导，那将是非常有用的。或者你可以和一些和你写一样题目的同学交换文章，然后联系评分指南来讨论一个作者的作文。尝试着确定每一篇文章是怎样达到或没有达到指南中指出的每一个分数点的标准的。把你自己的文章和评分指南进行比较，这有助于发现你可以怎样或者在哪里可以进行提高。
决定好写哪一个题目

记住：在general test中包含两个题库中的ISSUE题目，你必须在两个中选一个。因为45分钟的时间是指你开始看到两个题目的时候开始计时。你不应花过多的时间去做选择。相反，很快的做出选择能让你在准备论述的时候感觉良好一些。
       在你做出决定之前，仔细阅读每一个题目。然后决定那个你能更有效，或者更有理的展开论述的那个题目。在做决定的时候，你可以问你自己：
l我觉得哪一个题目更有趣或者更吸引人呢
l哪一个题目与我的学术研究或者其他经验更相关呢
l哪一个题目我能更清楚地去解释和辩护我的观点呢
l哪一个题目我能想到更多的强烈理由和例子去支持我的论点呢
这些问题的答案将有助你选择。
为了计划你的文章，你可以总结你的立场，做一些关于你如何支持你的立场的简单的笔记。当你做完这些的时候，检查你的笔记并且决定如何组织你的文章。然后通过展开你对问题的观点来写你的文章。即使你没有写出完整的文章，你也会发现练习一些题目，写出你粗略的文章是很有帮助的。在你练习了一些题目后，尝试在45分钟内完成你的文章，使你了解如何在真正的测试中使用你的时间
果你能从一些教批判性思维或者写作的老师那里得到一些关于你写的文章的反馈和指导，那将是非常有用的。或者你可以和一些和你写一样题目的同学交换文章，然后联系评分指南来讨论一个作者的作文。尝试着确定每一篇文章是怎样达到或没有达到指南中指出的每一个分数点的标准的。把你自己的文章和评分指南进行比较，这有助于发现你可以怎样或者在哪里可以进行提高。

dingyi0311UID: 2627919

明天的任务：
早上被单词
把组里的作业全部做完

中午做试验
把学校的作业全部做完
把issue收集10篇文章内容
argument想一个模板