1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by dingyi0311——改变从现在开始

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Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
"Having finished" states an action but does not name the doer of that action. In English sentences, the doer must be the subject of the main clause that follows. In this sentence, it is Jill. She seems logically to be the one doing the action ("having finished"), and this sentence therefore does not have a dangling modifier.
The following sentence has an incorrect usage:
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.
"Having finished" is a participle expressing action, but the doer is not the TV set (the subject of the main clause): TV sets don't finish assignments. Since the doer of the action expressed in the participle has not been clearly stated, the participial phrase is said to be a dangling modifier.


Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:

1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Who arrived late? This sentence says that the written excuse arrived late. To revise, decide who actually arrived late. The possible revision might look like this:
Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
The main clause now names the person (the captain) who did the action in the modifying phrase (arrived late).

2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Who didn't know his name? This sentence says that "it" didn't know his name. To revise, decide who was trying to introduce him. The revision might look something like this:
Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
The phrase is now a complete introductory clause; it does not modify any other part of the sentence, so is not considered "dangling."

3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Who wanted to improve results? This sentence says that the experiment was trying to improve its own results. To revise, combine the phrase and the main clause into one sentence. The revision might look something like this:
He improved his results by doing the experiment again.



More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:

Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

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A Little Help with Capitals

This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.

Use capital letters in the following ways:

The first words of a sentence

When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

The pronoun "I"

The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.

Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)

Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving

Family relationships (when used as proper names)

I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?

The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

God the Father
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
the Greek gods
Moses
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus

Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)
Halloween
October
Friday
winter
spring
fall

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.
The Fall 1999 semester

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
Costa Rica
Spanish
French
English

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."

The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)
One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.

Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
Green Bay Packers
African-Americans
Anti-Semitic
Democrats
Friends of the Wilderness
Chinese

Periods and events (but not century numbers)
Victorian Era
Great Depression
Constitutional Convention
sixteenth century

Trademarks
Pepsi
Honda
IBM
Microsoft Word

Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)
Freudian
NBC
pasteurize
UN
french fries
italics

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Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike

Many words sound alike but mean different things when put into writing. This list will help you distinguish between some of the more common words that sound alike. Click on any of the blue underlined links to open a longer and more complete definition of the word in a new window.

Forms to Remember

Accept, Except

·accept = verb meaning to receive or to agree:
He accepted their praise graciously.

·except = preposition meaning all but, other than:
Everyone went to the game except Alyson.

Affect, Effect

·affect = verb meaning to influence:
Will lack of sleep affect your game?

·effect = noun meaning result or consequence:
Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?

·effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish:
Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.
A memory-help for affect and effect is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.

Advise, Advice

·advise = verb that means to recommend, suggest, or counsel:
I advise you to be cautious.

·advice = noun that means an opinion or recommendation about what could or should be done:
I'd like to ask for your advice on this matter.

Conscious, Conscience

·conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.

·conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal

·idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization:
Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!

·ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor:
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.

·ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best:
Jennifer was an ideal student.

Its, It's

·its = possessive adjective (possesive form of the
pronoun it):
The crab had an unusual growth on its shell.

·it's = contraction for it is or it has (in a verb phrase):
It's still raining; it's been raining for three days. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

Lead, Led

·lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element:
The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.

·led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct:
The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

Than, Then

Than	used in comparison statements: He is richer than I. used in statements of preference: I would rather dance than eat. used to suggest quantities beyond a specified amount: Read more than the first paragraph.
Then	a time other than now: He was younger then. She will start her new job then. next in time, space, or order: First we must study; then we can play. suggesting a logical conclusion: If you've studied hard, then the exam should be no problem.

Their, There, They're

·Their = possessive pronoun:
They got their books.

·There = that place:
My house is over there.
(This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)

·They're = contraction for they are:
They're making dinner.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

To, Too, Two

·To = preposition, or first part of the infinitive form of a verb:
They went to the lake to swim.

·Too = very, also:
I was too tired to continue. I was hungry, too.

·Two = the number 2:
Two students scored below passing on the exam.
Two, twelve, and between are all words related to the number 2, and all contain the letters tw.
Too can mean also or can be an intensifier, and you might say that it contains an extra o ("one too many")

We're, Where, Were

·We're = contraction for we are:
We're glad to help. (Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

·Where = location:
Where are you going? (This is a place word, and so it contains the word here.)

·Were = a past tense form of the verb be:
They were walking side by side.

Your, You're

·Your = possessive pronoun:
Your shoes are untied.

·You're = contraction for you are:
You're walking around with your shoes untied.
(Pronouns have apostrophes only when two words are being shortened into one.)

I/E Rule

Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight

Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species, sufficient
We have four interactive exercises available for practicing these rules. Please note that we are in the process of updating our exercises, so they will change to reflect our revisions.

·Exercise 1
·Exercise 2
·Exercise 3
·Exercise 4

-ible, -able Rule

-ible	-able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible. aud + ible = audible Examples: ·visible ·horrible ·terrible ·possible ·edible ·eligible ·incredible ·permissible	If the root is a complete word, add -able. accept + able = acceptable Examples: ·fashionable ·laughable ·suitable ·dependable ·comfortable If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e and add -able. excuse - e+ able = excusable Examples: ·advisable ·desirable ·valuable ·debatable

Some exceptions:
·contemptible
·digestible
·flexible
·responsible
·irritable
·inevitable
Try some exercises for spelling -ible and -able correctly.
Please note we are in the process of revising our exercises. They will eventually be altered to reflect those revisions.

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Parts of Speech Overview

Nouns

A noun is a word that denotes a person, place, or thing. In a sentence, nouns answer the questions who and what.

Example: The dog ran after the ball.

In the sentence above, there are two nouns, dog and ball. A noun may be concrete (something you can touch, see, etc.), like the nouns in the example above, or a noun may be abstract, as in the sentences below.
Example 1: She possesses integrity

Example 2: He was searching for love.

The abstract concepts of integrity and love in the sentences above are both nouns. Nouns may also be proper.

Example 1: She visited Chicago every year.

Example 2: Thanksgiving is in November.

Chicago, Thanksgiving, and November are all proper nouns, and they should be capitalized.

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.

Example: She decided to go to a movie.

In the sentence above, she is the pronoun. Like nouns, pronouns may be used either as subjects or as objects in a sentence.

Example: She planned to ask him for an interview.

In the example above, both she and him are pronouns; she is the subject of the sentence while him is the object. Every subject pronoun has a corresponding object form, as shown in the table below.

Subject and Object Pronouns
Subject Pronouns	Object Pronouns
I	Me
We	Us
You	You
She	Her
He	Him
It	It
They	Them

Articles

Articles include a, an, and the. They precede a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.
Example 1: They wanted a house with a big porch.
Example 2: He bought the blue sweater on sale.
In example 1, the article a precedes the noun house, and a also precedes the noun phrase big porch, which consists of an adjective (big) and the noun it describes (porch). In example 2, the article the precedes the noun phrase blue sweater, in which sweater is the noun and blue the adjective.

Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may precede nouns, or they may appear after a form of the reflexive verb to be (am, are, is, was, etc.).
Example 1: We live in the red brick house.
Example 2: She is tall for her age.
In example 1, two consecutive adjectives, red and brick, both describe the noun house. In example 2, the adjective tall appears after the reflexive verb is and describes the subject, she.

Verbs
A verb is a word that denotes action, or a state of being, in a sentence.
Example 1: Beth rides the bus every day.
Example 2: Paul was an avid reader.
In example 1, rode is the verb; it describes what the subject, Beth, does. In example 2, was describes Paul’s state of being and is therefore the verb.
There may be multiple verbs one a sentence, or there may be a verb phrase consisting of a verb plus a helping verb.
Example 1: She turned the key and opened the door.
Example 2: Jackson was studying when I saw him last.
In example 1, the subject she performs two actions in the sentence, turned and opened. In example 2, the verb phrase is was studying.
Some words in a sentence may look like verbs but act as something else, like a noun; these are called verbals.

Adverbs
Just as adjectives modify nouns, adverbs modify, or further describe, verbs. Adverbs may also modify adjectives. (Many, though not all, adverbs end in -ly.)
Example 1: He waved wildly to get her attention.
Example 2: The shirt he wore to the party was extremely bright.
In the first example, the adverb wildly modifies the verb waved. In the second example, the adverb extremely modifies the adjective bright, which describes the noun shirt. While nouns answer the questions who and what, adverbs answer the questions how, when, why, and where.
Example: The grapes looked ripe but tasted sour.
In the example above, both ripe and sour modify the verbs; ripe describes how the grapes appeared, and sour describes how they tasted.

Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that joins two independent clauses, or sentences, together.
Example 1: Ellen wanted to take drive into the city, but the cost of gasoline was too high.
Example 2: Richard planned to study abroad in Japan, so he decided to learn the language.
In the examples above, both but and so are conjunctions. They join two complete sentences with the help of a comma. And, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet can all act as conjunctions.

Prepositions
Prepositions work in combination with a noun or pronoun to create phrases that modify verbs, nouns/pronouns, or adjectives. Prepositional phrases convey a spatial, temporal, or directional meaning.
Example 1: Ivy climbed up the brick wall of the house.
There are two prepositional phrases in the example above: up the brick wall and of the house. The first prepositional phrase is an adverbial phrase, since it modifies the verb by describing where the ivy climbed. The second phrase further modifies the noun wall (the object of the first prepositional phrase) and describes which wall the ivy climbs.

Below is a list of prepositions in the English language:
Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, out, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.

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Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)

This resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by .
Last edited by Allen Brizee on November 15th 2007 at 11:01AM
Summary: This handout discusses the common Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns in writing.

Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)

When you are revising your papers, not every element of your work should have equal priority. The most important parts of your paper, often called "Higher Order Concerns (HOCs)," are the "big picture" elements such as thesis or focus, audience and purpose, organization, and development. After you have addressed these important elements, you can then turn your attention to the "Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)," such as sentence structure and grammar.

Keep in mind, however, that moving between HOCs and LOCs might be a natural process for you. Experienced writers may begin with HOCs and dip into the LOCs as they revise. Inexperienced writers may revise systematically through the HOCs and then the LOCs. In addition, LOCs, such as punctuation and spelling, may affect HOCs. For example, if the first sentence of your introductory paragraph is riddled with punctuation and spelling errors, readers may not move far enough into your work to get to your thesis statement. In these cases, you should address LOCs first.

Some HOCs

Thesis or focus:

·Does the paper have a central thesis?
·Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about?
·Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss.

Audience and purpose:

·Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?
·Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?
·Why would someone want to read this paper?
·Does the purpose match the assignment?

Organization:

·Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way?
·Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization.
·Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part?
·Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?

Development:

·Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed?
·Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? (For more help, see our handout on paragraphing.)
·Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.

Some LOCs

Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling

·Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those.
·Read the paper aloud watching and listening for anything that sounds incorrect.
·Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in certain places. Do you need to check any punctuation rules? (For more help see our handouts on punctuation.)
·For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.

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Punctuation

This resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by Morgan Sousa.
Last edited by Dana Lynn Driscoll on September 18th 2007 at 4:54PM
Summary: When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we must use punctuation to indicate these places of emphasis. This resource should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.

Brief Overview of Punctuation

When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases. This handout should help to clarify when and how to use various marks of punctuation.
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence

Comma

Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments.
Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation.
After the wedding, the guests attended the reception.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series. Although there is no set rule that requires a comma before the last item in a series, it seems to be a general academic convention to include it. The examples below demonstrate this trend.
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about world peace, and end world hunger.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence. More specifically, when a sentence includes information that is not crucial to the message or intent of the sentence, enclose it in or separate it by commas.
John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all assignments, attend class, and study your notes.
Use a comma with quoted words.
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999
Use a comma in a number.
15,000,000
1614 High Street
Use a comma in a personal title.
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings.
Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
West Lafayette, Indiana
Dallas, Texas
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma). Instead, separate the clauses with a period, with a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon.

Semicolon

Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.

Colon

Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: "It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth."
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6

Parenthesis

Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."

Dash

Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.

Italics

Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Before word-processing programs were widely available, writers would underline certain words to indicate to publishers to italicize whatever was underlined. Although the general trend has been moving toward italicizing instead of underlining, you should remain consistent with your choice throughout your paper. To be safe, you could check with your teacher to find out which he/she prefers. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.

Punctuation in Types of Sentences

Learning rules for how and when to punctuate a sentence can be difficult, especially when you consider that different types of sentences call for different types of punctuation. This handout should help to clarify not only the types of sentences, but also what punctuation to use in what situation.

Punctuation in Types of SentencesIndependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence

Simple: composed of 1 independent clause.No standard punctuation.

Compound: composed of 2 or more independent clauses.Join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
Join 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
Join 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.

Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 1 or more independent clauses.Join an introductory dependent clause with the independent clause by a comma.
Because road construction has hindered travel around town, many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work.
Many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work because road construction has hindered travel around town.

Compound-Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 2 or more independent clauses.Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
When it is filtered, water is cleaner, and it tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Whenever it is possible, you should filter your water: filtered water is cleaner and tastes better.
Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
When it is filtered, water is cleaner and tastes better; all things considered, it is better for you.

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Improving Sentence Clarity

There are many strategies for improving the clarity of your sentences and your papers.

Go from old to new information

Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.

The following example sentence is clear and understandable because it uses old information to lead to new information:
Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never need.

Here is a sentence that is not as clear. It moves from new information to old information:
Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.
（原来提高文章的清晰度还有这样的规矩，长见识了啊）
Did you find the second sentence hard to read or understand? If so, it could be because the old information comes late in the sentence after the new information. A clearer version that moves from old information to new information might look like this:
Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw was about the rapid disappearance of the Indian culture. (new)

Transitional words

There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the handout on Transitional Devices (Connecting Words). There you'll find lists of words such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.

Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses

Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:
clear (subordinate clause at the end):
Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information.
clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):
Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is increasing rapidly.
not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):
Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is increasing rapidly.

Use active voice

Sentences in active voice are usually easier to understand than those in passive voice because active-voice constructions indicate clearly the performer of the action expressed in the verb. In addition, changing from passive voice to active often results in a more concise sentence. So use active voice unless you have good reason to use the passive. For example, the passive is useful when you don't want to call attention to the doer; when the doer is obvious, unimportant, or unknown; or when passive voice is the conventional style among your readers.
clear (active):
The committee decided to postpone the vote.
not as clear (passive):
A decision was reached to postpone the vote.

Use parallel constructions

When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.
clear (parallel):
In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to decide when to seek shelter.
not as clear (not parallel):
In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is important.
In the second sentence, notice how the string of "things to be aware of in Florida" does not create a parallel structure. Also, notice how much more difficult it is for a reader to follow the meaning of the second sentence compared to the first one.

Avoid noun strings

Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
unclear (string of nouns):
This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects.
clearer:
This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments.

Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."
unclear (use of nominalization):
The implementation of the plan was successful.
clearer:
The plan was implemented successfully.

Avoid multiple negatives

Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.
unclear (multiple negatives, passive):
Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
clearer:
People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.

Choose action verbs over forms of be

When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization (see above). Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs. In the following example, two ideas are expressed: 1) that there is a difference between television and newspaper news reporting, and 2) the nature of that difference. The revised version expresses these two main ideas in the two main verbs.
Unclear (overuse of be verbs):
One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.
Clearer:
Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.

Avoid unclear pronoun references

Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.
This, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and we are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):
With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Clearer:
With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.
Clearer:
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career choice.


Sentence Fragments

This resource was written by Purdue OWL.
Last full revision by .
Last edited by Allen Brizee on December 17th 2007 at 9:09AM
Summary: Provides an overview and examples of sentence fragments
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Sentence Fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.
Below are some examples with the fragments shown in red. Punctuation and/or words added to make corrections are highlighted in blue. Notice that the fragment is frequently a dependent clause or long phrase that follows the main clause.

·Fragment:Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
Possible Revision: Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
·Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
·Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
·Fragment: The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.
Possible Revision: Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we believe the proposed ammendments should be passed.
You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often use a dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly from the preceding main clause, as in the last example above. This is a conventional journalistic practice, often used for emphasis. For academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however, you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been left unattached to the main clause; they are written as main clauses but lack a subject or main verb.

No main verb

·Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.
Possible Revisions:
oDirect object: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.
oAppositive: Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts and emotions, has impressed critics for decades.
·Fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
Possible Revisions:
oComplete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.
oDirect object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
·Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.
Possible Revisions:
oDirect object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired
oMain verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.

No Subject

·Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
Possible Revisions:
oRemove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
·Fragment: By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
Possible Revisions:
oRemove preposition: Paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
·Fragment: For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
Possible Revisions:
oRemove preposition: Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
oRearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.
These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.

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看题库明天

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dingyi0311UID: 2627919

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dingyi0311UID: 2627919

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