1006G adammaksim的备考日记--杀G需用宰牛刀

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恢复啦~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~多谢版主和管理员

段落间的关系

一、一些常见的逻辑顺序：
说明：本人由于不小心在网站上看到了所谓的ascending order或者是climactic order,然后发现它和我们固有的一些思维由所冲突，我就几乎找遍了能搜到的类似的网站，我搜索到以下论据：
关于权重排序的资料：
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支持论据１：
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
A third common principle of organization is climactic order or order of importance. In this pattern, items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, and description.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. This pattern or organization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention to what is in the middle. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5. (为了让文章有起伏)
Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include
general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity, and so on.
对应连接词：
more importantly; best of all; still worse; a more effective approach; even more expensive（代价等大的是）; even more painful than passing a kidney stone（肾结石，很形象- -）; the least wasteful; occasionally, frequently, regularly

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支持论据２：
In a historically-oriented paper (e.g. "The Early Conquests of Alexander the Great"), you might simply want to move the paper along chronologically.

In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…" Ascending or climactic order adds power to a paper by leading the reader into increasing tension, much like an action movie builds to a climax. Resist giving away the most exciting parts of your paper early on – if you use up the good stuff early, you’ll have little left to keep the reader interested in the rest of what you have to say. （勾引读者）

If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints(很常见), there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B. Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing? （简单问题复杂化）
Your outline might look like this:
Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion

You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science   before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation,   you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
Introduction
Is All Science Legitimate?
Yes
          Maybe not
Can We Trust The Scientists?
Yes
Not always
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Risks?
Yes
Maybe not
Conclusion
Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.
Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings（展开很重要）, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper (just like leading someone down a winding path creates more confusion than leading the same person down a short city block with sights to see on all sides).  How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings?  You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.  Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.  This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.  See the outlines above for examples of useful ways to do this.

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支持论据３：
After you have formed your dominant impression into a thesis, make a plan to organize the relevant supporting details into three basic parts. Each part will comprise one Roman numeral of your outline and one paragraph of the body of your paper. For the dingy cafe, you might use the walls, the booths, and the counter as the three parts in climactic order, that is, ascending from least to most important. You will not outline your introductory paragraph since the thesis sentence that appears in this first paragraph also appears on the outline page, nor will you outline your concluding paragraph since it summarizes or re-emphasizes the material that you have already discussed.

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支持论据４：
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
It is very important to present information to readers in a logical order.
Order your examples in a paragraph, for instance, from least to most important. Be sure to use appropriate transitions (first, then, finally) in order to guide your reader.
Another way to organize is by cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
Still another way is to organize by problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
Remember: Out of order paragraphs and essays are hard to read and understand.



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反例一：
DECREASING ORDER OF IMPORTANCE: when you want to tell your readers that something new has happened and why they should be interested -- then fill them in on the details
INCREASING COMPLEXITY: a sequence that leads your readers gently into a complex subject
STEPS OF A PROCESS: when you want to focus on a process itself, not the end result
A SPATIAL SEQUENCE: when you want your reader to see the way different aspects of your subject are spatially interrelated or lie in contrast
A TEMPORAL SEQUENCE: for emphasizing the time relations among things or events

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反例２：


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·
Messages are clear, precise, and free of errors
·
Correct, complete sentences are used and are varied, smooth, and polished
·
There are no mechanical, grammatical, or word usage errors
·
A businesslike, courteous, and professional tone is maintained with language that is highly consistent with standard business English
·
The writing style flows smoothly
·
The information is presented in a logical order; for example, the writer may rearrange the information so that the important part comes first
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反例４：you have for each in a logical order and one that most effectively organizes your argument:
Most important to least important
Least important to most important
Compare and Contrast
Cause and Effect

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反例5：
A possible outline template for an analytical paper
This is for an essay that happens to have three main answers, again listed in ascending order as in our argumentative paper template. How you order them will entirely depend on which ones you feel, given all the evidence, are the most or least convincing. If we take our research question example from before, perhaps the first answer would be from researchers who believe music has no effect on studying, the second about studies that show how detrimental it is, and the third one pointing out the positive aspects. In your conclusion, you might point out how certain conditions (e.g., absence of lyrics, tempo, volume, type of studying student is engaged in etc.) appear to be incredibly important.
  
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
·
What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
·
Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of à.., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects ofà.are onà.")

_________________________
·
(You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
· Answer #3 = _________________________
·
one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
·
strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
·
another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
·
best answer so far ˆ what does it say?
·
why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
·
sum up what different angles have shown re: research question
·
critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
·
look at the implications

通过对这些论据的总结，我有以下结论：
１．
并不是所有的文章都是要按照ascending orders的，其实别的顺序都可以接受，包括descending的。主要是按照合理的顺序，说清楚意思就好。
２．
实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序
３．补充一种顺序：IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -
Results – Discussion
二、如何处理复杂顺序：
１．三“W”法：Answering Questions:
The Parts of an Essay


A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding. Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.


It's helpful to think of the different essay sections as answering a series of questions your reader might ask when encountering your thesis. (Readers should have questions. If they don't, your thesis is most likely simply an observation of fact, not an arguable claim.)

"What?"
The first question to anticipate from a reader is "what": What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.

"How?"
A reader will also want to know whether the claims of the thesis are true in all cases. The corresponding question is "how": How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. (Call it "complication" since you're responding to a reader's complicating questions.) This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.

"Why?"
Your reader will also want to know what's at stake in your claim: Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular.
一、
文章地图法：(考虑读者)
Mapping an Essay

Structuring your essay according to a reader's logic means examining your thesis and anticipating what a reader needs to know, and in what sequence, in order to grasp and be convinced by your argument as it unfolds. The easiest way to do this is to map the essay's ideas via a written narrative. Such an account will give you a preliminary record of your ideas, and will allow you to remind yourself at every turn of the reader's needs in understanding your idea.

Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:

*   State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.

*
Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)

*
Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.


Your map should naturally take you through some preliminary answers to the basic questions of what, how, and why. It is not a contract, though—the order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one. Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas.

注意不要写成堆积型：A common structural flaw in college essays is the "walk-through" (also labeled "summary" or "description"). Walk-through essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one. Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Alhough they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil"). (论点要深入分析,勿记流水帐)

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段落内部的关系

一、段落的基本概念：
１．段落的作用：An informative paragraph should tell your readers all they need to know about a single idea, in a logical sequence, without wasting their time with irrelevant detail.
这里注意段落基本的三要素：
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一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
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一个合理的逻辑顺序
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没有无关细节

注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的：Groups of paragraphs make up the sections of your paper, which are its next larger logical units. Most of the principles for writing informative paragraphs apply to whole sections, too, so we won't deal separately with putting sections together. Whatever I say about putting sentences together into paragraphs applies also to putting paragraphs together into sections.-The structure of a paragraph parallels the structure of an essay in order as well as content.

２．
段落的长短问题：
首先援引一段比较有趣的论断：An essay is like a girl's skirt-it should be long enough to cover the topic(body) and short enough to be interesting!
实际上段落的长短是没有一个绝对的标准的，就像上面那句话一样，长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要。
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但是，过短的段落说明你信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
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过长的段落说明你信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。

一、段落的组成结构：
１．The topic sentence:
有两个作用：首先它实际上是你本段话题的Thesis,起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话，很少可以见到在文章的最后出现，并且最好不要这样使用！
２．Supporting evidence/analysis:
由论据和论证组成，为了合理的论证观点TS.必须在论据和论证之间找到一个平衡！
３．The conclusion(observation):
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句！结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。

段落组成实例：
In modern America, as it happens, the importance of overlooking is probably greater than ever before.
Even a person trying to lead a quiet, simple life encounters an endless stream of annoyances, errors and petty demands such as paperwork, filing numbers and taxes; long lines at the bank; exponentially aggravating traffic jams and sullen, uncooperative coworkers and neighbors.
Those of us who cannot overlook such annoyances will invariably succumb to self-defeating dismay.
注意上面，划单线的是TS,划双线的是Conclusion，中间的是Supporting details.

二、
段落组成的内容：
内容基本原则：

·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
１．
为什么要不停的让读者知道你的下一步怎么写？
Everyone needs to take stock of the present situation and to have some idea where they're going before plunging off in a new direction. That's why you need to give your readers signposts that tell them where they are and where you're going to lead them, not just at the beginning of your paper, but frequently along the way.

２．怎么做？
Whenever you introduce a new idea, your readers will appreciate definitions, examples and comparisons with things they already know. They will feel more comfortable with your new information if they have a familiar reference to hang on to. Three ways to do this are with orienting words and phrases, by letting the old amplify the new, and by adding explanatory words and phrases, where necessary.
（１）
USE ORIENTING WORDS AND PHRASES：
Here are a few orienting words and phrases you can use to introduce familiar concepts and to make your readers comfortable by touching base with things they already know:
·
of course
·
as you know
·
until now
·
obviously
·
normally
·
previously
·
everyone is familiar with
·
remember that


（２）
LET THE NEW AMPLIFY THE OLD：

As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new. For example:
The new Videx compact video disk player weighs one-third and costs less than half of the 1992 model. Furthermore, it can hold up to six times as much programming and uses tiny 3-inch disks instead of the bulky 12-inch ones.
Isn't this version much more informative than one that would begin by listing the undesirable characteristics of the old machines, then told you what the latest ones are like? How often do you begin your news with a long historical background? Such background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast（旧事物的作用） with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning. (只以旧事物作参考系，主角为新事物)


（３）
ADD EXPLANATORY WORDS AND PHRASES：

Often, when you are introducing new ideas, you will have to expand and clarify them with definitions and explanatory material. Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
To decide how much explanatory material you need, you have to form a clear picture of your audience and how familiar they are with what you're saying. In general, it's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
（提供足够的背景信息）

三、段内句子连接：
注意三个原则：
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Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题（主题明确）
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Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体（联系紧密）
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Connection－适当的连接句子（运用transmission devices）

（一）利用逻辑连接词连接段落：
As you build paragraphs, you'll need some "glue" to bind your sentences together. Otherwise, your readers will have trouble making the logical jumps from one sentence to the next. Even though the connections between your sentences may be clear to you, you can't count on your readers to supply those links. Remember that a paragraph should form a single logical unit. If it doesn't create a single idea in your readers' minds, it's not doing its job.

English supplies us with useful linking words called connectives, （逻辑连接词）which form the logical bridges between ideas. If you keep these verbal guideposts in mind and use them as you write, you will almost automatically provide the interrelations among ideas that every reader looks for.
Here is a list of some connectives. Like the subordinating conjunctions, these are the good guys; use them liberally (but correctly and appropriately), and I guarantee that your writing will become more effective. They are hard to overuse.


Connectives that give a sense of timeAll of these words and phrases link ideas and assure continuity in your writing. (具体的这些连接词我在写作语言里边有更详细的总结)


（二）利用重复：
Another useful principle to assure continuity in your writing and tie your sentences together is:

TRY TO HAVE A WORD OR PHRASE SOMEWHERE IN EACH SENTENCE THAT REFERS TO SOMETHING IN A PREVIOUS SENTENCE.

这个就是神秘的核心词重复！！
１．One easy way to follow this principle is to use pronominal adjectives like these to refer to nouns in previous sentences:

THIS	THAT
THESE	WHICH
THEIR	HIS
ITS	HER

利用人称和其他代词指代。
For example:
Dr. Quark testified that the only scientific value of creationism lies in its position among primitive superstitions and mythologies. His testimony helped strike down laws requiring its teachings to be included in biology textbooks.
２．Another way to assure continuity in your writing is simple repetition; that is, carry the same nouns from one sentence to the next.
核心词重复（或者改写重复）

For example:
Scientists map the winds and precipitation inside hurricanes by flying specially instrumented aircraft through them. These aircraft must withstand stresses of up to six times the force of gravity.
If you try to use these connective devices in your own writing, but have difficulty, be suspicious that the ideas that you're trying to link together in a single paragraph are merely a sequence (that is, a catalog) of logically unrelated ideas. Rearrange or rewrite them until you can logically tie them together. Remember: All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
３．利用强调词：
INTENSIVES
Another way to tie ideas together is with intensives. Intensives help you emphasize what's important and to set the important apart from the incidental（去支强干） -- a major goal of all scientific and technical writing. Compare the following two sentences, the first without intensives and the second with intensives added:
The whale is the largest living mammal. The largest whales weigh over 150 tons, are 100 feet long, and consume 5 tons of food each day.
The whale is by far the largest living mammal. In fact, the largest whales weigh as much as 150 tons and grow as long as 100 feet. These enormous animals consume 5 tons of food each day.
Notice how the bold words that have been added emphasize certain points the author deemed important.
Here is a list of some useful intensives: （很有用）


CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic（大蒜- -） -- sparingly. Eliminate intensives that are thrown in gratuitously or that don't make a definite contribution by emphasizing an important fact or idea. Littering your writing with intensives where they are not needed makes your writing sound trite and strains your credibility.

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动词的时态
1 一般现在时的用法

1) 经常性或习惯性的动作，常与表示频度的时间状语连用。
时间状语： every…, sometimes, at…, on Sunday
I leave home for school at 7 every morning.

2) 客观真理，客观存在，科学事实。
The earth moves around the sun.
Shanghai lies in the east of China.
3) 表示格言或警句中。
Pride goes before a fall.骄者必败。
注意：此用法如果出现在宾语从句中，即使主句是过去时，从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例：Columbus proved that the earth is round..
4) 现在时刻的状态、能力、性格、个性。
I don't want so much.
Ann Wang writes good English but does not speak well.
比较：Now I put the sugar in the cup.
I am doing my homework now.

第一句用一般现在时，用于操作演示或指导说明的示范性动作，表示言行的瞬间动作。再如：Now watch me, I switch on the current and stand back. 第二句中的 now是进行时的标志，表示正在进行的动作的客观状况，所以后句用一般现在时。
2 一般过去时的用法
1）在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或存在的状态。
时间状语有：yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982等。
Where did you go just now?

2）表示在过去一段时间内，经常性或习惯性的动作。
When I was a child, I often played football in the street.
Whenever the Browns went during their visit, they were given a warm welcome.

3）句型：
It is time for sb. to do sth"到……时间了""该……了"
It is time sb. did sth. "时间已迟了""早该……了"
It is time for you to go to bed.你该睡觉了。
It is time you went to bed.你早该睡觉了。
would (had) rather sb. did sth.表示'宁愿某人做某事'(虚拟语气)
I'd rather you came tomorrow.

4) wish, wonder, think, hope 等用过去时，作试探性的询问、请求、建议等。
I thought you might have some. 我以为你想要一些。
比较：
一般过去时表示的动作或状态都已成为过去，现已不复存在。
Christine was an invalid all her life.
(含义：她已不在人间。)
Christine has been an invalid all her life.（完成时，过去动作持续到现在）
(含义：她现在还活着)
Mrs. Darby lived in Kentucky for seven years.
(含义：达比太太已不再住在肯塔基州。)
Mrs. Darby has lived in Kentucky for seven years.
( 含义：现在还住在肯塔基州，有可能指刚离去)
注意： 用过去时表示现在，表示委婉语气。（多见于情态动词）
1）动词 want, hope, wonder, think, intend 等。
Did you want anything else?
I wondered if you could help me.
2）情态动词 could, would.
Could you lend me your bike?
3 used to / be used to
used to + do："过去常常"表示过去习惯性的动作或状态，但如今已不存在。
Mother used not to be so forgetful.
Scarf used to take a walk.(过去常常散步)
be used to + doing： 对……已感到习惯，或"习惯于"，to是介词，后需加名词或动名词。
He is used to a vegetarian diet.
Scarf is used to taking a walk.(现在习惯于散步)

4 一般将来时
1)shall用于第一人称，常被will 所代替。
will 在陈述句中用于各人称，在征求意见时常用于第二人称。（区别于 shall we）
Which paragraph shall I read first.
Will you be at home at seven this evening?

2)be going to +不定式，表示将来。
a. 主语的意图，即将做某事。
What are you going to do tomorrow?
b. 计划，安排要发生的事。
The play is going to be produced next month。
c. 有迹象要发生的事
Look at the dark clouds, there is going to be a storm.

3)be +不定式表将来，按计划或正式安排将发生的事。
We are to discuss the report next Saturday.

4)be about to +不定式，意为马上做某事。
He is about to leave for Beijing.
注意：be about to 不能与 tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。(于“立即”的概念冲突)
5 be going to / will


用于条件句时， be going to表将来
will表意愿
If you are going to make a journey, you'd better get ready for it as soon as possible.
Now if you will take off your clothes, we will fit the new clothes on you in front of the mirror.
6 be to和be going to
be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事。
be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。
I am to play football tomorrow afternoon.(客观安排)
I'm going to play football tomorrow afternoon. (主观安排)
7 一般现在时表将来
1）下列动词：come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return的一般现在时表将来。这主要用来表示在时间上已确定或安排好的事情。（客观事实）
The train leaves at six tomorrow morning.
When does the bus star? It stars in ten minutes.

2）倒装句，表示动作正在进行，如：
Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming.
There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing.

3）在时间或条件句中。
When Bill comes (不是will come), ask him to wait for me.
I'll write to you as soon as I arrive there.

4）在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。
I hope they have a nice time next week.
Make sure that the windows are closed before you leave the room.

8 用现在进行时表示将来

意为："意图"、"打算"、"安排"、常用于人。常用词为 come, go, start, arrive, leave, stay（瞬间动词的进行时表将来）等。
I'm leaving tomorrow.
Are you staying here till next week?
9 现在完成时
现在完成时用来表示之前已发生或完成的动作或状态，其结果的确和现在有联系。动作或状态发生在过去但它的影响现在还存在；也可表示持续到现在的动作或状态。其构成： have (has) +过去分词。
10 比较过去时与现在完成时
1）过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情，强调动作；现在完成时为过去发生的，强调过去的事情对现在的影响，强调的是影响。
2）过去时常与具体的时间状语连用，而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用，或无时间状语。
一般过去时的时间状语:
yesterday, last week，…ago, in1980, in October, just now, 具体的时间状语
共同的时间状语:
this morning, tonight, this April, now, once，before, already, recently，lately
现在完成时的时间状语
for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till / until, up to now, in past years, always,
不确定的时间状语
3）现在完成时可表示持续到现在的动作或状态，动词一般是延续性的，如live, teach, learn, work, study, know. （延续性的动词）
过去时常用的非持续性动词有come, go, leave, start, die, finish, become, get married等。

句子中如有过去时的时间副词（如 yesterday, last, week, in 1960）时，不能使用现在完成时，要用过去时。
（错）Tom has written a letter to his parents last night.
（对）Tom wrote a letter to his parents last night.

11 用于现在完成时的句型
1）It is the first / second time…. that…结构中的从句部分，用现在完成时。
It is the first time that I have visited the city.
It was the third time that the boy had been late.

2）This is the… that…结构，that 从句要用现在完成时.
This is the best film that I've (ever) seen.
这是我看过的最好的电影。
This is the first time (that) I've heard him sing.这是我第一次听他唱歌。


This is the largest fish I have ever seen. It is / was the first time +that-clause 的句型中，从句要用完成时。
注意：非延续性动词的否定形式可以与表示延续时间的状语连用。即动作不发生的状态是可以持续的。

12 比较since和for
（since加时间点，for加时间区间）

Since 用来说明动作起始时间，for用来说明动作延续时间长度。
I have lived here for more than twenty years.
I have lived here since I was born..
My aunt has worked in a clinic since 1949.

注意：并非有for 作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。
I worked here for more than twenty years.
(我现在已不在这里工作。)
I have worked here for many years.
(现在我仍在这里工作。)
13 since的四种用法

1) since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。
I have been here since 1989.

2) since +一段时间+ ago
I have been here since five months ago.

3) since +从句(表时间点)
Great changes have taken place since you left.
Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.

4) It is +一段时间+ since从句
It is two years since I became a postgraduate student.
14 延续动词与瞬间动词

1) 用于完成时的区别
延续动词表示经验、经历；
瞬间动词表示行为的结
果，不能与表示段的时间状语连用。
He has completed the work.他已完成了那项工作。 (表结果)
I've known him since then.我从那时起就认识他了。(表经历)
2)用于till / until从句的差异
延续动词用于肯定句，表示"做……直到……" 瞬间动词用于否定句，表示"到 ……，才……"


2.---I'm sorry to keep you waiting.
---Oh, not at all. I ___ here only a few minutes.
A. have beenB. had beenC. wasD. will be
答案A. 等待的动作由过去开始，持续到现在，应用现在完成时。
15 过去完成时

1）
概念：表示过去的过去
----|-------|-----|---->其构成是had +过去分词构成。
那时以前那时现在
2）
用法
a.在told, said, knew, heard, thought等动词后的宾语从句。
She said (that) she had never been to Paris.
b. 状语从句
在过去不同时间发生的两个动作中，发生在先，用过去完成时；发生在后，用一般过去时。
When the police arrived, the thieves had run away.
c. 表示意向的动词，如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等，用过去完成时表示"原本…，未能…"（虚拟语气）
We had hoped that you would come, but you didn't.

3)过去完成时的时间状语before, by, until , when, after, once, as soon as。（提示过去的过去）
He said that he had learned some English before.
By the time he was twelve, Edison had began to make a living by himself.
Tom was disappointed that most of the guests had left when he arrived at the party.
注意：had no … when还没等…… 就……
had no sooner… than刚…… 就……
He had no sooner bought the car than he sold it.
16 用一般过去时代替完成时


1)两个动作如按顺序发生，又不强调先后，或用then，and，but 等连词时，多用一般过去时。
When she saw the mouse， she screamed.
My aunt gave me a hat and I lost it.

2 ) 两个动作相继发生，可用一般过去时；如第一个动作需要若干时间完成，用过去完成时。
When I heard the news, I was very excited.（瞬间完成）

3)叙述历史事实，可不用过去完成时，而只用一般过去时。
Our teacher told us that Columbus discovered America in 1492.
17 将来完成时


1) 构成will / be going to do sth.
2) 概念
a. 状态完成：表示某事继续到将来某一时为止一直有的状态。
b. 动作完成：表示将来某一时或另一个将来的动作之前，已经完成的动作或一获得的经验。
They will have been married for 20 years by then.
You will have reached Shanghai by this time tomorrow.
18 现在进行时

现在进行时的基本用法：
a. 表示现在( 指说话人说话时) 正在发生的事情。
We are waiting for you.
b. 习惯进行：表示长期的或重复性的动作，说话时动作未必正在进行。
Mr. Green is writing another novel.
(说话时并未在写，只处于写作的状态。)
She is learning piano under Mr. Smith.
c. 表示渐变的动词有：get, grow, become, turn, run, go, begin等。
The leaves are turning red.
It's getting warmer and warmer.
d. 与always, constantly, forever 等词连用，表示反复发生的动作或持续存在的状态，往往带有说话人的主观色彩。
You are always changing your mind.

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连词是一种虚词， 它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词，短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类：并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等等。

1 并列连词与并列结构
并列连词引导两个并列的句子。
1)and 与or
注意：and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。（or也有此用法）

Make up your mind, and you'll get the chance.
= If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance.

One more effort, and you'll succeed.
= If you make one more effort, you'll succeed.

2)both …and两者都
She plays (both) the piano and the guitar.

3)not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且）
She plays not only the piano, but (also) the guitar.


注意： not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。

Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.

4)neithe…nor 意思为"既不……也不……"谓语动词采用就近原则，与nor后的词保持一致。
Neither you nor he is to blame.

2 比较and和or
1) 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。

2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点：

There is no air or water in the moon.

There is no air and no water on the moon.
在否定中并列结构用or 连接，但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构，因此要用and。
典型例题
---I don't like chicken ___ fish.
---I don't like chicken, ___ I like fish very much.
A. and； and B. and； but C. or； but D. or；and
答案C。否定句中表并列用or, but 表转折。
判断改错：
(错) We will die without air and water.
(错) We can't live without air or water.
(对) We will die without air or water.
(对) We can't live without air and water.

3 表示选择的并列结构

1) or意思为"否则"。

I must work hard, or I'll fail in the exam.

2) either…or意思为"或者……或者 ……"。注意谓语动词采用就近原则。

Either you or I am right.（就近原则）
4 表示转折或对比

1) but表示转折，while表示对比。

Some people love cats, while others hate them.

典型例题
--- Would you like to come to dinner tonight?
--- I'd like to, ___ I'm too busy.
A. and B. so C. as D. but
答案D。but与前面形成转折，符合语意。而表并列的and， 结果的so，原因的as都不符合句意。

2) not…but… 意思为"不是 ……而是……"

not 和but 后面的用词要遵循一致原则。

They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being.

5 表原因关系

1) for
判断改错：

(错) For he is ill, he is absent today.

(对) He is absent today, for he is ill.

for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。

2) so, therefore
He hurt his leg, so he couldn't play in the game.

注意：

a. 两个并列连词不能连用，但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。
You can watch TV, and or you can go to bed.
He hurt his leg, and so / and therefore he couldn't play in the game.

b. although… yet…，但although不与 but连用。

(错)Although he was weak, but he tried his best to do the work..

(对)Although he was weak, yet he tried his best to do the work.

6 比较so和 such

其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副
词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。

so + adj. such + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + a(n) + n. such + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (pl.) such +n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. [不可数]such +n. [不可数]

so foolish such a fool
so nice a flower such a nice flower
so many/ few flowers such nice flowers
so much/little money. such rapid progress
so many people such a lot of people


so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。

so…that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。

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Strategies for Writing a Conclusion

Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write,（注意结论的重要性！） and many writers feel that they have nothing left to say after having written the paper. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best. Your conclusion should be the best part of your paper.

A conclusion should

• stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
• give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
• leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）

Suggestions

• Answer the question "So What?"
  （强调文章的重要性）

Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.

Play the "So What" Game.

• Synthesize,（综合观点） don't summarize
  (深挖和升华)
  • Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.

• Redirect your readers （应该算是引起读者思考吧）
  • Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.

• Create a new meaning
  • You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together（这个算是整合观点么）, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
• Point to broader implications.

For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

Strategies

• Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.

Example

Introduction

From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.

Conclusion

I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）

• Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维） By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.

Example

Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.

• Looking to the future:（展望未来） Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

Example

Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（掷地有声）

• Posing questions:（提出问题） Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

Example

Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

Strategies to Avoid·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（这句话很有用）
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.（不要引入新观点）
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.（不能改变主旨）
·
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).（不要煽情）
·
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.
The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion. This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say. Example: In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.（简单复述文章中的观点）
2.
The "Sherlock Holmes: Conclusion. Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion. You might be tempted to use this strategy if you don't want to give everything away too early in your paper. You may think it would be more dramatic to keep the reader in the dark until the end and then "wow" her with your main idea, much like a Sherlock Holmes mystery. The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front. Example: (After a paper that lists numerous incidents from the book but never says what these incidents reveal about Douglass and his views on education): So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders' power and also an important step toward freedom.（不要弯弯绕）
3.
The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion. This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper. A more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic. Bad Example: Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.（还是不要煽情）
4.
The "Grab Bag" Conclusion（抓包。。。）. This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper. You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion. Bad Example: In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.（跟上面的结论不要出现论据差不多）

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学到一句话
信息密度X字数=信息传递量, which is the thing raters care.

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Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
Words and Phrases With the -ing form (gerund) of words:
Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
With infinitive phrases:
Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.

OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
(Note: You can use "to" before all the verbs in a sentence or only before the first one.)
Do not mix forms.(形式要一致 词性一致)
Example 1

Not Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.
Parallel:

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.
Example 2

Not Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurate ly, and in a detailed manner.
Parallel:

The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.
Example 3

Not Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
Parallel:

The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.
Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
Example 1

Not Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
— or —
Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Example 2

Not Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive)

Parallel:

The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions.
Lists After a Colon
Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.
Example 1

Not Parallel:

The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel:

The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs.
Proofreading Strategies to Try:
·Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
·If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
·Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

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Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness

1. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers

2. Change phrases into single words

Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes to wordiness. Convert phrases into single words when possible.

3. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases（不恰当的使用会分散读者注意力，造成句子逻辑的混乱）

4. Avoid overusing expletives（感叹语） at the beginning of sentences

Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb

6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs

7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases

Some infinitive phrases can be converted into finite verbs or brief noun phrases.

8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions

9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail

10. Omit repetitive wording

Redundant Categories

Specific words imply their general categories, so we usually don't have to state both.

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1 独立主格

（一）：独立主格结构的构成：
名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词；
名词(代词)+形容词；
名词(代词)+副词；
名词(代词)+不定式；
名词(代词) +介词短语构成。

（二）
独立主格结构的特点：

1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定
式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。

2 With的复合结构作独立主格

表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语
举例: He stood there, his hand raised.

1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：
当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制

A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.

( hand前不能加his)。

2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分
词，不及物动词用过去分词。

He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.

特殊词

5 cease doing/to do


cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事。
cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做。

be afraid doing/to do

be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。



10 mean to doing/to do
mean to do 打算、想
mean doing意味着

11 begin(start) doing/to do

begin / start to do sth
begin / start doing sth.

1)谈及一项长期活动或开始一种习惯时，使用doing.

How old were you when you first started playing the piano?

你几岁时开始弹钢琴？
2)begin, start用进行时时，后面动词用不定式to do（避免重复）
I was beginning to get angry。
我开始生起气来。
3)在attempt, intend, begin, start 后接 know, understand, realize这类动词时，常用不定式to do。
I begin to understand the truth。
我开始明白真相。
4)物作主语时
It began to melt.

12 感官动词 + doing/to do
感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do
表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性

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第四次作业

30篇A的读后感
没什么思路，所以决定先拿我最爱的这篇AWintro里的A的6分范文说事

The notion that protective gear reduces the injuries suffered in accidents seems at first glance to be an obvious conclusion. After all, it is the intent of these products to either provent accidents from occuring in the first place or to reduce the injuries suffered by the wearer should an accident occur. However, the conclusion that investing in high quality protective gear greatly reduces the risk of being severely injured in an accident may mask other (and potentially more significant) causes of injuries and may inspire people to over invest financially and psychologically in protective gear.（这个开头特别的地方在于指出了题干中错误推理的后果，体现了作者思维的深度）

First of all, as mentioned in the argument, there are two distinct kinds of gear - preventative gear (such as light reflecting material) and protective gear (such as helmets). Preventative gear is intended to warn others, presumably for the most part motorists, of the presence of the roller skater. It works only if the "other" is a responsible and caring individual who will afford the skater the necessary space and attention. Protective gear is intended to reduce the effect of any accident, whether it is caused by an other, the skater or some force of nature. Protective gear does little, if anything, to prevent accidents but is presumed to reduce the injuries that occur in an accident. The statistics on injuries suffered by skaters would be more interesting if the skaters were grouped into those wearing no gear at all, those wearing protective gear only, those wearing preventative gear only and those wearing both. These statistics could provide skaters with a clearer understanding of which kinds of gear are more beneficial.（先批这篇argument的推理基础：数据，提出了对数据的修改意见，紧跟分析，一气呵成。而看30篇A的时候，这部分大多是出现在结尾的，有时仅仅是重复上文观点）

The argument above is weakened by the fact that it does not take into account the inherent differences between skaters who wear gear and those who do not. If is at least likely that those who wear gear may be generally more responsible and/or safety conscious individuals. The skaters who wear gear may be less likely to cause accidents through careless or dangerous behavior. It may, in fact, be their natural caution and repsonsibility that keeps them out of the emergency room rather than the gear itself. Also, the statistic above is based entirely on those who are skating in streets and parking lots which are relatively dangerous places to skate in the first place. People who are generally more safety conscious (and therefore more likely to wear gear) may choose to skate in safer areas such as parks or back yards.（觉得是最充分的一个理由，这一段以一个also整合了两个攻击点，后一个印证了前一个 ，举出了一个有理有据的alternative explanation）

The statistic also goes not differentiate between severity of injuries. The conclusion that safety gear prevents severe injuries suggests that it is presumed that people come to the emergency room only with severe injuries. This is certainly not the case. Also, given that skating is a recreational activity that may be primarily engaged in during evenings and weekends (when doctors' offices are closed), skater with less severe injuries may be especially likely to come to the emergency room for treatment.（联系生活常识来说理。。。当然这是老美的生活常识）

Finally, there is absolutely no evidence provided that high quality (and presumably more expensive) gear is any more beneficial than other kinds of gear. For example, a simple white t-shirt may provide the same preventative benefit as a higher quality, more expensive, shirt designed only for skating. Before skaters are encouraged to invest heavily in gear, a more complete understanding of the benefit provided by individual pieces of gear would be helpful.（举出事例，批驳了speaker的结论）

The argument for safety gear based on emergency room statistics could provide important information and potentially saves lives. （这一段也是一般文章里没有的，作者指出了这篇argument的意义，又体现了作者的功底）Before conclusions about the amount and kinds of investments that should be made in gear are reached, however, a more complete understanding of the benefits are needed. After all, a false confidence in ineffective gear could be just as dangerous as no gear at all.（结尾呼应了开头，然而又比开头更近一步，简短而有力，这就是所谓的“豹尾”）


总结：1、AWintro里反复强调要仔细阅读题干，而看题干不仅仅是找攻击点，攻击点之间不是完全分离的，由数据或现象得到结论，speaker的推理思路决定了这些攻击点是有内在联系的，根据是什么，假设是什么，结论是什么，通过考虑这些问题来理清speaker的思路，只有理清了作者的思路，我们的思路才能够清晰。
2、模板。  看30篇A的时候，评论里出现最多的就是说模板的痕迹比较重。那到底要不要用模板，我以为有模板的应该是思路（是指经过大量训练后而得到的严密的思维习惯），而那种把A变成填空的模板要不得，坏处一来是使你的文章充斥了大量无用信息（wordy），而来模板中那些固定的transmission devices容易使文章的逻辑混乱，看看这篇范文并没用几个transmission devices（红字），用的也是最简单的那么几个，不借助连接词，文章依旧浑然一体，这就是作者的功力所在。
3、面对一篇argument,把speaker驳得体无完肤当然可以体现我们的水平，然而这篇范文在反驳作者之余，也指出了这篇argument有益的方面。实际上学术上的一切争论都不是为争论而争论，而是为了得出一些有价值的结论。从一个academic reader的角度，我们也学更应该从帮助speaker完善观点的角度来看argument.

想到什么写什么，一点浅见~

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发现自己真的有 writing block...半天写不出一篇argument...
期末备考中。。。
先增加输入吧~

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进几天还是阅读为主~周四两场考试~~
REBORN FROM THE ASHES   要开始了啊，同路的伙伴们~