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本帖最后由 米饭袜子 于 2009-4-25 23:17 编辑
额。。。政治类的题目真是把米饭恶心毁了,搞得最后极郁闷地上谷歌上搜“什么是政治”(!@#¥%……&*)
8那个题目里的political leaders应该是有两个意思:(from WIKI)
A politician (from Greek "polis") is an individual who is involved in influencing public decision making through the influence of politics or a person who influences the way a society is governed. This includes people who hold decision-making positions in government, and people who seek those positions, whether by means of election, coup d'état, appointment, electoral fraud, conquest, right of inheritance (see also: divine right) or other means. Politics are not limited to governance through public office. Political offices may also be held in corporations, and other entities that are governed by self-defined political processes.
然后我分析了半天觉得would-be leaders那种人withhold information的必要性和有利性不证自明啊,这个谁都知道,于是我就想从政府方便证明,结果没写出来太多东西,大体思路是:政府代表人民利益==》如何维护人民利益?最基本的是要给人民一个稳定的生存环境,社会环境==》information对人的生活有很大影响==》有害的Information会使社会环境混乱==》什么是有害的information(from the web)有害信息是指那些和人们具体生活无关,涉及外交、国防和暂时无法证实的巨大灾难以及谣言传播的事实。比如,当情报真实地提示我们,某个国家正在准备对我们发动某种侵害行为,甚至外国媒体也作了星星点点的报道,但我们还没有证据认定他国对我国实施这一行动,我们就不能在新闻发布会上贸然发出谴责的声音。作为一个对社会负责的政府或社会组织,只有适时发布确凿的事件,才能有理有据地揭露某种动向,争取人心,安抚人民,也让各种谣言应声而破。回避对己有害的信息,是对政府或者社会组织公信力的考验,也是对新闻发言人是否成熟的检验。 ===》分别从国家安全,社会稳定,对公众负责的角度论述其必要性(但因为发现是一个本质---为了人民生活环境的稳定---就写在了一段里,后果就是最后只有四百来字额。。。)
:dizzy:抑郁。。。。。。blue。。。。。。。
传资料吧哎。。。。。
什么是政治:
运用观念驾驭公众力量来提高自己获得社会权力和运用社会权力的效能的方式和技能,称为政治。
政治的具体表现形态就是“讲道理”,就是根据一定的道理用语言说服他人接受对自己有利的观念和不接受对自己不利的观念,从而使他人支持自己的主观行为。在社会生活中,个人的力量是很有限的,但只要善于运作观念,就能够获得强大的社会力量的支持,个人的主观行为效能就能够大大提高,这就是政治的神奇之处。要想取得争夺利益和权力的成功,就必须通过斗争战胜对手。运用政治手段与对手斗争,就称为政治斗争。政治斗争的基本内容就是运作观念。在政治活动中,有六种客观要素对政治活动成效的影响最大,这就是被称为政治六要素的观念、团体、权威、形象、事件、武装
政治最有价值的社会功能,就是使社会公共权力正常存在和正常发挥其对社会生活的管理功能。政治的原意就是建立政权治理社会。
政治的原意,是指建立政权和运用政权治理社会的实践过程。政权就是社会公共权力。社会公共权力,是人类对自身社会生活进行管理的必然产物。创建和维护社会秩序,社会生活的运行管理,都只能通过社会公共权力来实施。对于人们的社会生活,任何时候都离不开公共权力。然而,公共权力又能为人们谋取社会利益提供最大的便利,没有利益实惠的公共权力都只能是短命的,这正是人们普遍追求公共权力的根本原因。在人们争夺社会利益和权力的斗争中,社会公共权力往往是最重要的争夺对象。公共权力针对的是公众事务,公众是否认可往往是非常关键
一篇关于布什政府911后发布的新政令的文章
The Bush Administration introduced a series of new restrictions on public access to government information following the terrorist attacks of last year. Under the new policy, agencies have removed thousands of pages from government web sites and withdrawn thousands of government documents and technical reports from public libraries. In one case, government depository libraries around the country were ordered to destroy their copies of a recently issued USGS CD-ROM on US water resources.
The new restrictions have alarmed scientists, public interest groups, and concerned citizens because they interfere with the conduct of research and limit legitimate access to information needed for public discussion of key policy issues. Continued growth of restrictions without any clear end in sight creates understandable concern that we are watching a veil of indiscriminate security descending on significant portions of the American policy process.
Without debating the merits of any particular case, it is clear that the new information restrictions have been undertaken in a largely ad hoc fashion. While the unprecedented emergency required quick action in the short term, the inconsistent and often arbitrary policies that have emerged are clearly not satisfactory over the long term. While terrorist threats require reshaping some standards, they do not call for wholesale abandonment of existing processes and safeguards. Few of the issues raised are new. The challenge of drawing a line between what should be protected and what should not has been the subject of years of debate that has resulted in a large and useful body of law and policy that governs information disclosure and provide safeguards against abuse.
Recent steps taken by the administration have exceeded the authority provided by existing law and executive orders. This situation must be quickly remedied. The process of building a new system provides an opportunity to address several flaws in the existing system. The following issues deserve careful scrutiny:
How does the new threat of terrorism affect the criteria for releasing information?
Should separate release decisions be made concerning whether to keep material classified and whether to make it easily available by putting it on the web?
What procedures can be adopted to prevent abuse, and provide assurance that the people making decisions about releasing information are not withholding information to protect themselves from public scrutiny of their actions?
"Sensitive but Unclassified"
Several of the new restrictions on information are not congruent with the existing legal framework defined by the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), or with the executive order that governs national security classification and declassification. FOIA is the primary instrument giving the public the legal right of access to government information. It also provides legal authorization for the government to withhold information that fits within one or more of its nine exemptions (e.g., classified national security information, proprietary information, privacy information, etc.)
Perhaps the most serious example of deviation from existing standards can be found in a March 19 White House memorandum to executive branch agencies, urging them to withhold "sensitive but unclassified information related to America's homeland security."
This is bad policy because no one knows what it means. The meaning of "unclassified" is clear, of course, but the crucial term "sensitive" is not defined. This is a problem, because agencies may have many reasons for considering information "sensitive" that have nothing to do with national security. They may wish to evade congressional oversight, to shield a controversial program from public awareness, or otherwise manipulate the political system through strategic withholding and disclosure of information.
The Administration has also moved to make a distinction between hard copy documents (deemed less sensitive) and web-based documents (deemed more sensitive) that is not recognized in law. No guidelines have been issued defining how to make this distinction or the basis for maintaining the distinction, thereby giving thousands of individual government organizations arbitrary authority to remove material from the web. Since there are no procedures for reviewing these decisions, there are no protections from abuse.
Some agencies are attempting to impose controls on documents that have been declassified under proper authority and publicly released, which is not permitted under current guidelines (and which is probably futile).
Failure to provide a clear definition of "sensitive but unclassified information" points to the need for greater clarity in government information policy-a policy that encompasses legitimate security concerns while upholding the virtues of public disclosure.
Start Making Sense
Crafting a new policy that responds to the sometimes competing interests in security and public access should not be an extraordinarily difficult task.
In the first place, most government information will be self-evidently subject to disclosure under the Freedom of Information Act, or else clearly exempt from disclosure under the provisions of that law. These are easy cases where the proper legal course of action is obvious.
But there will be certain types of information that form an ambiguous middle ground, to which the law has not yet caught up. This may be information that was formerly available on web sites, but that has now been removed, or records that were officially declassified and released, but that have now been withdrawn. It is everything that might conceivably be considered "sensitive but unclassified."
In deciding how to treat such information, the Administration should enunciate a clear set of guiding principles, as well as an equitable procedure for implementing them and appealing adverse decisions.
The guiding principles could be formulated as a set of questions, such as:
Is the information otherwise available in public domain? (Or can it be readily deduced from first principles?) If the answer is yes, then there is no valid reason to withhold it, and doing so would undercut the credibility of official information policy.
Is there specific reason to believe the information could be used by terrorists? Are there countervailing considerations that would militate in favor of disclosure, i.e., could it be used for beneficial purposes? Documents that describe in detail how anthrax spores could be milled and coated so as to maximize their dissemination presumptively pose a threat to national security and should be withdrawn from the public domain. But not every document that has the word "anthrax" in the title is sensitive. And even documents that are in some ways sensitive might nevertheless serve to inform medical research and emergency planning and might therefore be properly disclosed.
Is there specific reason to believe the information should be public knowledge? It is in the nature of our political system that it functions in response to public concern and controversy. Environmental hazards, defective products, and risky corporate practices only tend to find their solution, if at all, following a thorough public airing. Withholding controversial information from the public means short-circuiting the political process, and risking a net loss in security.
Of course, no set of principles will produce an unequivocal result in all cases. There will often be a subjective element to any decision to release or withhold contested information. Someone will always be dissatisfied.
In order to forestall or correct abuses or mistaken judgments, an appeals process should be established to review disputed decisions to withhold information from the public. Placing such a decision before an appeals panel that is outside of the originating agency-and that therefore does not have same bureaucratic interests at stake-would significantly enhance the credibility of the deliberative process.
The efficacy of such an appeals process has been repeatedly demonstrated by an executive branch body called the Interagency Security Classification Appeals Panel. This panel, which hears appeals of declassification requests from the public that have been denied by government agencies, has ruled against its own member agencies in an astonishing 80 percent of the cases it has considered.
A good faith effort to increase the clarity, precision, and transparency of the Bush Administration's information policies, along with provisions for the public to challenge a negative result, would go a long way towards rectifying the current policy morass.
额。。。还有很多没太大用处就先不帖了
blue.........
亲。。。们。。。。。。加。。。。。。。。油。。。。。。。。blue............. |
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