1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by 沸冰伊诺---敬往事一杯，决不后退

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

总是在寄托看帖下资料，从来没有发过贴。在看到版主的REBORN FROM THE ASHES 精英备考组 海选通知后，准备试试。却发现自己根本不会发贴...弱弱的，在论坛里兜了将近一个小时后，才终于按照草木的要求的样子，来开始自己的  备考日记贴。



我看得见云在天上混乱地飞
我听得见滚滚沙场埋一滴泪
这是谁的沙漠 我忘了我是谁

又是谁 让这 天灰

醒在黑山 睡在黄河 风吹往北
昨日故乡 东市骏马 在等着谁
铁衣下的你我 从患难到心碎

我问天 是白是黑

一颗心葬了几滴泪
一生情背我往前飞
记住这天地中的美
沧海世界 一眼成灰

我想喝家里的井水
却吞下生死的滋味

就让我敬往事一杯
对自己说 绝不后退

醒在黑山 睡在黄河 风吹往北
昨日故乡 东市骏马 在等着谁
铁衣下的你我 从患难到心碎
我问天 是白是黑



刚刚从51.test报名回来，这是我第二次冲击GRE.  听着孙燕姿的新歌，想着自己所经历的09年6G，真的是用尽力气在厮杀。虽然结果不是很好，可我自己孤独的经历了那么多---寒冷的北京，能把人挤成照片的公车，昂贵的食物，势利的basement旅店老板......22岁的我，独当一面。XDF里黑压压的牛人层出，前后左右北大哈工大的男男女女让我感觉自己是个混进金子堆里的土豆.半年的时间，专业课6月份GRE8月份TOEFL，我每天拼得脑袋里轰轰得感觉都发热，可最后还是败了。最后当我考完试病倒烧的一塌糊涂感觉胸口憋得喘不过气的时候，还是懦弱的被憋得流泪。我不明白为什么自己付出了那么多最后最后搞得这么狼狈。

GRE:390+760  3.0         TOEFL:R23  L14  S18  W20

   我从不怀疑自己的实力，我喜欢英语，哪怕它是世界上最变态的考试，我也愿意去经历，我也渴望能征服她能最后成功。
   我把自己的成绩贴在这儿，我不怕丢人。我当初就是因为自卑不敢跟别人交流，到最后自己走了不少弯路：GRE把大把时间给了单词，考试时阅读四篇阅读完全没有时间做；写作只是在有限的时间里听老师讲，看范文，argu写了4篇，issue一篇都没敢下手写；TOEFL作文更是只看不动笔，每天一心扑在机经上......这些回想起来都是致命的。家里人为了保险起见，让我准备考研。我去做了，还有两个月就要考试了，每天很尽心的做着。可我心里始终惦记着GRE，我想一如既往的、善始善终的能有个对得起自己和父母的成绩。我也想跟大家站在一起。

我想说的很多都没有说出来，不想说的却说出了口。这里每一个经历过的人都有自己太深刻的体会了。我没有雄赳赳气昂昂地踢着正步开始第二次我的G征程，可是更加平静 更加沉稳的上路了。

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

一楼空出来:handshake

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

关于审题20问：

1.Definition
   What does X mean?
2.Description
   What are the various features of X?
3.Analysis
Simple Analysis:What are the component parts of X?
Process Analysis:How is X made or done?
Directional Analysis:How should X be made or done?
Functional Analysis:What is the essential function of X?
Causal Analysis:What are the causes of X?
                          What are the consequences of X?
4.Classification
   What are the types of X?
5.Comparison
   How is X like or unlike Y?
   What is the present status of X?
6.Interpretation
   What is the significance of X?
7.Reportage
   What are the facts about X?
8.Narration
   How did X happen?
9.Characterization/Profile
   What kind of person is X?
10.Reflection
    What is my personal response to X?
11.Reminiscence
    What is my memory of X?
12.Evaluation
     What is the value of X?
13.Summary
     What are the essential major points or features of X?
14.Persuasion
     What case can be made for or against X?

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

有备无患！！

关于写作前的心理准备：

*1.Focus your energy by rehearsing the task in your head.
*2.Consciously stop the non-productive comments running through your head by replacing them with productive ones.
*3.Breathe deeply. Close your eyes; then, fill your chest cavity slowly by taking four of five short deep breaths. Hold each breath until it hurts, and then let it out slowly.
*4.Use a calming word or mental image to focus on while relaxing. If you choose a word, be careful not to use an imperative. Don't command yourself to "Calm down!" or "Relax!"


下笔前的准备，一定要勇于下笔，可不能盲于下笔。

*5.Write down all the primary ideas you'd like to express and then fill in each with the smaller ideas that make up each primary idea. This can easily be converted into an outline
*6.Talk over the subject with a friend or tutor.
*7.assure yourself that the first draft doesn't have to be a work of genius, it is something to work with.
*8.Force yourself to write down something, however poorly worded, that approximates your thought (you can revise this later) and go on with the next idea.
*9.Break the task up into steps. Meet the general purpose first, and then flesh out the more specific aspects later.
*10.Begin in the MiddleStart writing at whatever point you like. some writers routinely save the introduction until later when they have a clearer idea of what the main idea and purpose of the piece will be.
*11.Play a RolePretend you are someone else writing the paper. For instance, if you have been asked to write about sexist advertising, assume you are the president of the National Organization of Women. Or, pretend you are the president of a major oil company asked to defend the high price of oil. Consider being someone in another time period, or someone with a wildly different perspective from your own. Pulling yourself out of your usual perspective can help you see things that are otherwise invisible or difficult to articulate, and your writing will be stronger for it.


材料准备tips(in the form of computer files,但我觉得也适用于纸质媒介)：

*create separate files for different topics discovered while freewriting.

（1）making an outline
Set up headings for an outline in large bold letters. Later, as you go back and fill in the subheadings and sub points, you will be able to see the larger structure of the paper.
（2）planning visually
         ^Use a drawing or painting program to do some visual planning. To do some clustering, put a topic word or phrase in a circle in the middle of the page and then surround that circle with clusters of related ideas (also in circles). Use lines to connect these ideas to the main idea or to other sub-ideas.
       ^To try branching, another visual planning strategy, put the main idea at the top of the page and then list sub-ideas underneath the main idea with related points for each sub-idea branching off.
(3)  keeping a journal
         ^Start a journal file for each assignment and include thoughts and questions that occur to you as you proceed through the writing.
       ^Include a plan for how you will proceed through the assignment, and if there are stages or steps to complete, write a "to do" list.
       ^Include phrases and ideas that occur to you and that may fit into the paper later with some from one file to another. You may want to insert page breaks for different sections or thoughts.
(4)  creating a scrapfile
         ^As you start an assignment, make two separate files, one for the assignment itself and the other for scraps of writing that you will be collecting. This scrap file can be a very useful storage space for material that should be deleted from the paper you are writing now but that may be useful for other writing assignments.
       ^You may also want a separate file for keywords, words that come to mind and that can be used when needed or phrases that may come in handy as section headings in your paper.
(5)  adding notes
As you gather material from your reading (or want to save comments to yourself about something you've written), develop a method to store this kind of material that you may or may not use.
(6)  Organizing
         ^mixing up the order of paragraphs or sentences
         ^checking your outline
         Reassess the headings of the outline you made during planning to make sue that whether that outline is adequate or well organized.
       ^staying on topic in every paragraph
Put your topic sentence at the top of each paragraph to keep the sentence in mind and not lose track of your topic.
(7)  Revising
        ^check paragraphs
Do the paragraphs look to be about the same length? Does one look noticeably shorter than the others? Does it need more development? Is there a paragraph that seems to be disproportionately long?
        ^check sentence length
Are all of your sentences the same length? Do they all start the same way and need some variety?
        ^changing the appearance of key features of your writing
Change active verbs to bold letters, put passive constructions in italics, use larger fonts for descriptive words, underline your thesis statement, and so on. By changing the appearance of these features, you may see that you have too many passives or that you don't have many descriptive words.
      

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

写作框架的构建(1)：

文章的主题－Thesis：
A.What is a thesis?
^A thesis statement declares what you believe and what you intend to prove.
^A thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) that expresses the main ideas of your paper and answers the question or questions posed by your paper. It offers your readers a quick and easy to follow summary of what the paper will be discussing and what you as a writer are setting out to tell them.
^You must do a lot of background reading before you know enough about a subject to identify key or essential questions.
^The thesis statement is typically located at the end of your opening paragraph.Remember, your reader will be looking for your thesis. Make it clear, strong, and easy to find!

Specific topic + Attitude/Angle/Argument = Thesis

What you plan to argue + How you plan to argue it = Thesis

Argumentative Thesis Statements


In an argumentative paper, you are making a claim about a topic and justifying this claim with reasons and evidence. This claim could be an opinion, a policy proposal, an evaluation, a cause-and-effect statement, or an interpretation.
the goal of your paper is to convince your audience that your claim is true based on your presentation of your reasons and evidence. An argumentative thesis statement will tell your audience:
·     your claim or assertion
·   the reasons/evidence that support this claim
·     the order in which you will be presenting your reasons and evidence

附：Attributes of a good thesis:
内容上：
  ·It should be contestable, proposing an arguable point with which people could reasonably disagree. A strong thesis is provocative; it takes a stand and justifies the discussion you will present.
·It tackles a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned. The thesis should have the quality to be adequately developed in the required length of the paper or project.
·It is specific and focused. A strong thesis proves a point without discussing “everything about …” Instead of music, think "American jazz in the 1930s" and your argument about it. （主题不要假，大，空，要具体针对问题！）
·It clearly asserts your own conclusion based on evidence. Note: Be flexible. The evidence may lead you to a conclusion you didn't think you'd reach. It is perfectly okay to change your thesis!
· To be sure to choose a topic worth arguing about or exploring. This means to construct a thesis statement or research question about a problem that is still debated, controversial, up in the air.
It anticipates and refutes the counter-arguments
结构上：
·It provides the reader with a map to guide him/her through your work.（将主题有布局的展开，在结构上对应内容上的a subject that could be adequately covered in the format of the project assigned）
语言上：
·It avoids vague language (like "it seems").
·It avoids the first person. ("I believe," "In my opinion") （强烈注意，不要使用第一人称！！！！）
·  Does the thesis  avoid general phrasing and sweeping words such as "all" or "none" or "every"? (避免绝对的论调)
Eg:1.The causes of the Civil War were economic, social, and political.
      2.The Simpsons treats the issues of ethnicity, family dynamics, and social issues effectively
      3.Although many parents of teens struggling with body image may blame television models and other such stars, these body issues and their disorders stem back to their daughters' younger days of pigtails and Barbies.
      4. Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s.

B.How to Tell a Strong Thesis Sentence from a Weak One
1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.明确表明立场！   
Eg:
正：Because Banana Herb Tea Supplement promotes rapid weight loss that results in the loss of muscle and lean body mass, it poses a potential danger to customers.   
反：There are some negative and positive aspects to the Banana Herb Tea Supplement.
    (This is a weak thesis. First, it fails to take a stand. Second, the phrase “negative and positive aspects” is vague.)
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.留给大家质疑和讨论的余地．
Eg:
正：While most American families would view consanguineal marriage as a threat to the nuclear family structure, many Iranian families, like my own, believe that these marriages help reinforce kinship ties in an extended family.
（This is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely-accepted view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.）
反：My family is an extended family.
（This is a weak thesis because it states an observation. Your reader won’t be able to tell the point of the statement, and will probably stop reading.）

3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.表达一个主要观点
Eg: 正：Because the Internet is filled with tremendous marketing potential, companies should exploit this potential by using web pages that offer both advertising and customer support.

(This is a strong thesis because it shows that the two ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and “however.”)
反：Companies need to exploit the marketing potential of the Internet, and web pages can provide both advertising and customer support.
（This is a weak thesis statement because the reader can’t decide whether the paper is about marketing on the Internet or web pages. To revise the thesis, the relationship between the two ideas needs to become more clear.）

4. A strong thesis statement is specific.具体而不抽象
Eg:

正：Hunger persists in Appalachia because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertile soil is rarely profitable.
(This is a strong thesis because it narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for the existence of hunger.)
反：World hunger has many causes and effects.
（This is a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, “world hunger” can’t be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, "many causes and effects" is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects.）

附：其他例子：

1.I would like to become a chef when I finish school

Although both chefs and cooks can prepare fine meals, chefs differ from cooks in education, professional commitment, and artistry.

2.I enjoy white water rafting.

A first water rafting experience can challenge the body and spirit and transform an adolescent into an adult

3.Men are chauvinists.

Our American family structure encourages men to repress their true feelings, leaving them open to physical, psychological, and relationship difficulties.

4.Steroid abuse

Steroids, even those legally available, are addictive and should be banned from sports.

5.Hip hop is the best thing that has happened to music in twenty years

Though many people dismiss hip hop as offensive, hip hop music offers urban youth an important opportunity for artistic expression, and allows them to articulate the poetry of the street.

6.Many people object to today's violent horror movies.

Despite their high-tech special effects, today's graphically violent horror movies do not convey the creative use of cinematography or the emotional impact that we saw in the classic horror films of the 1940s and 50s.

C.如何写好主题句
１．Rank with justification　考虑重要性

·Most important to least important
·Least important to most important

2.Contrasts (of perspectives of sources) 对比，考虑流行和反对观点

·Although newspapers at the time claimed ……, the most significant cause/explanation/reason, etc. is ……
·While Sb. and Sb. maintains that  ................, more accurately/importantly, etc, # 2's position is the stronger one. (Substitute "most historians" for  So and So and the appropriate person or view or source for #2.)

3.Perception versus reality; 感觉与现实

lAlthough Turner himself may have believed X, the real causes were Y and Z.

4.Good versus bad reasons:

lHistorians generally list six reasons as the cause for X, but among these are four that are valid and two that are not.

５． Cause and Effect: 因果关系

·Certainly, X was the cause and Y was its effect, but between the two are two other factors of equal importance.
·Separately the causes would have not necessarily led to a rampage; however, together their effect was inevitably murderous.  
·Although the effects of the rampage were . . ., the causes were understandable/justifiable/inevitable.
·The more important effects of Nat Turner's rebellion went beyond those of  the local rampage.

６．Challenge:质疑，否定
Nat Turner's rebellion not a righteous response to the injustice of slavery; it was motivated purely by disturbing psychological issues.   
７．提出系列问题：

·What should the audience/reader do/feel/believe?

·Who are the major players on both/each side and how did they contribute to?

·Which are the most important?
·What was the impact of?

·Can I compare? How is X like or unlike Y?

·What if?  Can I predict?

·How could we solve/improve/design/deal with?
·Is there a better solution to?
·How can you defend?
·What changes would you recommend to?

·Was it effective, justified, defensible, warranted?
·Why did this happen?Why did it succeed? Why did it fail?
·What should be? What are/would be the possible outcomes of?
·What are the problems related to?
·What were the motives behind?
·Why are the opponents protesting?
·What is my personal response to?
·What case can I make for?
·What is the significance of?
·Where will the next move(s) occur?
·How is this debate likely to affect?
·What is the value or, what is/are the potential benefit(s) of?
·What are three/four/five reasons for us to believe?

D.Thesis Brainstorming
As you read look for:

• Interesting contrasts or comparisons or patterns emerging in the information
• Is there something about the topic that surprises you?
• Do you encounter ideas that make you wonder why?
• Does something an "expert" says make you respond, "no way! That can be right!" or "Yes, absolutely. I agree!"

Example of brainstorming a thesis:
Select a topic: television violence and children
Ask an interesting question: What are the effects of television violence on children?
Revise the question into a thesis: Violence on television increases aggressive behavior in preschool children.
Remember this argument is your “preliminary” or “working” thesis. As you read you may discover evidence that may affect your stance. It is okay to revise your thesis!（可以修改自己原来设定的主题，就是说通过对题目的理解和论据的权衡，修改主题以利于论证）
Create a list of sample questions to guide your research:

• How many hours of television does the average young child watch per week?
• How do we identify a "violent" program?
• Which types of programs are most violent?
• Are there scientific research studies that have observed children before and after watching violent programs?
• Are there experts you might contact?
• Which major groups are involved in investigating this question?

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

写作框架的构建(2)：

段落间的关系
综述：A typical essay contains many different kinds of information:introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments.
Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't. Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending. Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.  

"What?"  
What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true?
^To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim.
^This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction.
^Since you're essentially reporting what you've observed, this is the part you might have most to say about when you first start writing. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.  If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.

"How?"
How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making?
^Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section.
^This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.

"Why?"  
Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you?
^ This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context.
^ In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance. Alhough you might gesture at this question in your introduction, the fullest answer to it properly belongs at your essay's end. If you leave it out, your readers will experience your essay as unfinished—or, worse, as pointless or insular.



一些常见的逻辑顺序：
ascending order/climactic order
^In this pattern, items are arranged from least important to most important.      
^Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on. This is a flexible principle of organization, and may guide the organization of all or part of example, comparison & contrast, cause & effect, and description.
psychological order
^This pattern or organization grows from our learning that readers or listeners usually give most attention to what comes at the beginning and the end, and least attention to what is in the middle.
^In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle.
Logical Order: The Key to Coherent Paragraphs and Essays
^cause and effect: if A caused B, discuss A first, then B.
^problem then solution. State the problem first, then give your proposed solution.
^Compare and Contrast


Still other principles of organization based on emphasis include

general-to-specific order,
specific-to general order,
most-familiar-to-least-familiar,
simplest-to-most-complex,
order of frequency,
order of familiarity,
Introduction- Materials and Methods - Results – Discussion      and so on

实际的文章写作，没有这么单纯的顺序，Issue题目中，许多复杂的问题远不能拿这些逻辑顺序概括。实际上，我们把这种复杂的顺序叫做the flow of mind，根据论证的思路排序.

上例子：
A.If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.

If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.
Suppose, for example, you were dealing with two views on the issue of cloning – Go Ahead and Wait A Minute – What Do You Think You’re Doing?
Your outline might look like this:

Introduction
The Go Ahead Position
All Science is Legitimate.
We Can Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk.
The Benefits Outweigh The Risks.
The Wait A Minute Position
Is all Science Legitimate?
Can We Trust Scientists Not To Put Us At Risk?
Do The Benefits Outweigh The Risks?
Conclusion

You can see that we are presenting one position, then using the other position to deal with the arguments of the dissenting position. Thus the Go Ahead Position will be described as objectively as possible. The analysis will come with The Wait A Minute Position.







But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said about the legitimacy of science   before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation,   you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:

Introduction
Is All Science Legitimate?
Yes
Maybe not
Can We Trust The Scientists?
Yes
Not always
Do the Benefits Outweigh the Risks?
Yes
Maybe not
Conclusion

Now you have the chance to deal with both sides of each issue in turn. By the time you get to your conclusion, your reader should have a cumulative understanding of the issues and of the reasons for your position.

Avoid stringing out a list of 7 or more headings without subheadings, because this tends to damage the unity and coherence of your paper .
How do you cover the ground without multiplying your outline headings?  
------You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.  Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.  This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.  



B.Mapping an Essay(Essay maps are flexible; they evolve with your ideas)


*   State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.

*   Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)

*   Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."  Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.  

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

写作框架的构建(3)：


Topic Sentences and Signposting

^Topic sentences  reveal the main point of a paragraph. They show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay's thesis, telegraph the point of a paragraph, and tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows. Topic sentences also establish their relevance right away, making clear why the points they're making are important to the essay's main ideas. They argue rather than report.
Signposts, as their name suggests, prepare the reader for a change in the argument's direction.
^Topic sentences and signposts occupy a middle ground in the writing process. They are neither the first thing a writer needs to address (thesis and the broad strokes of an essay's structure are); nor are they the last (that's when you attend to sentence-level editing and polishing).
^Topic sentences and signposts deliver an essay's structure and meaning to a reader, so they are useful diagnostic tools to the writer—they let you know if your thesis is arguable—and essential guides to the reader.


Forms of Topic Sentences
综述：Sometimes topic sentences are actually two or even three sentences long. If the first makes a claim, the second might reflect on that claim, explaining it further. Think of these sentences as asking and answering two critical questions:
^ How does the phenomenon you're discussing operate?
^Why does it operate as it does?

１．Complex sentences.
Topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph frequently combine with a transition from the previous paragraph. This might be done by writing a sentence that contains both subordinate and independent clauses, as in the example below.（利用复合句，联系上下文的作用）

Although Young Woman with a Water Pitcher depicts an unknown, middle-class woman at an ordinary task, the image is more than "realistic"; the painter [Vermeer] has imposed his own order upon it to strengthen it.  

This sentence employs a useful principle of transitions: always move from old to new information.  


２．Questions.  （提问）
Questions, sometimes in pairs。
Questions are by definition a form of inquiry, and thus demand an answer. Good essays strive for this forward momentum.

３．Bridge sentences.(过渡句)
Bridge sentences indicate both what came before and what comes next (they "bridge" paragraphs) without the formal trappings of multiple clauses: "But there is a clue to this puzzle."  （an excellent substitute for more formal topic sentences）

４．Pivots.
^Topic sentences don't always appear at the beginning of a paragraph. When they come in the middle, they indicate that the paragraph will change direction, or "pivot."
^This strategy is particularly useful for dealing with counter-evidence:

A paragraph starts out conceding a point or stating a fact ("Psychologist Sharon Hymer uses the term Ônarcissistic friendship' to describe the early stage of a friendship like the one between Celie and Shug"); after following up on this initial statement with evidence, it then reverses direction and establishes a claim ("Yet ... this narcissistic stage of Celie and Shug's relationship is merely a transitory one. Hymer herself concedes . . . ").

^ The pivot always needs a signal, a word like "but," "yet," or "however," or a longer phrase or sentence that indicates an about-face.
^It often needs more than one sentence to make its point.



Signposts
综述：Signposts operate as topic sentences for whole sections in an essay. (In longer essays, sections often contain more than a single paragraph.) They inform a reader that the essay is taking a turn in its argument: delving into a related topic such as a counter-argument, stepping up its claims with a complication, or pausing to give essential historical or scholarly background.They reveal the architecture of the essay.

Signposting can be accomplished in a sentence or two at the beginning of a paragraph or in whole paragraphs that serve as transitions between one part of the argument and the next.
上例子：
The following example comes from an essay examining how a painting by Monet, The Gare Saint-Lazare: Arrival of a Train, challenges Zola's declarations about Impressionist art.

It is evident in this painting that Monet found his Gare Saint-Lazare motif fascinating at the most fundamental level of the play of light as well as the loftiest level of social relevance. Arrival of a Train explores both extremes of expression. At the fundamental extreme, Monet satisfies the Impressionist objective of capturing the full-spectrum effects of light on a scene.

The writer signposts this section in the first sentence, reminding readers of the stakes of the essay itself with the simultaneous references to sense impression ("play of light") and intellectual content ("social relevance"). The second sentence follows up on this idea, while the third serves as a topic sentence for the paragraph. The paragraph after that starts off with a topic sentence about the "cultural message" of the painting, something that the signposting sentence predicts by not only reminding readers of the essay's stakes but also, and quite clearly, indicating what the section itself will contain.  



Strategies for Writing a Conclusion

A conclusion should
· stress the importance of the thesis statement, （重现主题句）
· give the essay a sense of completeness, and （完善全文）
· leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）

Suggestions
· Answer the question "So What?" （强调文章的重要性）
Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful.
Play the "So What" Game. If you're stuck and feel like your conclusion isn't saying anything new or interesting, ask a friend to read it with you. Whenever you make a statement from your conclusion, ask the friend to say, "So what?" or "Why should anybody care?" Then ponder that question and answer it. Here's how it might go:

You: Basically, I'm just saying that education was important to Douglass.
Friend: So what?
You: Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.
Friend: Why should anybody care?
You: That's important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.
You can also use this strategy on your own, asking yourself "So What?" as you develop your ideas or your draft.

· Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
o Don't simply repeat things that were in your paper. They have read it. Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.

· Redirect your readers
o Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. （结尾最后从具体再回到一般）Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader's thought process and help her to apply your info and ideas to her own life or to see the broader implications.

· Create a new meaning
o You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.

· Point to broader implications
For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.


Strategies

· Echoing the introduction: （呼应开头）
^Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle.
^If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.

Example :(迪斯尼)
Introduction :

From the parking lot, I could see the towers of the castle of the Magic Kingdom standing stately against the blue sky. To the right, the tall peak of The Matterhorn rose even higher. From the left, I could hear the jungle sounds of Adventureland. As I entered the gate, Main Street stretched before me with its quaint shops evoking an old-fashioned small town so charming it could never have existed. I was entranced. Disneyland may have been built for children, but it brings out the child in adults.


Conclusion:

I thought I would spend a few hours at Disneyland, but here I was at 1:00 A.M., closing time, leaving the front gates with the now dark towers of the Magic Kingdom behind me. I could see tired children, toddling along and struggling to keep their eyes open as best they could. Others slept in their parents' arms as we waited for the parking lot tram that would take us to our cars. My forty-year-old feet ached, and I felt a bit sad to think that in a couple of days I would be leaving California, my vacation over, to go back to my desk. But then I smiled to think that for at least a day I felt ten years old again.（划线部分都是和前面呼应的部分）

· Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）
By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.

Example:（陪审团）
Though serving on a jury is not only a civic responsibility but also an interesting experience, many people still view jury duty as a chore that interrupts their jobs and the routine of their daily lives. However, juries are part of America's attempt to be a free and just society. Thus, jury duty challenges us to be interested and responsible citizens.

· Looking to the future:（展望未来）
Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.

Example：（教师/工薪）
Without well-qualified teachers, schools are little more than buildings and equipment. If higher-paying careers continue to attract the best and the brightest students, there will not only be a shortage of teachers, but the teachers available may not have the best qualifications. Our youth will suffer. And when youth suffers, the future suffers.（好段落！）

· Posing questions:（提出问题）
^Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion.
^It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.

Example:(竞选中的宣传，这个例子我没太看懂哇...)
Campaign advertisements should help us understand the candidate's qualifications and positions on the issues. Instead, most tell us what a boob or knave the opposing candidate is, or they present general images of the candidate as a family person or God-fearing American. Do such advertisements contribute to creating an informed electorate or a people who choose political leaders the same way they choose soft drinks and soap?

Strategies to Avoid

· Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.（很重要！）
· Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
· Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
· Includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper.
     You may find it hard to leave out details that you discovered after hours of research and thought, but adding random facts and bits of evidence at the end of an otherwise-well-organized essay can just create confusion.
· Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
· Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
     more sophisticated commentary, rather than emotional praise, would be a more fitting tribute to the topic.
· Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
· The "Sherlock Holmes" Conclusion.
     The reader does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front.

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呼呼！终于进入写作方法的学习部分了。伸个懒腰，加油！
今天考研现场确认，师兄提醒我时间不多了，政治专业课都要加紧狂背了。  我还是能多学尽量多学多做AW作业，考研要冲刺啦。（语法帖子能不能有时间学啊...）

写作方法：

如何使用论据论证？

（1） Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
（2） Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position
（3） Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
（4） Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim. Weak and Strong Uses of Evidence
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph(为了使这些论据流畅的结合在一起，应该：)
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim.

上例子：
Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much anymore as they once did. Other people and activities take precedence. In fact, the evidence shows that most American families no longer eat together, preferring instead to eat on the go while rushing to the next appointment. Sit-down meals are a time to share and connect with others; however, that connection has become less valued, as families begin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over group identity．

This is a far better example, as the evidence is more smoothly integrated into the text, the link between the claim and the evidence is strengthened, and the evidence itself is analyzed to provide support for the claim
大家其实可以看出来这段的论证好在哪里：划线的部分首先是首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子，让你知道你在读什么，然后就是后边的几乎每个句子都有逻辑的连接词汇连接了起来．

附：Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper

1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

以下三种写作方法分别是关于  行文简洁、文章的修改还有比喻的运用，现在看起来自己很空旷，我感觉是写过习作 有一定积累以后后期要学习的东西，先留在这儿。
基础写作每日一讲（12）Conciseness https://bbs.gter.net/thread-940023-1-1.html
基础写作每日一讲（13）-（15）Proofreading https://bbs.gter.net/thread-941110-1-1.html
基础写作每日一讲（16）Metaphors https://bbs.gter.net/thread-942609-1-1.html

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语法学习(1)：


一.主谓一致

主谓一致是指：

1） 语法形式上要一致，即单复数形式与谓语要一致。

2） 意义上要一致，即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。

3） 就近原则，即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语，
一般来说，不可数名词用动词单数，可数名词复数用动词复数。
但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时，谓语动词用复数形式。

如：Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year.

1、 并列结构作主语时谓语用复数
Reading and writing are very important.

注意： 当主语由and连结时，如果它表示一个同一的概念，即指同一人或同一物时，谓语动词用单数，and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。
The iron and steel industry is very important to our life.
The twentieth lesson and last lesson is very easy for students.

2、 主谓一致中的就近原则

1）当there be 句型的主语是一系列事物时，谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。

There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk..

There are twenty boy-students and a chinese teacher in the class.

2）当either… or… 与neither… nor，not only . . . But also，not . . . But连接两个主语时，谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。
Either you or she is to go.
如果句子是由here, there引导，而主语又不止一个时，谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。
Here is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you.

3、 谓语动词与前面的主语一致(主语之后带有介词短语)

当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时，谓语动词与前面的主语一致。

The teacher together with some students is visiting the factory.

The fruit like apples, oranges is good for our health.

He as well as I wants to go boating.

4 、谓语需用单数

1） 代词each和由every, one,some, no, any等构成的复合代词作主语，或主语中含有each, every, 谓语需用单数。

Each of us has a tape-recorder.

There is something wrong with my watch.

There are twenty boys in our class. One of the boys is from Canada.

2） 当主语是一本书或一条格言时，谓语动词常用单数。
The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English.


3） 表示金钱，时间，价格，或距离，重量，数量等度量衡的复合名词作主语 时，通常把这些名词看作一个整体，谓语一般用单数。(用复数也可，意思不变。)
Three weeks was allowed for making the necessary preparations.

Ten dollar is enough.


5、 指代意义决定谓语的单复数

1） 在代词what, which（定语从句）, who, none, some, any, more, most, all，half of，the rest of，以及a lot of等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定。

All is right. (一切顺利。)
All are present.(所有人都到齐了。)
I like the photos which were taken in Beijing.

2） 集体名词作主语时，谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定。如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee,group，team等词后用复数形式时，意为这个集体中的各个成员，用单数时表示该个集体。

His family isn't very large.他家不是一个大家庭。

His family are music lovers. 他的家人都是音乐爱好者。

但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry,the +形容词，the +姓+family等在任何情况下都用复数形式。
Are there any police around?

3）有些名词，如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数，有时看作复数。
A number of +名词复数+复数动词。A number of books have lent out.
The number of +名词复数+单数动词。强调的是 number这个概念，而非其内容构成。
The majority of the students likes English.


6 、与后接名词或代词保持一致

1） 用half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等词引起主语时，动词通常与of后面的名词，代词保持一致。

Most of his money is spent on books.

Most of the students are taking an active part in sports.

2）用this kind of，a piece of，a bag of，a box of，this pair of等短语作主语时，谓语动词的单复数由这些短语中的名词决定，而与它们所修饰的名词无关。

This pair of trousers is very new, but Tom’s trousers are very old.

3） 在一些短语，如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时，谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时，动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。

Many a person has read the novel.
More than 60 percent of the students are from the city.


7、倒装句
倒装句的常见结构：副词/介词短语+谓语+主语，千万不要介词短语中的宾语误认为成句子的主语。
Between the two buildings is a big tree.

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ISSUE13 Rebuilt the Tower of Babylon

题目：
Many of the world's lesser-known languages are being lost as fewer and fewer people speak them. The governments of countries in which these languages are spoken should act to prevent such languages from becoming extinct.
Part one--Many of the world's lesser-known languages are being lost as fewer and fewer people speak them.

【题目拆解】

【主】lesser-known languages

【逻辑】be—事实

【宾】being lost

【原因】fewer and fewer people speak them

Part two--The governments of countries in which these languages are spoken should act to prevent such languages from becoming extinct.

【主】governments
（限定：which these languages are spoken）
一定要注意这个，不少人会忽视，然后就跑题了的，对should的立意，一定要紧扣government的动机取向

【谓】act to prevent
注意这个动作是prevent（M-W: to keep from happening or existing）

【宾】such languages
方向定好了，是那些lesser-known languages，fewer and fewer people speak them，不要扩大到汉语英语一类的，可以做对比类比，但是始终记住你的主要讨论对象

【逻辑】should--倾向
关键词：lesser-known languages，governments，prevent
topic逻辑&结构：1+1型--先事实陈述，然后给出倾向

追星剑特训之一 Terminology 关键字眼

先看这样一道题：
issue144. "It is the artist, not the critic,* who gives society something of lasting value."

既然讨论的话题在于Lasting value是谁给出的，那么展开之前自然要先明了一下：什么是lasting value？这一问不要紧，不同的人恐怕就给出不同的答案了。以我个人的理解：如果说，以艺术作品的美学价值和其深远影响本身作为lasting value，毫无疑问自然是artist创造的；而如果把这个value着眼于对艺术作品的批判分析从而指导新的艺术风格流派的创造与表达上，critic的位置恐怕当仁不让。当然，不同的人给出不同的答案，想来肯定会有人给出和我的看法完全相左的意见的。

但至少明确一点：如果对lasting value的解释不一样了，这个题目再往下写肯定就迥异的。这也就引出了今天要分析的问题：题目中的关键字。而之所以把Terminology这一专题放在整个特训的最前面，则是因为，每道题都有自己的关键字，对关键字的把握是最universal，也是最需要掌握的。
issue15. "The stability of a society depends on how it responds to the extremes of human behavior."

不妨看看这里的depends。如果说社会稳定依赖于、取决于其对极端行为的反应的话，窃以为这里的动词未免有些夸张。诡辩一点的说，如果在absence of the extremes的情况下，是不是就没法判断the stability of a society了呢？与其说depends，倒不如说reflect比较合适。我破题的思路，也即从depends这个关键词入手，通过分析找到并建立新的关键词予以取代，从而建立自己的论点。

实际上，对考查逻辑的分析性写作考试而言，识别题目的关键字至少有两点基本作用：其一，阐明和确立所进行讨论的前提，不仅是为了在文章中明确体现自己的认识，更同时是给自己明确自己的认识——免得因为对关键词的认识从一开始就模糊摇摆然后写到后半背叛前半；其二，明确了关键字，也就抓住题目的核心问题和关系所在，从关键字入手进行思考，自然是打开思路源泉的首选。



追星剑特训  Is vs should 事实与倾向

作为事实性命题陈述的是现象，状态，而并不涉及从情感、价值等方面做出的选择和判断。题目提出的是一个“状态”，而自己的文章立论无非是要论证题目提出的这个“状态”是对的，是错的，或者不一定的，或者etc
倾向性命题所关心的，恰恰是“应该如何做”，不管和“事实”“状态”一致还是迥异。

1．倾向不能拿来证明事实
2．不涉及价值判断的事实不能拿来证明倾向


追星剑特训 1+1 得寸进尺
所谓1+1与得寸进尺者，指的就是具有类似结构的题目：可以分为前后两半部分，并且可以看出作者认为两部分间有一定程度的递进关系（例如因果）。作者认定了递进不等于我们就同样首肯这一关系，加上前后半各自的claim，这样结构的题目，实际上是具有丰富的入手点的。
看题目：
issue52. "Education encourages students to question and criticize, and therefore does little to promote social harmony."
破题的首要思路当然是对题目做出正面回应。首先作者提出Education encourages students to question and criticize这一事实性命题（注意这里不是倾向性命题
），那么作为回应，必须确立自己的观点：到底我自己认为，Education是不是encourage students to question and criticize的？根据不同人的不同背景经历，立刻能够得到丰富的答案：例如，在中学或者大学度过了美好时光在专业学术上正在大展才华，因而对本校的教育很满意的人，可能就立刻回应“同意作者论点”并以自身为例；而曾饱受应试教育摧残高中摧残到考大学大学摧残到考硕士研究生外加自己颇有些愤青思想的人，可能就要趁机大骂作者胡说了；甚至更进一步的，如果有人把眼光放远些之后，例如同时考虑到各个国家之间差别及其影响时，可能就正好用上Chapter1.1里面提到过的Terminology的方法，把Education这个concept给细细梳理先——来个不同国家Education不一样，然后再确立详细的论点——不同Education做法不一样。

前半的写法就已然如此丰富，而1+1这类题目的魅力就在于，前后两部分交叉起来，可能的论点总是花样儿层出不穷的。继续看：

同意前半Education encourage student to question and criticize的人，对后半的看法可能截然不同。例如，有人认为，按照古训，民总是愚的好，要是都enlighten了那还了得，一个个都能对社会评三评四例如对政府政策来个冷言冷语蛊惑人心的话整个社会马上就乱掉，的确是对social harmony大大的不利——这就是一种看法。与其恰好相反的看法，则是提出question and criticize是为发展带来的契机，通过发现问题解决问题整个社会得到进步，然后整体的social harmony得到促进和提高，同时再找个历史上的某个时期教育搞得好同时社会超级和谐的例子——又是一种观点。相应的，如果用Terminology的方法把social harmony给拆掉，仍然可以写得出来。

花样儿远不止这几种。对前面反对Education encourages的人而言，后面有可能继续反对，有可能反过来却去支持，有可能拆Terminology，甚至加上前面不同Education对应后面不同的与social harmony的关系，等等。统计学的乘法原理在这里一用，就会发现可能的论点是翻着番儿的增加。

而issue226"people are mistaken when they assume that the problems they confront are more complex and challenging than the problems faced by their predecessors. This illusion is eventually dispelled with increased knowledge and experience."
的破题，简单说来就是：题目前半提出人们的看法是个illusion，是吗？——是/不是/取决于历史条件/社会背景…；后半提出illusion的消除，能消掉吗？——能/不能/不一定/根本不是illusion何谈的“消”……潜在写法的丰富程度根本不亚于刚才分析的issue52，只要明确破题思路，做出正面response，找到支持你的看法的论据，一篇文章的构架就基本出来了。


【相关资料，推荐阅读】
保护语言的多样性：
1，Intangible Culture Heritage----Endangered languages
(1)Degree of Endangerment

Degree of endangerment	Intergenerational Language Transmission
safe	language is spoken by all generations; intergenerational transmission is uninterrupted >> not included in the Atlas
unsafe	most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains (e.g., home)
definitely endangered	children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home
severely endangered	language is spoken by grandparents and older generations; while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves
critically endangered	the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak the language partially and infrequently
extinct	there are no speakers left >> included in the Atlas if presumably extinct since the 1950s

(2)safeguarding endangered languages
Half of the 6,7000 languages spoken today are in danger of disappearing before the century ends, a process that can be slowed only if urgent action is taken by governments and speaker communities. UNESCO’s Endangered Languages Program mobilizes international cooperation to focus attention on this grave situation and to promote innovative solutions from communities, experts and authorities.
语言的重要性：
Languages are humankind’s principle tools for interacting and for expressing ideas, emotions, knowledge, memories and values. Languages are also primary vehicles of culture expressions and intangible culture heritage, essential to the indentify of individuals and groups. Safeguarding endangered languages is thus a crucial task in maintaining cultural diversity worldwide.
Language in 2003 convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage
The 2003 Convention recognizes the vital role of language in expression and transmission of living heritage. All intangible cultural heritage domains – from knowledge on the universe to rituals, performing arts to handicrafts – depend on language for their day-to-day practice and inter-generational transmission. In the domain of oral traditions and expressions, language is not only a vehicle of intangible heritage, it is their very essence.
正如联合国教科文组织总干事松浦晃一郎(咦？日本人)所强调的：“一种语言的消失导致许多非物质文化遗产形式的消失，特别是使用这种语言的团体——不必说诗和传说，更不必说谚语和笑话——传统和口头表达组成的珍贵传承。语言的消失同样损害人与生物多样性之间保持的关系，因为语言荷载着丰富的自然以及宇宙知识。”
语言生命力评估：
in 2003 and 2003, UNESCO ask an international group of linguists to develop a framework for determining the vitality of a language in order to assist in policy development, identification of needs and appropriate safeguarding measures. This Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Languages elaborated a landmark concept paper entitled“Language Vitality and Endangerment”, which established the following nine criteria:
            
No single factor is sufficient to assess the state of a community’s language. However, taken together, these nine factors can determine the vitality of a language, its function in society and the type of measures required for its maintenance and revitalization.
语言消失的原因：
Language Endangerment may be the result of external forces such as military, economic, religious, and cultural or education subjugation, or it may be caused by internal forces, such as a community’s negative attitudes towards its own language. Internal pressure often has their source in external ones, and both halt the intergeneration transmission of linguistic and cultural traditions. Many indigenous people, often associating their disadvantaged social position with their culture, have come to believe that their languages are not worth retaining. They abandon their languages and cultures in hopes of overcoming discrimination, to secure a livelihood, and enhance social mobility, or to assimilate to the global marketplace.
语言消失的后果：
The extinction of each language results in the irrecoverable loss of unique cultural, historical, and ecological knowledge. Each language is a unique expression of human experience in this world. Thus, the knowledge of any single language may be the key answering the fundamental question of the future. Every time the language dies, we have less evidence to understanding the patterns of structure and function of human language, human prehistory and the maintenance of the world’s diverse ecosystem. Above all, the speakers of this language may experience the loss of their language as the loss of their original ethnic and cultural indentify.

全球3%人口说96%的语种
    “全球6000多种语言中至少有3000多种面临消失的危险。有报告预言到2050年，90%的人类语言将从地球上消失。”联合国教科文组织代表毕斯塔在“2008年国际语言年暨第九届国际母语日”论坛上指出，处于弱势的民族语言正面临着强势语言、互联网以及全球化的冲击，正处于濒临灭绝的危险。
    据统计，联合国注册的语言有6000多种，而全球97%的人使用的语言种类仅占全部语种的4%——也就是说，占全球人口3%的人说着全球96%的语种。而且有一半的语言只有不到10000人会说，有1/4的语言不到1000人会说。在中国，有5个语系的130多种语言，但现在19种语言已显露濒危特征、活力不足，73种已走向濒危或属濒危语言，8种已完全失去交际功能。

互联网在加速语言灭绝
    “作为不可再生的语言保护，应该与生物物种灭绝、全球变暖一样，受到世人关注。”
对此，中国民族语言学会名誉会长孙宏开认为，一些弱势语言活力不足、功能减退的原因，有全球经济一体化、交通、媒体和信息化的发展、族群互动的加速等。而内蒙古大学副校长、专门从事少数民族语言研究的呼格吉勒图认为，互联网的使用是加速民族语言消亡的主要原因。
    相类似的观点还有联合国教科文组织的一份报告。该报告指出，高科技虽然给人们生活带来便利，但也会加快一些语言的“灭绝”，使全世界的语言文字趋于统一，语种的多样性遭到破坏。
    在分析了目前语言存在和消失的形势后，罗庆春认为应该通过各种方式对语言加以保护，通过教育、传媒等多种方式。他建议，通过建立博物馆、器物展示会、服饰及表演、家庭博物馆、民间收藏等进行的母语文明的实物保护措施。

强势文明有形无形地对其他文明进行压制，威胁文明的多元共存和发展，使文明的多样性日益削弱，导致人类政治、文化资源无可挽回地流失。
进入21世纪，面对全球经济社会一体化的席卷之势，和部分少数民族加速走向濒危的现状，从民间到政府都开始意识到:保护已然不够，抢救刻不容缓。
语言是人类文化的载体和重要组成部分.联合国教科文组织还倡导设定了“国际母语日”，目的就是为了帮助人们了解世界各民族母语文化的现状，推动语言及文化的多元发展。而直到现在，世界各地濒危语言保护的现状还不容乐观。弱势族群的语言就是受到冲击最早、流失最快的一环。落后地区要融入全球化，首先就要开放，要与外界沟通。语言是沟通的最便利、最主要的工具。因此，学习并掌握通用语言就成为他们最迫切的需要。随着通用语言传播力度的加强，特别是以通用语为依托的新传播手段，如广播、电视、网络、移动通讯等日益深入普通人的日常生活，土著语言的交流功能将陆续减弱，甚至在同族群中出现了通用语替代母语的结果，从而加速了母语的消亡。据统计，印度共有196种语言濒临灭绝，是濒危语言最多的国家。排在第二位和第三位的国家分别是美国和印度尼西亚，濒危语言数量分别为192种和147种。
文化是各个民族的精神家园，绝不能被经济全球化的强势磨灭。这已成为越来越多的人的共识。
维护文化的多样性，离不开维护语言的多样性。因为语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化的最为重要的载体与根基，故事、神话、传说、寓言、诗歌、唱词、谜语、戏剧等各类文艺作品都依靠语言来表达。语言中还积存和蕴藏着丰富的民族文化历史。无论一个民族或者一个群体，他们千百年来的知识和经验的积累，他们和自然界作斗争的知识和经验，都保存在自己的语言里，并依赖语言(口头传递和文字记载)代代相传，并得以超越时间和空间加以传播。因此，语言作为一种载体，蕴藏着的不仅仅是简单的文化现象，而是使用该语言的人们共同体历史的、现实的一切知识的总和。那么，语言的衰亡对使用该语言的群体或民族来说，是一种多么大的无法弥补的损失。
语言学者在研究中还发现，一种语言就是一种思维方式的直接体现。以一种语言表达和记载的天文、地理、几何以及世界观、人生观思想，包含着该语言使用者对客观世界的认知体系。这个体系有共性，也有特殊性。这个体系随着族群的进化而不断精密化。因此，他们担心，一种语言的消失，会使一种认知客观世界的独特体系、独有角度随之消失，长此以往，语言的高度单一化，可能会使人类思维方式退化和绝对化。

政府:保护濒危语言的主角
保护濒危语言，是全世界的责任。然而，弱势文化要抵挡全球化浪潮下的强势文化的冲击，离不开学术界的支持，更离不开各国政府的支持和保护。越来越多的国家也意识到保护语言多样性的重要意义，采取一些措施，有些地方已经取得了明显的效果。比如在挪威，有一个民族称作萨米人，挪威政府每年拨出3000万欧元来保护萨米人的文化，帮他们搞电台，搞电视，搞双语教学体系。作为一个历史悠久的多民族国家，中国人更能体会到多民族、多语言共同存在共同发展中的意义，中国政府比世界上很多国家更注重对少数民族及其语言文化的保护。新中国成立伊始，就确立了民族平等的政策。制定的民族平等、保护民族语言文化的政策法规为以后打下了很好的基础。各民族学习使用自己的语言有明确的法律依据“各民族都有使用和发展自己的语言文字的自由”。在国家教育部门的指导下，少数民族语言文字教学已从根本上改变了过去那种落后的状态，建立了符合我国语言文字实际的双语教育体制和适应各民族语言环境与教育条件的双语教学模式。在政府推动下，民族语言文字信息化建设也取得了丰硕成果。目前已有多种传统通用民族文字编码字符集、字型、键盘国家标准和国际标准;开发了一批应用软件,各类数据库,蒙、藏等几种文字有了电子出版系统、办公自动化系统;蒙、藏、朝、维吾尔、彝等文种的网站或网页初步建成;民族文字识别和机器辅助翻译等也有了一定进展。除了计算机操作系统，少数民族语言文字信息化还被广泛应用在日常电子通讯中。现在，民族同胞不但能通过网络获取天气预报、科技新闻等信息，而且可以利用本民族语言收发手机短信。
对濒危的少数民族语言，政府一方面在教学和使用上尽量创造有利条件，另一方面在资助研究课题方面给予“倾斜”，组织民族语言专家深入调查各地濒危语言，记录、描写、录制、保存濒危语言的文字、声像资料，尽量延缓它们的流失。其他无形文化遗产门类，如传统文学、戏剧、曲艺、音乐等也多与语言文字载体有关。还有一些难题，比如解决资金问题，在群众中广泛深入地宣传母语意识等工作，都离不开政府的主导和支持。

沸冰伊诺UID: 2562365

再给自己唠叨遍 写作过程的东东~~
首要的是选题。黄金规则是：选一个简单题目。这个“简单”因人而异，由于各人背景经历不同，彼此对题材的熟悉程度也相异，应当根据自己的情况选一个最熟悉的、自己认为最有话说的一个题目。

写之前，不妨把这个题目前前后后来龙去脉先多想一想，想的充分一些，在大脑中或者纸上写一些详细的安排和思路展开，关键的英文词，等等。原则是：想到什么就写什么，有什么都先攒着。当然，对全部想到的细节信息，肯定要进行取舍，选用最切合自己所要表达的观点的信息于文章中，来为对题目的response服务。

觉得准备得差不多了，就一鼓作气开写吧。最好找一个整的，不受干扰的时间段，一口气写完。很多人的第一篇都造的很“持久”，平均保持在N个小时的数量级上，如果自己写得很慢，不用着急，只管写，写完了再说。

中间的时候休息一下，或者写上一点之后再作作构思和安排，都可以，自己控制。原则是：一旦开始动笔，尽快给写完。不要弄得一篇文章写上一个礼拜，这样子跟没写也没太大区别了。

写完之后，首先庆祝一下从无到有的突破。休息一下，开始分析文章中出现的问题，自己不满意的地方，和范文做对比，发上来请别人改改（当然也得帮别人改！），etc.

然后带着问题和自己分析得到的针对性改进方案，继续练习写作就是。有些改进可能不是通过写作来完成的（比如拓展思路，熟悉行文），而是需要进行一些开放性阅读、做分类总结、研读和分析范文，等等措施。这些措施应当随着练习写作的进程平行进行，并根据随时出现的新情况即时进行灵活调整。

最重要的就是要强迫自己写下去
不要太在意时间 但一定要在意作文的质量和内在的逻辑联系
这是最关键的 也是作文准备阶段初期最应该关心的问题

写的过程中 可以先写每一段的TS 和开头结尾
这样至少可以保证不走题 而且也培养了良好的逻辑思维习惯