1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by rushtosummer——学贵有恒

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（12）Conciseness: Methods of Eliminating Wordiness
1. Eliminate unnecessary determiners and modifiers
Writers sometimes clog up their prose with one or more extra words or phrases that seem to determine narrowly or to modify the meaning of a noun but don't actually add to the meaning of the sentence. Although such words and phrases can be meaningful in the appropriate context, they are often used as "filler" and can easily be eliminated.
determiners and modifiers that can often be pruned away to make sentences clearer:
kind of, sort of, type of, really, basically, for all intents and purposes, definitely, actually, generally, individual, specific, particular.
2. Change phrases into single words
Using phrases to convey meaning that could be presented in a single word contributes to wordiness. Convert phrases into single words when possible.
Find nominalizations that you can replace with verb phrases.
3. Change unnecessary that, who, and which clauses into phrases
Using a clause to convey meaning that could be presented in a phrase or even a word contributes to wordiness. Convert modifying clauses into phrases or single words when possible.
4. Avoid overusing expletives at the beginning of sentences
Expletives are phrases of the form it + be-verb or there + be-verb. Such expressions can be rhetorically effective for emphasis in some situations, but overuse or unnecessary use of expletive constructions creates wordy prose.
The most common kind of unnecessary expletive construction involves an expletive followed by a noun and a relative clause beginning with that, which, or who. In most cases, you can create a more concise sentence by eliminating the expletive opening, making the noun the subject of the sentence, and eliminating the relative pronoun.
5. Use active rather than passive verbs
6. Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as nominalizations. Sentences with many nominalizations usually have forms of be as the main verbs. Using the action verbs disguised in nominalizations as the main verbs--instead of forms of be--can help to create engaging rather than dull prose.
7. Reword unnecessary infinitive phrases
Some infinitive phrases can be converted into finite verbs or brief noun phrases. Making such changes also often results in the replacement of a be-verb with an action verb.
8. Replace circumlocutions with direct expressions
In writing, though, circumlocutions should be avoided since they add extra words without extra meaning. Of course, occasionally you may for rhetorical effect decide to use, say, an expletive construction instead of a more succinct expression. These guidelines should be taken as general recommendations, not absolute rules.
Here are some other common circumlocutions that can be compressed into just one word:
(the reason for, for the reason that, owing/due to the fact that, in light of the fact that, considering the fact that, on the grounds that, this is why) = because, since, why
(on the occasion of, in a situation in which, under circumstances in which) = when
(as regards, in reference to, with regard to, concerning the matter of, where ________ is concerned) = about
(it is crucial that, it is necessary that, there is a need/necessity for, it is important that, cannot be avoided) = must, should
(is able to, has the opportunity to, has the capacity for, has the ability to) = can
(it is possible that, there is a chance that, it could happen that, the possibility exists for) = may, might, could
9. Omit words that explain the obvious or provide excessive detail
Be sure always to consider your readers as you draft and revise your writing. If you find passages that explain or describe in detail what would already be obvious to readers, delete or reword them.
10. Omit repetitive wording
Redundant Pairs
past memories, various differences, each individual _______, basic fundamentals, true facts, important essentials, future plans, terrible tragedy, end result, final outcome, free gift, past history, unexpected surprise, sudden crisis
very unique
is illogical
Redundant Categories
large in size, often times, of a bright color, heavy in weight, period in time, round in shape, at an early time, economics field, of cheap quality, honest in character, of an uncertain condition, in a confused state, unusual in nature, extreme in degree, of a strange type

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rushtosummer的学习笔记
关于字数 THREE POINTS MUST TO BE REMEMBERED & ANOTHER THREE FOR PRACTICAL
·
three are points must be remembered!
1、信息密度X字数=信息传递量, which is the thing raters care.
问自己一下：我的文章给了读者多少信息
问自己一下：我这文章里有多少东西是不必要的
问自己一下：还有哪个point我没有描述完全
问自己一下：这篇文章能不能代表我，堂堂正正，没有一丝猥琐臃肿之气
2、读者要的是你的能给他们的信息，文以载道
3、不要用注水猪肉做饭，那种肉吃了会让人吐，用大量字数传递低密度的信息只会弄巧成拙
·
实际写作的建议：
1、好好复习过，思考过的看到这个可以直接跳过，去复习你的就是了
2、北美饭桶和XDF讲义上背的东西，最好cut off over 60%
3、ISSUE>=550, ARGUMENT>=450
²
不推荐使用模版，没必要担心字数。
²
事先把题库过5遍以上（注意，是五遍，不是一遍）这会节省你考场上3-5min超级宝贵的时间
²
盲打是肯定要练的

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2010年1月5日复习内容：
讲GRE写作教程看到266页

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Rushtosumer的学习笔记（13）Proofreading for Commas
Compound Sentence Commas
（并列句中，并列连词前需加逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Stop at each of these words to see whether there is an independent clause (a complete sentence), on both sides of it. (For more help, see our handout on independent clauses.)
3. If so, place a comma before the coordinating conjunction.
Comma Splices （一句话中，两并列句间如用逗号隔开，则必须使用并列连词，或将逗号分号或其它）
1. Skim your paper, stopping at every comma.
2. See whether you have an independent clause (a sentence) on both sides of the comma.
3. If so, change the sentence in one of the following ways:
·
reword the sentence to change one clause into a subordinate (or dependent) clause (see our handout on dependent clauses)
·
add a coordinating conjunction after the comma
·
replace the comma with a semicolon
·
replace the comma with a period, question mark, or exclamation point, and capitalize the first word of the second clause
Introductory Commas
·
Introductory commas after dependent clauses
（引导的从句后需加逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first two or three words of each sentence.
2. Stop if one of these words is a dependent marker such as while, because, when, if, after, when, etc.
3. If necessary, place a comma at the end of the introductory dependent clause.
·
Other introductory commas
（现在分词，动词不定式，较长的介词短语充当句子引导和其他引导词后，需加逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking only at the first word or two of each sentence.
2. Stop if the word or phrase
ends in -ing

is an infinitive (to + verb)


is an introductory word (well, yes, moreover, etc.)
3. Place a comma at the end of the introductory phrase.
4. If the sentence begins with a prepositional phrase (a phrase beginning with in, at, on, between, with, etc.), place a comma after the prepositional phrase if it is longer than three words or suggests a distinct pause before the main clause.
Disruptive Commas
·
General guidelines
1. Go through the paper, stopping at each comma.
2. If the comma isn't necessary for clarity or called for by a rule, get rid of it.
·
For disruptive commas between compound verbs or objects
（动词与宾语间割裂的逗号）
1. Skim your paper, stopping only at the coordinating conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, so, for, or, and yet.
2. Check to see whether there is an independent clause (sentence) on both sides of the conjunction. If so, place a comma before the conjunction. If not, do not place a comma before the conjunction.
·
For disruptive commas between subjects and verbs
（主语和动词间割裂的逗号）
1. Find the subject and verb in each of your sentences.
2. Make sure that you have not separated the subject from the verb with one comma. It's often all right to have a pair of commas between a subject and verb for nonessential clauses and phrases that might be added there, but rarely is a single comma acceptable.
Series Commas
（并列的连续多项单词、短语或句子间使用逗号）
1. Skim your paper, stopping at the conjunctions.
2. Check to see if these conjunctions link words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
3. If so, place commas after each word, phrase, or clause in the series (except the last one, as demonstrated in this sentence: no comma after the word clause).
Commas with Nonessential Elements
（插入语前后都使用逗号）
1. Skim your paper, looking for a phrase or clause in each sentence that explains or gives more information about a word or phrase that comes before it.
2. If you can delete the phrase or clause and still keep the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential and needs two commas, one before and one after (unless the phrase or clause is at the end of the sentence).
3. As an alternate test for a nonessential phrase or clause, try saying "by the way" before it. If that seems appropriate to the meaning, the phrase or clause is probably nonessential.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（14）
Begin improving your proofreading skills by trying out the guidelines listed below
General Strategies
·
Take a break! Allow yourself sometime between writing and proofing. Even a five-minute break is productive because it will help you get some distance from what you have written. The goal is to return with a fresh eye and mind.
·
Leave yourself enough time. Since many errors are made and overlooked by speeding through writing and proofreading, taking the time to carefully look over your writing will help you to catch errors you might otherwise miss. Always read through your writing slowly. If you read at a normal speed, you won't give your eyes sufficient time to spot errors.
·
Read aloud. Reading a paper aloud encourages you to read every little word.
·
Role-play. While reading, put yourself in your audience's shoes. Playing the role of the reader encourages you to see the paper as your audience might.
·
Get others involved. Asking a friend or a Writing Lab tutor to read your paper will let you get another perspective on your writing and a fresh reader will be able to help you catch mistakes that you might have overlooked.
Find out what your typical problem areas are and look for each type of error individually
·
Find out what errors you typically make. Review instructors' comments about your writing and/or review your paper with a Writing Lab tutor.
·
Learn how to fix those errors. Talk with your instructor and/or with a Writing Lab tutor. The instructor and the tutor can help you understand why you make the errors you do so that you can learn to avoid them.
·
Use specific strategies. Use the strategies detailed on the following pages to find and correct your particular errors in usage, sentence structure, and spelling and punctuation.
Error patterns
·
Spelling
Do NOT rely on your computer's spell check—it will not get everything!
Examine each word in the paper individually by reading carefully.
If necessary, check a dictionary to see that each word is spelled correctly.
Be especially careful of words that are typical spelling nightmares, like "ei/ie" words and homonyms like your/you're, to/too/two, and there/their/they're.
·
Left-out and doubled words Reading the paper aloud (and slowly) can help you make sure you haven't missed or repeated any words.
·
Fragment Sentences
Make sure each sentence has a subject.
Make sure each sentence has a complete verb.
See that each sentence has an independent clause; remember that a dependent clause cannot stand on its own.
·
Run-on Sentences
Review each sentence to see whether it contains more than one independent clause.
If there is more than one independent clause, make sure the clauses are separated by the appropriate punctuation.
Sometimes, it is just as effective (or even more so) to simply break the sentence into separate sentences instead of including punctuation to separate the clauses.
·
Comma Splices
Look at the sentences that have commas.
Check to see if the sentence contains two main clauses.
If there are two main clauses, they should be connected with a comma and a conjunction like and, but, for, or, so, yet.
Another option is to take out the comma and insert a semicolon instead.
·
Subject/Verb Agreement
Find the subject of each sentence.
Find the verb that goes with the subject.
The subject and verb should match in number, meaning that if the subject is plural, the verb should be as well and vice versa.
·
Mixed construction
Read through your sentences carefully to make sure that they do not start with one sentence structure and shift to another.
·
Parallelism
Look through your paper for series of items and make sure these items are in parallel form.
·
Pronoun Reference/Agreement
Skim your paper, stopping at each pronoun.
Search for the noun that the pronoun replaces.
If you can't find any noun, insert one beforehand or change the pronoun to a noun.
If you can find a noun, be sure it agrees in number and person with your pronoun.
·
Apostrophes
Skim your paper, stopping only at those words which end in "s." If the "s" is used to indicate possession, there should be an apostrophe.
Look over the contractions, like you're for you are, it's for it is, etc. Each of these should include an apostrophe.
Remember that apostrophes are not used to make words plural. When making a word plural, only an "s" is added, not an apostrophe and an "s."

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（15）
Suggestions for Proofreading Your Paper
1.
Read your Paper Aloud
Any time your text is awkward or confusing, or any time you have to pause or reread your text, revise this section. If it is at all awkward for you, you can bet it will be awkward for your reader.
2.
Examine your Paragraphs
Examine the overall construction of your paragraphs, looking specifically at length, supporting sentence(s), and topic sentence. Individual paragraphs that are significantly lacking length or sufficient supporting information as well as those missing a topic sentence may be a sign of a premature or under-developed thought.
3. Track Frequent Errors

Keep track of errors that you make frequently. Ask your teacher or visit the Writing Lab for assistance in eliminating these errors.
4. Revising for Cohesion
Two Principles
·Begin sentences with short, simple words and phrases that a) communicate information that appeared in previous sentences, or b) build on knowledge that you share with your reader.
·In a paragraph, keep your topics short and reasonably consistent.
Questions to Ask Yourself as You Revise
·
Sentences
Do your sentences "hang together?"
Does the sentence begin with information familiar to the reader?
Does the sentence end with interesting information the reader would not anticipate?
·
Paragraphs
Will your reader be able to identify quickly the "topic" of each paragraph?
Steps for Revising Your Paper
·
Find your main point.
What are you trying to say in the paper? In other words, try to summarize your thesis, or main point, and the evidence you are using to support that point. Try to imagine that this paper belongs to someone else. Does the paper have a clear thesis? Do you know what the paper is going to be about?
·
Identify your readers and your purpose.
What are you trying to do in the paper? In other words, are you trying to argue with the reading, to analyze the reading, to evaluate the reading, to apply the reading to another situation, or to accomplish another goal?
·
Evaluate your evidence.
Does the body of your paper support your thesis? Do you offer enough evidence to support your claim? If you are using quotations from the text as evidence, did you cite them properly?
Save only the good pieces.
Do all of the ideas relate back to the thesis? Is there anything that doesn't seem to fit? If so, you either need to change your thesis to reflect the idea or cut the idea.
·
Tighten and clean up your language.
Do all of the ideas in the paper make sense? Are there unclear or confusing ideas or sentences? Read your paper out loud and listen for awkward pauses and unclear ideas. Cut out extra words, vagueness, and misused words.
·
Eliminate mistakes in grammar and usage.
Do you see any problems with grammar, punctuation, or spelling? If you think something is wrong, you should make a note of it, even if you don't know how to fix it. You can always talk to a Writing Lab tutor about how to correct errors.
·
Switch from Writer-Centered to Reader-Centered
Try to detach yourself from what you've written; pretend that you are reviewing some else's work. What would you say is the most successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be made even better? What would you say is the least successful part of your paper? Why? How could this part be improved?

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（16）Metaphors
The art of rhetoric should pass from the status of being regarded as of questionable worth to the status of being wholly condemned.
·
What is a metaphor?
The term metaphor meant a comparison between two things, based on resemblance or similarity, without using "like" or "as".
·
Related terms
1.
Extended or telescoping metaphor: A sustained metaphor.
2.
Implied metaphor: A less direct metaphor.
3.
Mixed metaphor: The awkward, often silly use of more than one metaphor at a time. To be avoided!
4.
Dead metaphor: A commonly used metaphor that has become over time part of ordinary language.
5.
simile: A comparison using "like" or "as
6.
Metonym: The substitution of one term for another with which it is commonly associated or closely related.
7.
Synecdoche: The substitution of a part for the whole or vice versa (a kind of metonym).
·
Why use metaphors?
1)
They enliven ordinary language.
2)
They are generous to readers and listeners; they encourage interpretation.
3)
They are more efficient and economical than ordinary language; they give maximum meaning with a minimum of words.
4)
They create new meanings; they allow you to write about feelings, thoughts, things, experiences, etc. for which there are no easy words; they are necessary.
5)
They are a sign of genius.
·
Creative ways to use metaphors
Using metaphors

as verbs
as adjectives and adverbs
as prepositional phrases
as appositives or modifiers

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2010年1月6日
复习内容：
将GRE写作教程看到286页

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rushtosummer的学习笔记（1）主谓一致
主谓一致是指：
1）
语法形式上要一致，即单复数形式与谓语要一致。
2）
意义上要一致，即主语意义上的单复数要与谓语的单复数形式一致。
3）
就近原则，即谓语动词的单复形式取决于最靠近它的词语，
一般来说，不可数名词用动词单数，可数名词复数用动词复数。
但当不可数名词前有表示数量的复数名词时，谓语动词用复数形式。
Ten thousand tons of coal were produced last year.
1、
并列结构作主语时谓语用复数

Reading and writing are very important.
注意：
当主语由and连结时，如果它表示一个单一的概念，即指同一人或同一物时，谓语动词用单数，and 此时连接的两个词前只有一个冠词。
The iron and steel industry is very important to our life.
2、
主谓一致中的就近原则

1）当there be 句型的主语是一系列事物时，谓语应与最邻近的主语保持一致。
There is a pen, a knife and several books on the desk..
2）当either… or… 与neither… nor，连接两个主语时，谓语动词与最邻近的主语保持一致。

Either you or she is to go.
如果句子是由here, there引导，而主语又不止一个时，谓语通常也和最邻近的主语一致。
3、
谓语动词与前面的主语一致
当主语后面跟有with, together with, like, except, but, no less than, as well as 等词引起的短语时，谓语动词与前面的主语一致。
4 、谓语需用单数

1）
代词each和由every, some, no, any等构成的复合代词作主语，或主语中含有each, every, 谓语需用单数。
2）
当主语是一本书或一条格言时，谓语动词常用单数。
The Arabian Night is a book known to lovers of English.
3）
表示金钱，时间，价格或度量衡的复合名词作主语时，通常把这些名词看作一个整体，谓语一般用单数。(用复数也可，意思不变。)
5、
指代意义决定谓语的单复数

1）
在代词what, which, who, none, some, any, more, most, all等词的单复数由其指代的词的单复数决定。
All is right. (一切顺利。)
All are present.(所有人都到齐了。)
2）
集体名词作主语时，谓语的数要根据主语的意思来决定。如family, audience, crew, crowd, class, company, committee等词后用复数形式时，意为这个集体中的各个成员，用单数时表示该个集体。
但集合名词people, police, cattle, poultry等在任何情况下都用复数形式。
Are there any police around?
3）有些名词，如variety, number, population, proportion, majority 等有时看作单数，有时看作复数。
A number of +名词复数+复数动词。
The number of +名词复数+单数动词。
6 、与后接名词或代词保持一致

1）
用half of, part of, most of, a portion of 等词引起主语时，动词通常与of后面的名词，代词保持一致。
2）
在一些短语，如 many a 或 more than one 所修饰的词作主语时，谓语动词多用单数形式。但由more than… of 作主语时，动词应与其后的名词或代词保持一致。
Many a person has read the novel. 许多人都读过这本书。

主谓一致的三大误区
一．误认主语
1. 倒装句
倒装句的常见结构：副词/介词短语+谓语+主语
2. 主语之后带有介词短语
类似的结构有：主语+with / like / except / but / together with / as well as . . . ，谓语动词应与主语一致，而与介词短语之后的名词无关。
3. One of . . . + 名词复数或复数代词
4. 定语从句
定语从句中的谓语动词应该与先行词保持一致。
二．被主语的表象迷惑
1. 看似复数却表单数概念
2. 看似单数却表复数概念
3. 名词的单复数同形
4. 集合名词
三．误用语言规则
1. 表示时间、距离、金钱、重量、数量等名词作主语
2. 由and连接的并列主语
3. 就近原则
either . . . Or，not only . . . But also，not . . . But，以及there be之后的并列主语，谓语动词的确定都根据“就近原则”。
4. This kind of，a piece of，this pair of等短语作主语
5. The rest of, half of等短语作主语
6. 一句话提示
①合成不定代词(如something，anybody等)作主语，谓语动词用单数；
②动名词、不定式、从句作主语时，谓语动词用单数；
③a number of +名词(复)作主语，谓语用复数，the number of +名词(复)作主语，谓语用单数；
④none of . . . 作主语时，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数。

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（2）情态动词
1情态动词的语法特征
1） 情态动词不能表示正在发生或已经发生的事情，只表示期待或估计某事的发生。
2） 情态动词 除ought 和have 外，后面只能接不带to 的不定式。
3） 情态动词没有人称，数的变化，即情态动词第三人称单数不加-s。
4） 情态动词没有非谓语形式，即没有不定式，分词，等形式。
2 比较can 和be able to
1）can, could 表示能力；可能 (过去时用could), 只用于现在式和过去式(could)。be able to可以用于各种时态。
2）只用be able to
a. 位于助动词后。
b. 情态动词后(?)。
c. 表示过去某时刻动作时。
d. 用于句首表示条件。
e. 表示成功地做了某事时，只能用was/were able to，不能用could。
注意：could不表示时态
1）提出委婉的请求，（注意在回答中不可用could）。
--- Could I have the television on?
--- Yes, you can. / No, you can't.
2）在否定，疑问句中表示推测或怀疑。
He couldn't be a bad man.
3比较may和might
1） 表示允许或请求；表示没有把握的推测；may 放在句首，表示祝愿。
注意： might 表示推测时，不表示时态。只是可能性比may 小。
2） 成语：may/might as well，后面接不带to 的不定式，意为"不妨"。
If that is the case, we may as well try.
4比较have to和must
1)两词都是'必须'的意思，have to 表示客观的需要，must 表示说话人主观上的看法，既主观上的必要。
2)have to有人称、数、时态的变化，而must只有一种形式。但must 可用于间接引语中表示过去的必要或义务。
3） 在否定结构中： don't have to 表示"不必", mustn't表示"禁止"。
5 must表示推测
1) must用在肯定句中表示较有把握的推测，意为"一定"。
2) must表对现在的状态或现在正发生的事情的推测时，must后面通常接系动词be的原形或行为动词的进行式。
比较： He must be staying there. 他现在肯定呆在那里。
He must stay there.
他必须呆在那。

3) must 表示对已发生的事情的推测时，must 要接完成式。
I didn't hear the phone. I must have been asleep.

4) must表示对过去某时正发生的事情的推测，must 后面要接不定式的完成进行式。
---Why didn't you answer my phone call?
---Well, I must have been sleeping, so I didn't hear it.
1)
否定推测用 can't。
6 表示推测的用法

can, could, may, might, must 皆可表示推测，其用法如下：
1）
情态动词+动词原形。
表示对现在或将来的情况的推测，此时动词通常为系动词。
2）
情态动词+动词现在进行时。
表示对现在或将来正在进行的情况进行推测。
At this moment, our teacher must be correcting our exam papers.
3）情态动词+动词完成时。
表示对过去情况的推测。
We would have finished this work by the end of next December.
4）情态动词+动词的现在完成进行时。
表示对过去正在发生事情的推测。
Your mother must have been looking for you.
5）推测的否定形式，疑问形式用can't, couldn't表示。
Mike can't have found his car, for he came to work by bus this morning.
注意：could, might表示推测时不表示时态，其推测的程度不如 can, may。
7情态动词+ have +过去分词

1) may (might) have + done sth, can (could) have + done sth表示过去，推测过去时间里可能发生的事情。
2)must have +done sth，对过去时间里可能发生的事情的推测，语气较强，具有"肯定"，"谅必"的意思。
3) ought to have done sth, should have done sth本应该做某事，而事实上并没有做。否定句表示"不该做某事而做了"。
You ought to (should) have been more careful in this experiment.
He ought not to have thrown the old clothes away.（事实上已扔了。）
ought to 在语气上比should 要强。
4) needn't have done sth 本没必要做某事
I dressed very warmly for the trip, but I needn't have done so. The weather was hot.
5) would like to have done sth 本打算做某事
I would like to have read the article, but I was very busy then.
8 should 和ought to
should 和ought to 都为"应该"的意思，可用于各种人称。
表示要求，命令时，语气由 should（应该）、had better最好）、must（必须）渐强。
9 had better表示"最好"
had better 相当于一个助动词，它只有一种形式，它后面要跟动词原形。
had better do sth
had better not do sth
had better have done sth表示与事实相反的结果，意为"本来最好"。
10 would rather表示"宁愿"
would rather do
would rather not do
would rather… than… 宁愿……而不愿。
还有would sooner, had rather, had sooner都表示"宁愿"、"宁可"的意思。
If I have a choice, I had sooner not continue my studies at this school.
11 will和would
注意：

1）would like； Would like to do = want to 想要，为固定搭配。
2）Will you…?
Would you like…? 表示肯定含义的请求劝说时，疑问句中一般用some, 而不是any。
Would you like some cake?
3）否定结构中用will，一般不用would, won't you是一种委婉语气。
Won't you sit down?
12 情态动词的回答方式

问句肯定回答否定回答
Need you…? Yes, I must. No, I needn't
Must you…? Yes, I must. No, I don't have to.
Do you have to…? Yes, I must. No, I haven’t.
13 带to 的情态动词

带to 的情态动词有四个：ought to, have to, used to, be to, 如加上have got to ,(=must), be able to，为六个。
ought to 本身作为情态动词使用。其他的词作为实义动词使用，变疑问，否定时，须有do 等助动词协助。
14 比较need和dare
这两词既可做实义动词用，又可做情态动词用。作为情态动词，两者都只能用于疑问句，否定句和条件句。need 作实义动词时后面的不定式必须带to，而dare作实义动词用时, 后面的to 时常可以被省略。
1) 实义动词： need（需要, 要求）
need + n. / to do sth
2) 情态动词： need，只用原形need后加do，否定形式为need not。
Need you go yet?
Yes, I must. / No, I needn't.
3) need的被动含义：need, want, require, worth（形容词）后面接doing也可以表示被动：
need doing = need to be done

情态动词在托福写作中的运用
常见的问题的：
1.Will的漏用
中国考生受汉语影响，一提到“将来”才会有意识地用will, 实际上will可以表达“能、将、会、要、就”等多种意义。漏用will以至于经常出现“观点”与“事实”不分的句子。
其它的常见的漏用还体现在与if引导的状语从句一起连用的主句中，so that或者 in order that引导的从句，或者是与without, in case of等介词短语连用的主句，不论条件还是目的都是写作中经常出现的句式。
2. can的误用
像can 这样语气过于绝对的表达最好换成may/ will, 或者是语气更委婉的might/would probably等，同时还要搭配一定程度的副词。
3. should的误用
should表示根据社会风俗习惯个人的责任，而在比较正式的议论文写作中，多数句子是以客观事物做主语的， 所以用should就有些不太恰当。一般我们会用另外一个更客观性的短语be to do来代替， 或者是shall，但是这里的shall不是用于第一人称后的将来时符号，而表示的是一种情态。
4. must的使用
must语气强硬，所以一般在社会性的问题的论述上我们要慎用，建议多换成need/ shall/ be to do 或者是be expected to do形式。

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rushtosummer的学习笔记（3）冠词、数词
冠词
一.a和an的区别
不定冠词有a和an两种形式，a用于辅音(不是辅音字母)开头的词前，an用于元音(不是元音字母)开头的词前。a university，a European country
二. 不定冠词的用法
1.泛指某一类人、事或物；这是不定冠词a/an的基本用法。
2.泛指某人或某物，但不具体说明何人或何物。
3.表示数量，有“一”的意思，但数的概念没有one强烈。
4.表示“每一”，相当于every. 例如，I go to school five days a week.
5.用在序数词前，表示“又一”。例如，I have three books. I want to buy a fourth one.
三.定冠词的用法
①用于上文已提到过的人或事物。例如： He has a new pen. The pen was bought in America.
②特指谈话时双方都熟悉的某（些）人或某（些）事物。例如：The bag on the desk isn’t mine.
③用在世界上独一无二的事物前。例如：The moon is our satellite.
④用在序数词、形容词的最高级及only修饰的名词前。例如：The first lesson is as difficult as the last one.
⑤用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前。例如：the Summer Palace 颐和园
⑥用在江河、湖泊、海洋、山脉、群岛等的名称前。例如：the Yellow River
⑦用在姓氏复数前，表示“某某一家人”或“某某夫妇”。例如：the Greens 格林一家人
注意.   “the+姓氏复数”作主语，谓语动词用复数。 例如：     
The Greens are watching TV at the moment.
⑧the后加某些形容词，表示一类人或事物。例如：the old 老人   the young 年轻人
⑨用在乐器前面。例如：the piano 钢琴   the violin 小提琴     
⑩用在“the＋形容词比较级＋the＋形容词比较级”结构中，表示“越来……越……”。
(11)当名词被一短语或从句所修饰时，该名词前用定冠词。例如：The man under the tree is my grandfather.
(12)用在表示方向的名词前。例如：in the east 在东方 in the west 在西部
(13)用在单数可数名词前表示一类人或物。例如：The tree is a kind of plant.
(14)the常用于一些固定搭配中。例如：     
in the morning 在早上（上午） in the early morning 一大清早     in the evening 在晚上
in the beginning 在开头（端）   in the afternoon 在下午
by the way 顺便问     
in the end 最后，终于
the next day 第二天     
at the end of 在……快结尾的时候 the day after tomorrow 后天
at the age of 在……岁的时候 in the front of 在……（内部）的前面     
the day before yesterday 前天 on the right(left)在右（左）边
四.零冠词的用法
1.在专有名词和不可数名词前。例如：Class Two，Tian’an Men Square，water
2.可数名词前已有作定语的物主代词（my，your，his，her等）、指示代词（this/these，that/those）、不定代词（some，any等）及所有格限制时。
3.复数名词表示一类人或事物时。例如，They are teachers.
4.在星期，月份，季节，节日前。例如：on Sunday，in March，in spring，on Women’s Day
(特例：如果月份，季节等被一个限定性定语修饰时，则要加定冠词：He joined the Army in the spring of 1982.)
5.在称呼语或表示头衔的名词前。例如：Tom，Mum
6.在学科名称，三餐饭和球类运动名称前。例如：I have lunch at school every day.
特例：当football，basketball指具体的某个球时，其前可以用冠词：I can see a football.我可以看到一只足球。Where’s the football？那只足球在哪儿？(指足球，并非“球类运动”)
7.在表特定的公园，街道，车站，桥，学校等之前。例如：No.25 Middle School
8.某些固定词组中不用冠词。
(1)与by连用的交通工具名称前：by bus\by car\ by bike\ by train\by air\by plane\ by sea\by ship，但take a bus，in a boat，on the bike前需用冠词
(2)名词词组：day and night日日夜夜；brother and sister兄弟姐妹;hour after hour时时刻刻；here and there到处
(3)介词词组：in surprise；on foot；on duty；at work；on time；in class；on show；in bed等
(4)go 短语：go home；go to bed；go to school ；go to work；go shopping/swimming/boating/fishing
六.用与不用冠词的差异
in hospital住院/in the hospital在医院里
go to sea出海/go to the sea去海边
on earth究竟/on the earth在地球上，在世上
in front of在……(外部的)前面/in the front of在……(内部的)前面
take place发生/take the place(of)代替
at table进餐/at the table在桌子旁
by sea乘船/by the sea在海边
in future从今以后，将来/in the future未来
go to school(church…)上学(做礼拜…)/go to the school(church…)到学校(教堂…)去
on horseback骑着马/on the horseback在马背上
two of us我们当中的两人/the two of us我们两人(共计两人)
out of question毫无疑问/out of the question不可能的，办不到的
next year明年/the next year 第二年
a teacher and writer一位教师兼作家(一个人)/a teacher and a writer一位教师和一位作家(两个人)

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

数词
一.基数词
基数词相当于名词，在句中可做主语、表语、定语、状语等。
二.序数词
1)序数词的构成：
★大多数的序数词是由基数词加-th构成。如：seven—seventh；ten—tenth
★以-t结尾的基数词只在词尾加-h。如：eight—eighth
★以-ve结尾的基数词改-ve为f再加-th。如：five—fifth；twelve—twelfth
★以-y结尾的基数词改-y为-ie再加-th。如：twenty—twentieth，thirty—thirtieth
★几十几的序数词只在个位数体现。如：twenty-one—twenty-first；thirty-three—thirty-third
★特殊的序数词：one—first；two—second；three—third； nine—ninth
2)序数词在句中同样可做主语、表语、定语、状语等。
三.数词的用法：
1)表示年、月、日，“年”用基数词，“日”用序数词。如：May eleventh，2007
2)表示时间。如： It’s eleven twenty.
3)表示编号。编号既可以用基数词表示，也可以用序数词表示。区别是基数词用在名词之后，序数词位于名词之前，并加定冠词。如：Lesson Nine；the Ninth Lesson
4)介词 in one’s+整数数词的复数形式，表示年龄。如：She is in her early forties.(她四十出头。)
5)序数词前加冠词“a”表示“再一次”。如：Can I try a second time?
6)在hundred，thousand，million，billion前有数词时为实数意义，它们的词尾不能加复数。前无数词时为虚数意义，hundred，thousand，million，billion可加复数，并可和of连用，构成短语。如：five hundred students；millions of people
四.分数的构成
分子用基数词，分母用序数词，分子大于1时，分母加s，如: 1/5： one fifth, 2/3： two thirds, 2-3/4：two and three quarters
五.小数的表示法
0.09：point zero nine
2.7：two point seven
六.百分数的表达法
90%：ninety percent
0.5%：point five percent
七.倍数表达法
表示两倍时用twice，表示三倍以上的倍数时用times。
八.算式表达法：
5+6：five plus six(or five and six)
7-6：seven minus six
2×3：two multiplied by three(or two times three)
8/4：eight divided by four
九.与数词相关的主谓一致原则
1)当名词词组中心词为表示时间、路程、金钱或重量等复数名词时，往往根据意义一致的原则，把这些复数名词看做一个整体，谓语采用单数形式。
但是如果“数词”单用，表示人或物，谓语动词一般用复数。如：
Three were killed and ten were missing in that accident.
2)如果名词词组中心词是“分数或百分数+of-词组”，谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于of-词组中名词或代词的单、复数形式。
3)如果主语是many a，more than one+单数名词构成，尽管从意义上看是复数，但谓语动词仍用单数形式。如：Many a student in this class has hoped a long break.
4)a+单数名词+or two做主语，谓语动词用单数形式。one or two+复数名词，谓语动词用复数形式。如：
A word or two is missed in the sentence.
One or two words are missed in the sentence.

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

2010年1月7日复习内容
将GRE写作教程看完；
将GMAT写作论证论据素材大全看到55页。

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（4）虚拟语气
一、虚拟语气是英文中一特殊的语言现象，主要用于表达与事实相反或者对尚未发生的事情进行假设的陈述，常表达强烈愿望、遗憾、感慨、后悔、责备、规劝等语义。
可大致分为三类：
1、对现在事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + were /did等过去式…, …would /could /should /might + do

例句：If I were a bird, I would fly to the moon.
If she knew who you are, she would go out of joy.
2、对过去事实的虚拟

基本形式：If + had done…, …would /could / should /might + have done
例句：If she had been warned earlier, she wouldn’t have broken the rules.
3、对将来事实的虚拟
基本形式：If + should do…, …would /could /should /might + do;
意思类似汉语中的“万一”

If + were+ 不定式…, …would+ do;

         
If + 动词过去分词
例句：If he should forget the date, I might teach him a good lesson.
If you succeeded, everything would be all right.
If you should succeed, everything would be all right.
If you were to succeed, everything would be all right.
其他一些重要的语言点：
4、虚拟条件句的倒装
虚拟条件句的从句部分如果含有were, should, 或had, 可将if省略，再把were, should或had 移到从句句首，实行倒装。
例句：Were they here now, they could help us.=If they were here now, they could help us.
Had you come earlier, you would have met him.=If you had come earlier, you would have met him.　
Should it rain, the crops would be saved. =Were it to rain, the crops would be saved.
5、wish的用法
1）用于wish后面的从句，表示与事实相反的情况，或表示将来不太可能实现的愿望。其宾语从句的动词形式为：

	真实状况	wish后
从句动作先于主句动词动作（be的过去式为were)	现在时	过去时
从句动作与主句动作同时发生（had+过去分词）	过去时	过去完成时
将来不大可能实现的愿望	将来时	would/could+动词原形

2）Wish to do表达法。
Wish sb / sth to do
6、比较if only与only if：
only if表示"只有"；if only则表示"如果……就好了"。If only也可用于陈述语气。
7、It is (high) time that
It is (high) time that 后面的从句谓语动词要用过去式或用should加动词原形，但should不可省略。
8、need "不必做"和"本不该做"
didn't need to do表示：过去不必做某事, 事实上也没做。
needn't have done表示：过去不必做某事, 但事实上做了。
9、as或者whether…or…谓语多用be的原形，引导让步虚拟从句，这种用法通常采用倒装结构。
例句：Church as we use the word refers to all religious institutions, be they Christian, Islamivc, Buddhist, Jewish, and so on.
The business of each day, be it selling goods or shipping them, went quite smoothly.
注意1：部分动词的宾语从句中需用虚拟语气，形式为should do, 其中should常被省略。

此类动词有：insist, demand, suggest, propose, order, require, decide, ask, request, command等表示命令、建议、要求等.
上面的动词如果以名词形式出现（如以表语从句，同位语从句形式出现）时，后面的that从句仍然要采用虚拟语气
注意2：在一些惯用语之后经常需要用虚拟，来表示与事实相反或者难以实现的事情。

这类习语有：as if, as though, but for, otherwise, without, wish, if only, for fear that, unless, in case, lest等.
so that引导的从句中要求用虚拟语气，表示一种假设，形式为might+动词原形。
例句： But for your help, I would not have arrived here in time.
注意3：在下列形容词引导的that从句中必须要用虚拟语气(should) do，但是由于 should经常被省略，所以实际上用的就是动词原形。

这类形容词有: It is important/ necessary/ proper/ imperative/ essential/ advisable等 + that
例句：It is necessary that he (should) realize his situation.
注意4：在虚拟语气的从句中，动词'be'的过去时态一律用"were"，不用was，即在从句中be用were代替。
例句：If I were you, I would go to look for him.
注意5：如suggest, insist不表示"建议" 或"坚持要某人做某事时"，即它们用于其本意"暗示、表明"、"坚持认为"时，宾语从句用陈述语气。
例句：The guard at gate insisted that everybody obey the rules.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记 （5）倒装
【什么是倒装】
如果句子谓语提前，则句子为倒装语序（inverted order），分为完全倒装（full inversion）和部分倒装（partial inversion）
Full inversion: 整个谓语提前，如：Down fell half a dozen apples
Partial inversion: 只有部分谓语提前，如：How are you doing?
【一些常见的倒装句】
1, 由there , here, now, then 等副词引导的句子。
There comes the rest of the party.
2, 由so, neither, nor 引导的句子：
【一些状语从句中的倒装语序】
1、有些由If引导的条件状语从句（主要包含有were, had, should 的从句），可以把IF省略，把上述动词放到主语前面去
Weren’t it for their assistance, we wouldn’t be able to do so well.
Had we got there earlier, we would have caught the train.
Should Mary call, say that I'll be back in an hour.
2、有些让步状语从句中有时也有倒装的情况，（主要把标语或部分谓语提前）：
Clever though he was, he couldn’t conceal his eagerness for praise.
【某些副词或状语引导的倒装句】
1, 有些有否定意义的副词，若放在句首，句子常用倒装。
Never would he know what she had suffered.
Scarcely was she out of sight when he came
2, 有个别其他副词放在句首时，有时也会有这个现象：
Often would she (she would) weep when alone.
3, 有些短语，（特别是介词短语）移到句首时也可能引导倒装语序：
On no account must we give up this attempt.
Under no circumstances could we agree to such a principle.
一般这类的都是一些否定含义的短语，类似的还有：In vain, not until, at no point
还有表示唯一的，如：only in this way
So…that结构： So bright was the moon that the flowers were bright as by day.
【一些谓语前移的情况】
1、<状语前置>有些句子没有宾语且主语又比较长。有时可把状语提前，而把主语放在谓语后面去。
Before him lay miles of undulating moorland.
After the banquet came a firework display in the garden.
2、为了描绘更生动，有些与介词同行的副词可以移到句首，把主语放在谓语后面。
Up went the arrow into the air.
【分词和表语移到句首的情况】
1、进行时态中的分词有时可移到句首，来对这个动作加以强调。
Lying on the floor was a boy aged about seventeen.
2, 以过去分词做表语的句子，过去分词有时也可以提前，把主语放到后面去。
Seated on the ground are a group of young people.
3, 作表语的介词短语有时也可以提前。
Among its products are farm machines and mining equipment.
4, 其他表语也可提前
Worst of all is the humiliations he suffered.
【其他倒装句】
1, 祝愿的句子:
Long live world peace!
May you have a long and happy life.
2, 间接引语后的插入语，主语有时可放在谓语后面：
“I do hope,” said Nancy, “they haven’t all forgotten about it.”
3, 有时修辞上的考虑，表语也可以提前：
Very grateful we are for your help.
A very reliable person he is, to be sure.