1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by rushtosummer——学贵有恒

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（6）从句
从句是相对于主句而言的，即它是从属于某一个主句，而不能单独作一个句子。在英语中，主要有三大从句，即名词性从句（包括主语从句，宾语从句，表语从句，同位语从句）、形容词性从句（即定语从句）、副词性从句（即状语从句,包括时间、条件、结果、目的、原因、让步、地点、方式等）。
名词性从句
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主语从句
1. 主语从句可直接位于主语的位置，如果从句较长，谓语又较短，可用it作形式主语，而将从句放在句末。常见的句型有：
*It is a fact\a pity\a question\good news that...
*It seems\appears\happened\has turned out that...
*It is clear\important\likely\possible that...
*It is said\reported\estimated\has been proved that...
*It is said that comic books create a connection between people of the same generation.
*It seems that the performance is very useful.
2. what引导的主语从句表示“...的东西时”，一般不用it作形式主语。
What we lack is experience.
3. what, who, when, why, whether等词含有各自的疑问意义，但它们引导的主语从句，都用陈述语序。

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宾语从句
1. 宾语从句可位于及物动词、介词和某些形容词后。连词that常可省略。介词后一般接疑问词引导的宾语从句。in that(因为),except that(除了),but that(只是）已构成固定搭配，其他介词后一般不接that引导的宾语从句。

2. 宾语从句后如有宾补，要用形式宾语it来代替，而把宾语从句移至宾补之后。
He has made it clear that he would not change his mind.
3. 在think, believe, suppose, expect等动词后的宾语从句中，如果谓语是否定的，一般将否定词移至主句谓语上，宾语从句则变成肯定形式。

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表语从句
表语从句出现在结构为“主语+系动词+表语从句”的句子中。表语从句除可用that, what, when, why, whether, how等引导外，还可由because, as if (though)等引导。that常可省略。如主句主语为reason,只能用that引导表语从句，不可用because.
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同位语从句
同位语从句用于对前面出现的名词作进一步说明，一般用连词that引导，由于先行名词的意义不同，也可用whether, who, when, where, what, why, how等引导。常见的先行名词有fact,idea,belief,news,hope,conclusion,evidence,suggestion,order,problem,report,decision.有时由于谓语较短，将同位语从句位于谓语之后。
用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
a. It + be +形容词+ that-从句

It is necessary that…　　有必要……

It is important that…　　重要的是……

It is obvious that…　　很明显……　　
b. It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句

It is believed that…　　　　　人们相信……

It is known to all that…　　　从所周知……

It has been decided that…　　已决定……
c. It + be +名词+ that-从句

It is common knowledge that…　 ……是常识

It is a surprise that…　　 令人惊奇的是……

It is a fact that…　　　　 事实是……
d. It +不及物动词+ that-分句

It appears that…　　　　　　似乎……

It happens that…　　　　　　碰巧……
　It occurred to me that…　　 我突然想起……
形容词性从句（即定语从句）
定语从句所修饰的先行词可以是名词或代词，也可以是一个句子。定语从句通常位于先行词之后，由关系代词或关系副词引导。
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限制性定语从句
引导定语从句的关系代词有who, whom, whose, which, that等。who, whom, whose用于指人，whose有时也可指物，相当于of which；which用于指物；that既可指人也可指物，但只用于限制性定语从句中。关系代词除了引导定语从句，替代先行词外，还在从句中担任主语、宾语、定语等。
1)当先行词是all, anything, everything, something, nothing等不定代词或先行词前有first, last, any, few, much, some, no, only以及形容词最高级修饰时，只能用关系代词that引导从句。

2)关系代词的省略
在从句中作宾语的关系代词常可省略。关系代词紧跟介词，作介词宾语时不可用that，只可用which或whom引导从句，并且不可省略，但当介词位于宾语从句句末时，作为介词宾语的关系代词仍可用that，也可省略。
This is one of those things with which we have to put up.
This is one of those things (which\that) we have to put up with.
3)引导定语从句的关系副词有when,where,why等。关系副词在从句中作状语，意义上相当于一个“介词+which”的结构。
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非限制性定语从句
不可用that引导非限制性定语从句。关系词不可省略。
*“介词+which\whom\whose”引导的定语从句
“介词+which\whom\whose”可引导限制性定语从句，也可引导非限制性定语从句，该结构中介词的选择取决于从句谓语动词的固定搭配，或先行词的习惯搭配。
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as引导的定语从句

as引导的定语从句主要用于“such...as”及“the same...as”的结构中，代替先行词是人或物的名词。as引导非限制性定语从句时，代替整个主句，从句可位于主句之前、之后或中间。
As is mentioned above,no single company or group can control what happens on the Internet.
副词性从句（即状语从句）
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时间状语从句
引导时间状语从句的从属连词和词组有：
1）when, whenever, while, as, after, before, since, till, until, once等。

2)as soon as, hardly(scarcely)...when, no sooner...than, each(every) time, the moment, immediately(that)等。

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地点状语从句
引导地点状语从句的连词是where, wherever.
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原因状语从句
引导原因状语从句的从属连词有：because, as, since, now (that),seeing that, considering that, in that等。

比较：because, since, as和for
1）　because语势最强，用来说明人所不知的原因，回答why提出的问题。当原因是显而易见的或已为人们所知，就用as或 since。
2）　由because引导的从句如果放在句末，且前面有逗号，则可以用for来代替。但如果不是说明直接原因，而是多种情况加以推断，就只能用for。
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结果状语从句
引导结果状语从句的连词有：so...that, such...that, so that, that, so等。

比较： so和 such
其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so 是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。
so 还可与表示数量的形容词many, few, much, little连用，形成固定搭配。
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目的状语从句
引导目的状语从句的连词有：so that, in order that, for fear that, lest等，从句常使用may, might, can, could, would等情态动词。

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条件状语从句
引导条件状语从句的连词和词组有if,
unless,
as (so) long as,
on condition that,
in
case,
provided (providing) that,
supposing等。

if 引导的条件句有真实条件句和非真实条件句两种。非真实条件句已在虚拟语气中阐述。
unless = if not.　
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让步状语从句
引导让步状语从句的连词和词组有though, although, whether, even though, even if, no matter what(when, how...),whatever(whenever, wherever, however....)等。though, even if等引导状语从句可转换成含有as的部分倒装结构，具有强调意义。其结构为“形容词（副词、动词、名词）+as+主语+谓语”。
Young as he is,he is quite experienced in this work.(=though he is young)
1) though, although
　注意：当有though, although时，后面的从句不能有but，但是 though 和yet可连用
　　Though the sore be healed, yet a scar may remain.
2)
as, though 引导的倒装句
　 as / though引导的让步从句必须把表语或状语提前（形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前）。
Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.
= Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.
注意：a.　句首名词不能带任何冠词。
b.　句首是实义动词，其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主语之前。
Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
3)　even if, even though.　即使
4) whether…or-　 不管……都
5)　"no matter +疑问词" 或"疑问词+后缀ever"
注意：no matter 不能引导主语从句和宾语从句。

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（7）名词
　1．容易误用为复数的不可数名词：(这些名词一般不能用作复数，谓语动词用单数)
　　advice 建议，忠告 living 生活，生计
　　equipment 装备，设备 progress 前进，发展
　　furniture 家具，设备 scenery 风景，景色
　　information 通知；信息 machinery 机器，机械
　　knowledge 知识，学问 traffic 交通流量
　　baggage / luggage 行李，皮箱 trouble 烦恼，麻烦
　　cash 现金 thunder 雷声，轰隆声
　　apparatus 仪器 weather 天气，处境
　　clothing 衣服 work 工作，劳动
　　paper 纸，钞票 luck 运气，幸运
　　technology 工艺，技术 jewelry 珠宝
　　2． 复数形式的名词用于单数概念，其谓语动词用单数。(这些名词一般为表示学科或疾病的名词)
　　economics 经济学 measles 麻疹
　　physics 物理学 mumps 腮腺炎
　　mathematics 数学 rickets 软骨病，佝偻病
　　dynamics 动力学 news 新闻
　　The United States 美国 The New York Times 纽约时报

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2010年1月8日
复习内容：
将GMAT写作论证论据素材大全看到105页

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（8）代词
全文已经认真看过了，现只把自己有疏漏的地方理出来。
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常见的不定代词有a11，both，each，every等，以及含有some-，any-，no-等的合成代词，如anybody， something，no one。这些不定代词大都可以代替名词和形容词，在句中作主语、宾语、表语和定语，但none和由some，any，no等构成的复合不定代词只能作主语、宾语或表语；every和no只能作定语。
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说明：在复合句中，如果主句和从句主语相同，代词主语要用在从句中，名词主语用在主句中，例如：When he arrived, John went straight to the bank.
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人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语，但在口语中也能作主语补语，第一人称在省略句中，还可以作主语，例如：
I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
a. -- Who broke the vase? --谁打碎了花瓶？
b. -- Me.--我。（me做主语补语= It's me.）
说明：在上面两例句中，her和me分别作主语补语。现代英语中多用宾格，在正式文体中这里应为she和I。
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人称代词之主、宾格的替换

1) 宾格代替主格
a.在简短对话中，当人称代词单独使用或在not 后，多用宾格。
---- I like English.
---- Me too.
---- Have more wine?
---- Not me.
b.在表示比较的非正式的文体中，常用宾格代替主格。 但如果比较状语的谓语保留，则主语只能用主格。
He is taller than I/me.
He is taller than I am.
2) 主格代替宾格
a. 在介词 but，except 后，有时可用主格代替宾格。
b. 在电话用语中常用主格。
---- I wish to speak to Mary. -- 我想和玛丽通话。
---- This is she. --我就是玛丽。
注意：在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。
I thought it was she. 我以为是她。(主格----主格)
I thought it to be her.(宾格----宾格)
I was taken to be she.我被当成了她。(主格----主格)
They took me to be her.他们把我当成了她。 (宾格----宾格)
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代词的指代问题
1）不定代词 anybody, everybody, nobody, anyone, someone, everyone, no one
及whoever和person在正式场合使用时，可用 he, his, him代替。
Nobody came, did he?
谁也没来，是吗?
2）动物名词的指代一般用it或they代替，有时也用he, she，带有亲切的感情色彩。
3）指代车或国家，船舶的名词，含感情色彩时常用she。
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并列人称代词的排列顺序
1) 单数人称代词并列作主语时，其顺序为：第二人称 －> 第三人称 －> 第一人称
2) 复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为：第一人称 －> 第二人称 －> 第三人称
注意： 在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。
a. 在承认错误，承担责任时，
It was I and John that made her angry.
b. 在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官为第一人称， 如：I and you try to finish it.
c. 并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时
d. 当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
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反身代词

1）做宾语
a. 有些动词需有反身代词 absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave
We enjoyed ourselves very much last night.

Please help yourself to some fish.
b. 用于及物动词+宾语+介词 take pride in, be annoyed with, help oneself to sth.
I could not dress (myself) up at that time.
注：有些动词后不跟反身代词， get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up 等。
2） 作表语； 同位语
be oneself: I am not myself today.
The thing itself is not important.
3） 在不强调的情况下，but, except, for 等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如：No one but myself (me) is hurt.
注意：
a. 反身代词本身不能单独作主语。
b. 但在and, or, nor 连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself 作主语。Charles and myself saw it.
5）第二人称作宾语，要用反身代词。
You should be proud of yourself.

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传统语法认为，相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other， 存在于两个以上人和物之间用one another。现代英语中，两组词交替使用的实例也很多。
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说明1：指示代词在作主语时可指物也可指人，但作其他句子成分时只能指物，不能指人，例如：
(对)That is my teacher.那是我的老师。（ that作主语，指人）
(错)He is going to marry this.（this作宾语时不能指人）
说明2：That和those可作定语从句的先行词，但this和 these不能，同时，在作先行词时，只有those可指人。
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all 通常不与可数名词单数连用，如：不说 all the book，而说 the whole book。但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用，如 all day，all night， all the year； 但习惯上不说 all hour，all century。all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用，如 all China，all the city，all my life， all the way
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a.neither作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
b. 作定语与单数名词连用，但neither… nor 用作并列连词，可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。
c.可用于下列句型，避免重复。She can't sing，neither (can) he.
neither 与nor
d.如前句是否定式从句，则主句用neither，而不用 nor。
If you don't do it，neither should I.

e. 如后连续有几个否定句式，则用nor，不用neither。
He can't sing, nor dance, nor skate.
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one… the other只有两个
some… the others有三个以上
one… another, another…
some… others, others…
others = other people/things
the others = the rest剩余的全部
1) 泛指另一个用 another。
2) 一定范围内两人(物)，一个用one，另一个用the other。
3) 一定范围内三者，一个用one，另一个用one (another)，第三个可用the other，a third。
4) 一定范围内，除去一部分人/物，剩余的全部用the others。
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none 后跟of短语，既可指人又可指物，而no one只单独使用，只指人。none 作主语，谓语动词用单，复数均可，而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。
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every 与not 连用，表示部分否定； each 和not连用表示全部否定。
Every man is not honest. 并非每个人都诚实。
Each man is not honest.这儿每个人都不诚实。
固定搭配:
only a few (=few), not a few (=many), quite a few (=many), many a (=many)

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9）动词的时态
1 一般现在时every …, sometimes, at …, on Sunday,
注意：一般现在时表示客观真理，客观存在，科学事实或格言、警句，如果出现在宾语从句中，即使主句是过去时，从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例：Columbus proved that the earth is round.
2 一般过去时yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982, just now
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句型：It is time for sb. to do sth
"到……时间了"
"该……了"
It is time sb. did sth. "时间已迟了" "早该……了"
would (had) rather sb. did sth.
表示'宁愿某人做某事'
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wish, wonder, think, hope 等用过去时，作试探性的询问、请求、建议等。
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注意： 用过去时表示现在，表示委婉语气。动词 want, hope, wonder, think, intend 等。如Did you want anything else?
I wondered if you could help me.
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used to + do："过去常常"
表示过去习惯性的动作或状态，但如今已不存在。be used to + doing： 对……已感到习惯，或"习惯于"，to是介词，后需加名词或动名词。
3 一般将来时
next…, tomorrow, in+时间
1)shall用于第一人称，常被will 所代替。
2)
be going to +不定式，表示将来。

3) be +不定式表将来，按计划或正式安排将发生的事。
4)
be about to +不定式，意为马上做某事。
注意：be about to 不能与 tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。
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用于条件句时，be going to表将来，will表意愿
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be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事。be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。
4 一般现在时表将来
1）下列动词：come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return的一般现在时表将来。这主要用来表示在时间上已确定或安排好的事情。
2）倒装句，表示动作正在进行，如：Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming.
3）在时间或条件句中。When Bill comes (不是will come), ask him to wait for me.
4）在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。I hope they have a nice time next week.
5 现在进行时表示将来
意为："意图"、"打算"、"安排"、常用于人。常用词为 come, go, start, arrive, leave, stay等。6 现在完成时 for, since, so far, ever, never, just, yet, till/until, up to now, in past years, always, recently
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构成： have (has) +过去分词。
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用于现在完成时的句型

1）It is the first / second time… that… 结构中的从句部分，用现在完成时。
2）This is the… that…结构，that 从句要用现在完成时。
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Since 用来说明动作起始时间，for用来说明动作延续时间长度。
注意：并非有for 作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。
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小窍门：当现在完成时+一段时间，这一结构中，我们用下面的公式转化，很容易就能排除非延续动词在完成时中的误使。
1)
(对) Tom has studied Russian for three years.
= Tom began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.
2)
(错) Harry has got married for six years.
= Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.
·
since的四种用法
1) since +过去一个时间点(如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。
2) since +一段时间+ ago
3) since +从句
4) It is +一段时间+ since从句
7 过去完成时
before, by, until, when, after, once, as soon as
表示过去的过去，had +过去分词构成。
1) 用法
a.
在told, said, knew, heard, thought等动词后的宾语从句。
b. 状语从句，在过去不同时间发生的两个动作中，发生在先，用过去完成时；发生在后，用一般过去时。
c. 表示意向的动词，如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等，用过去完成时表示"原本…，未能…"
We had hoped that you would come, but you didn't.
2)
过去完成时的时间状语before, by, until, when, after, once, as soon as。
注意：had no … when还没等…… 就……
had no sooner… than刚…… 就……
8 将来完成时
1) 构成will have done
2) 概念
a. 状态完成：表示某事继续到将来某一时为止一直有的状态。
b. 动作完成：表示将来某一时或另一个将来的动作之前，已经完成的动作或一获得的经验。
9 现在进行时
·
基本用法：
a. 表示现在( 指说话人说话时) 正在发生的事情。
b. 习惯进行：表示长期的或重复性的动作，说话时动作未必正在进行。
c. 表示渐变的动词有：get, grow, become, turn, run, go, begin等。
d. 与always, constantly, forever 等词连用，表示反复发生的动作或持续存在的状态，往往带有说话人的主观色彩。
·
不用进行时的动词

1)
事实状态的动词
have, belong, possess, cost, owe, exist, include, contain, matter, weigh, measure, continue
2) 心理状态的动词
Know, realize, think see, believe, suppose, imagine, agree, recognize, remember, want, need, forget, prefer, mean, understand, love, hate
3 ) 瞬间动词

accept, receive, complete, finish, give, allow, decide, refuse.
4) 系动词
seem, remain, lie, see, hear, smell, feel, taste, get, become, turn
9 过去进行时
this morning, the whole morning, all day, yesterday, from nine to ten last evening… when, while
1） 表示过去某时正在进行的状态或动作。
2） 过去进行时的主要用法是描述一件事发生的背景；一个长动作发生的时候，另一个短动作发生。
3) 常用的时间状语
this morning, the whole morning, all day yesterday, from nine to ten last evening, when, while
10 将来进行时
soon, tomorrow, this evening, on Sunday, by this time, tomorrow, in two days, tomorrow evening
11 一般现在时代替将来时
(1) 时间状语从句，条件句中，从句用一般现在时代替将来时
When, while, before, after, till, once, as soon as, so long as, by the time, if, in case (that), unless, even if, whether, the moment, the minute, the day, the year, immediately
(2) 表示现在已安排好的未来事项，行程等活动。
The museum opens at ten tomorrow.博物馆明天10点开门。(实际上每天如此。)
12 一般现在时代替过去时
1 )"书上说"，"报纸上说"等。
The newspaper says that it's going to be cold tomorrow.
2)
叙述往事，使其生动。
Napoleon's army now advances and the great battle begins.
13
一般现在时代替完成时
1) 有些动词用一般现在时代替完成时：hear, tell, learn, write, understand, forget, know, find , say, remember.
2) 句型 "It is … since…"代替"It has been … since …"
3) It is (= has been) five years since we last met.
14 一般现在时代替进行时
句型：Here comes… ； There goes…

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（10）连词
连词是一种虚词， 它不能独立担任句子成分而只起连接词与词，短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类：并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等等。
1 并列连词与并列结构
并列连词引导两个并列的句子。
1) and 与or
注意：and 还可以和祈使句或名词词组连用表示条件。（or也有此用法）
Make up your mind, and you'll get the chance.= If you make up your mind, you'll get the chance.
2)
both …and两者都
3)
not only…but (also), as well as不但…而且
注意： not only… but also 关联两个分句时，一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。
1)
neithe…nor 意思为"既不……也不……"谓语动词采用就近原则，与nor后的词保持一致。
2 比较and和or
1) 并列结构中，or通常用于否定句，and用于肯定句。
2) 但有时and 也可用于否定句。请注意其不同特点：
There is no air or water in the moon.
There is no air and no water on the moon.
在否定中并列结构用or 连接，但含有两个否定词的句子实际被看作是肯定结构，因此要用and。
3 表示选择的并列结构

1)
or意思为"否则"。
I must work hard, or I'll fail in the exam.
2)
either…or意思为"或者……或者 ……"。注意谓语动词采用就近原则。
Either you or I am right.
4 表示转折或对比
1) but表示转折，while表示对比。
2) not… but… 意思为"不是 ……而是……"
not 和but 后面的用词要遵循一致原则。
They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being.
5 表原因关系

1) for
(对) He is absent today, for he is ill.
for是并列连词，不能置于含两个并列分句的句子的句首，只能将其放在两个分句中间。
3)
so, therefore
He hurt his leg, so he couldn't play in the game.
注意：
a.
两个并列连词不能连用，但therefore, then, yet.可以和并列连词连用。
You can watch TV, and then you can go to bed.
b.
although… yet…，但although不与 but连用。
6 比较so和 such
其规律由so与such的不同词性决定。such 是形容词，修饰名词或名词词组，so是副词，只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many，few，much， little连用，形成固定搭配。
so + adj.
such + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + a(n) + n.
such + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (pl.)

such +n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. [不可数]
such +n. [不可数]
so foolish
such a fool
so many people
such a lot of people
so many 已成固定搭配，a lot of 虽相当于 many，但 a lot of 为名词性的，只能用such搭配。
so… that与such…that之间的转换既为 so与such之间的转换。

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rushtosummer的学习笔记（11）动词、动词语态
1 系动词
系动词亦称联系动词（Link Verb），作为系动词，它本身有词义，但不能单独用作谓语，后边必须跟表语（亦称补语），构成系表结构说明主语的状况、性质、特征等情况。说明：有些系动词又是实义动词，该动词表达实义时，有词义，可单独作谓语
1）状态系动词
用来表示主语状态，只有be一词
2）持续系动词
用来表示主语继续或保持一种状况或态度，主要有keep, rest, remain, stay, lie, stand
3）表像系动词
用来表示"看起来像"这一概念，主要有seem, appear, look
4）感官系动词
感官系动词主要有feel, smell, sound, taste
5）变化系动词
这些系动词表示主语变成什么样，变化系动词主要有become, grow, turn, fall, get, go, come, run.
6）终止系动词
表示主语已终止动作，主要有prove, trun out, 表达"证实"，"变成"之意
2 助动词
1）协助主要动词构成谓语动词词组的词叫助动词（Auxiliary Verb）。被协助的动词称作主要动词（Main Verb）。助动词自身没有词义，不可单独使用
2） 助动词协助主要动词完成以下功用，可以用来：
a. 表示时态 b. 表示语态 c. 构成疑问句d. 与否定副词not合用，构成否定句e. 加强语气
3） 最常用的助动词有：be, have, do, shall, will, should, would
3 助动词be的用法
1） be +现在分词，构成进行时态
2) be + 过去分词，构成被动语态，例如：
3） be + 动词不定式，可表示a. 表示最近、未来的计划或安排b. 表示命令c.征求意见d. 表示相约、商定，

4 助动词have的用法
1）have +过去分词，构成完成时态
2）have + been +现在分词，构成完成进行时
3）have+ been +过去分词，构成完成式被动语态
5 助动词do 的用法
1） 构成一般疑问句
2） do + not 构成否定句
3)构成否定祈使句
说明： 构成否定祈使句只用do，不用did和does。
4） 放在动词原形前，加强该动词的语气
5） 用于倒装句
说明： 引导此类倒装句的副词有never, seldom, rarely, little, only, so, well等。
6） 用作代动词
6 短语动词
短语动词的构成基本有下列几种：
1） 动词+副词，如：black out；
2） 动词+介词，如：look into；
3） 动词+副词+介词，如：look forward to。构成短语动词的副词和介词都统称为小品词（Particle）。
7 非谓语动词
非谓语动词分为三种形式:不定式，动名词，和分词(分词包括现在分词和过去分词)。

动词的语态
语态有两种：主动语态和被动语态。
1）若宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，变为被动语态时，该不定式前要加"to"。此类动词为感官动词。
feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch
The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
2）情态动词+ be +过去分词，构成被动语态。
1 let 的用法
1）当let后只有一个单音节动词，变被动语态时，可用不带to 的不定式。
They let the strange go.---> The strange was let go.
2） 若let 后宾补较长时，let 通常不用被动语态，而用allow或permit 代替。
2 短语动词的被动语态
短语动词是一个整体，不可丢掉后面的介词或副词。
This is a photo of the power station that has been set up in my hometown.
3 表示"据说"或"相信" 的词组
believe, consider, declare, expect, feel , report, say, see, suppose, think, understand
It is said that… 据说
It is reported that… 据报道

It is believed that…大家相信
It is hoped that…大家希望
It is well known that… 众所周知
It is thought that…大家认为
It is suggested that…据建议
It is taken granted that… 被视为当然
It has been decided that… 大家决定

It must be remember that…务必记住的是
4 不用被动语态的情况

1) 不及物动词或动词短语无被动语态：
appear, die disappear, end (vi. 结束), fail, happen, last, lie, remain, sit, spread, stand
break out, come true, fall asleep, keep silence, lose heart, take place.
2) 不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语：
fit, have, hold, marry, own, wish, cost, notice, watch agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to
3) 系动词无被动语态：
appear, be become, fall, feel, get, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay, taste, turn
It sounds good.
4) 带同源宾语的及物动词，反身代词，相互代词，不能用于被动语态：die, death, dream, live, life
5) 当宾语是不定式时，很少用于被动语态。
5 主动形式表示被动意义
1)
wash, clean, cook, iron, look, cut, sell, read, wear, feel, draw, write, sell, drive…
The book sells well.
2)
blame, let(出租), remain, keep, rent, build
3) 在need, require, want, worth (形容词), deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。
The door needs repairing.
4) 特殊结构：make sb. heard / understood (使别人能听见/理解自己)，have sth. done ( 要某人做某事)。
6 被动形式表示主动意义
be determined, be pleased, be graduated (from), be finished, be prepared (for), be occupied (in), get marries
注意： 表示同某人结婚，用marry sb. 或get married to sb. 都可。
7 need/want/require/worth

注意：当 need, want, require, worth(形容词)后面接doing也可以表示被动。

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

2010年1月9日
复习内容：
背600个单词~~

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（12）
动词不定式
1 不定式作宾语
1) 动词+ 不定式
afford

aim　appear　agree　 arrange　ask　be　decide　bother　care　choose　come　dare　demand　desire　determine　expect　elect　endeavor　hope　fail　happen　 help　hesitate　learn　long　mean　 manage　offer　ought　plan　prepare   promise　refuse　seem　 tend　 wait　wish　undertake
2）动词+不定式 ；动词+宾语+不定式
ask, beg, choose, expect , hate, help intend like, love, need prefer, prepare, promise, want, wish…
3） 动词+疑问词+ to
decide, know, consider forget, learn, remember, show, understand, see, wonder, hear, find out, explain, tell
注意:疑问词带不定式在句中作成分时，谓语动词用单数。
2 不定式作补语

1) 动词+宾语+不定式(to do)
advise　allow　appoint　believe　cause　challenge command　compel　consider　 declare　 drive　enable　encourage　 find　forbid　 force　guess  hire  imagine  impel 　induce  inform instruct invite  judge 　 know 　 like 　order 　 permit persuade　

Find 的特殊用法：
Find 后可用分词做宾补，或先加形式宾语，再加形容词，最后加带to 的动词不定式。find后也可带一个从句。此类动词还有get，have。
2) to + be 的不定式结构，作补语的动词。
Acknowledge, believe, consider, think, declare(声称), discover, fancy(设想),feel find, guess, judge, imagine, know, prove, see(理解), show, suppose, take(以为), understand
3) to be +形容词
Seem, appear, be said, be supposed, be believed, be thought, be known, be reported, hope, wish, desire, want, plan, expect, mean…
4)there be+不定式
believe, expect, intend, like, love, mean, prefer, want, wish, understand
We didn't expect there to be so many people there.
注意：有些动词需用as 短语做补语，如regard, think believe, take, consider.
3 不定式主语

1） It's easy (for me) to do that.
easy,　difficult,　 hard,　 important,　 possible,　 impossible,　comfortable,　 necessary,　 better;
the first,　 the next,　 the last, the best,　too much, too little, not enough
2) It's very kind of you to help us.

Kind,nice, stupid,rude, clever,foolish,thoughtful,thoughtless,brave,considerate(考虑周到的),silly, selfish(自私的)
3) 当不定式作主语的句子中又有一个不定式作表语时，不能用It is… to…的句型
(对)To see is to believe.百闻不如一见。
(错)It is to believe to see.
4 不定式作表语
5 不定式作定语
不定式做定语通常要放在被修饰的词后
6 不定式作状语
1）目的状语
To… only to (仅仅为了),in order to,so as to,so(such)… as to… (如此……以便……)
2）作结果状语，表事先没有预料到的，要放在句子后面。
He searched the room only to find nothing.
3)表原因
7 用作介词的to
to 有两种用法： 一为不定式+动词原形； 一为介词+名词/动名词, to 在下面的用法中是第二种，即to+ 名词/动名词：
admit to承认，confess to承认，be accustomed to 习惯于， be used to 习惯于， stick to 坚持， turn to开始，着手于， devote oneself to 献身于，be devoted to 致力于， look forward to 盼望，pay attention to 注意
8
省to 的动词不定式

1） 情态动词 ( 除ought 外，ought to)：
2） 使役动词 let, have, make：
3） 感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后作宾补，省略to。
注意：在被动语态中则to 不能省掉。
I saw him dance. =He was seen to dance.
4） would rather，had better：
5） Why… / why not…：
6） help 可带to，也可不带to, help sb (to) do sth：

7） but和except：but前是动词do时，后面出现的动词用不带to的动词不定式。
8） 由and, or和than连接的两个不定式，第二个to 可以省去：
9） 通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think, understand等词后，可以省去to be：

He is supposed (to be) nice.他应该是个好人。
比较： He wants to do nothing but go out.
He wants to believe anything but to take the medicine.
9
不定式的特殊句型too…to…

1）too…to 太…以至于…
2) 如在too前有否定词，则整个句子用否定词表达肯定， too 后那个词表达一种委婉含。意 为"不太"。
It's never too late to mend. (谚语) 改过不嫌晚。
3)当too 前面有only, all, but时，意思是：非常… 等于very。
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 我非常高兴能帮助你。
10
不定式的特殊句型so as to
1) 表示目的；它的否定式是so as not to do。
Tom kept quiet about the accident so as not to lose his job.
2)
so kind as to ---劳驾
Would you be so kind as to tell me the time?
11
不定式的特殊句型Why not

"Why not +动词原形"表达向某人提出建议，翻译为："为什么不……?" "干吗不……?"
12
不定式的时态和语态

时态\语态

主动                被动
一般式
to do
to be done
进行式
to be doing
完成式

to have done

to have been done
完成进行式
to have been doing
13
动名词与不定式

1） 动名词与不定式的区别：
动名词表达的是： 状态，性质，心境，抽象，经常性，已发生的
不定式表达的是： 目的，结果，原因，具体，一次性，将发生的
2） 接不定式或动名词，意义相同。

3） 动名词与不定式语义不同的有11 组：
1
stop to do——stop doing
2 forget to do—— forget doing
3
remember to do——remember doing
4 regret to do—— regret doing
5
cease to do—— cease doing
6 try to do——try doing
7
go on to do—— go on doing
8 afraid to do—— afraid doing
9
interested to do——interested doing
10
mean to do—— mean doing
11
begin/ start to do—— begin/ start doing

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

分词
1 分词作定语

We can see the rising sun.
This is the question given.
Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists.
2 分词作状语

As I didn't receive any letter from him, I gave him a call.
-> Not receiving any letter from him, I gave him a call.
3 连词+分词(短语)
有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚，可在分词前加连词。 连词有： when，while，if though，after, before, as.但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个，如：
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.
4 分词作补语
通常在感官动词和使役动词之后，如：
I found my car missing.
5 分词作表语
现在分词： 表示主动，正在进行
过去分词： 表示被动，已经完成
She looked tired with cooking.
He remained standing beside the table.
6 分词作插入语
其结构是固定的，意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。
generally speaking一般说来
talking of (speaking of) 说道

strictly speaking 严格的说
judging from 从…判断

all things considered 从整体来看
taking all things into consideration全面看来
7 分词的时态

1）与主语动词同时
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy.
2）先于主动词
While walking in the garden，he hurt his leg.
分词作时间状语，如果先与主动词的动作，且强调先后， 要用having done。
Having finished his homework, he went out. =As he had finished his homework, he went out
分词的否定式的构成为not +分词
动名词
1 动名词作主语、宾语和表语
1）作主语
2）作宾语　
a. 动词后加动名词doing作宾语 V. + doing sth
admit 承认　　　
appreciate 感激,赞赏　
avoid 避免　　　　 complete 完成　

consider 认为　　　delay 耽误　　

deny 否认　　　

detest 讨厌
endure 忍受　　　
enjoy 喜欢　
escape 逃脱　　　
prevent阻止
fancy 想象　　　
finish 完成　　　　　

imagine 想象　　

mind 介意
miss 想念　　　　
postpone 推迟　　　　　　practice 训练　

recall 回忆　　　　　 resent 讨厌　　　
resist 抵抗　　

resume 继续　　　
risk 冒险
suggest 建议　　
face 面对　　　　　　

include 包括　　　
stand 忍受
understand 理解　　forgive 宽恕
keep 继续
b. 词组后接doing
admit to, prefer…to, be used to, lead to, devote oneself to, object to, stick to, busy, look forward to(to为介词）, no good,
no use,
It's worth…,
as well as, can't help,
It's no use /good, be tired of, be fond of, be capable of, be afraid of, be proud of, think of / about, hold off, put off, keep on, insist on, count on / upon, set about, be successful in, good at, take up, give up, burst out, prevent … from…　
3）作表语
2 worth 的用法
worth，worthy，worth-while都为adj.　意为"值得"。
1. worth： be worth + n.　 当名词为金钱时，表示"…… 值得……"
         
be worth doing sth.　"……某事值得被做"
2. worthy： be worthy of +n.　当名词为抽象名词时表示"……值得……"
           be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
3. worth-while： be worth-while to do sth　 "值得做某事"
worth while： It is worth while doing sth
It is worth while sb to do sth.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（13）独立主格

独立主格
（一）：独立主格结构的构成：
名词(代词)+现在分词、过去分词；
名词(代词)+形容词；
名词(代词)+副词；
名词(代词)+不定式；
名词(代词) +介词短语构成。
1）独立主格结构的逻辑主语与句子的主语不同，它独立存在。
2）名词或代词与后面的分词，形容词，副词，不定 式，介词等是主谓关系。
3）独立主格结构一般有逗号与主句分开。
2 With的复合结构作独立主格
表伴随时，既可用分词的独立结构，也可用with的复合结构。
with +名词(代词)+现在分词/过去分词/形容词/副词/不定式/介词短语
举例: He stood there, his hand raised. = He stood there, with his hand raise.
注意:
1) 独立主格结构使用介词的问题：
当介词是in 时，其前后的两个名词均不加任何成分（如物主代词或冠词），也不用复数。但 with 的复合结构不受此限制
A robber burst into the room, knife in hand.
2) 当表人体部位的词做逻辑主语时，及物动词用现在分词，不及物动词用过去分词。
He lay there, his teeth set, his hand clenched, his eyes looking straight up.
特殊词
1 stop doing/to do

stop to do停止，中断做某事后去做另一件事。
stop doing停止做某事。
2 forget doing/to do
forget to do忘记要去做某事。(未做)
forget doing忘记做过某事。(已做)
3 remember doing/to do
remember to do 记得去做某事 (未做)
remember doing记得做过某事 (已做)
4 regret doing/to do
regret to do 对要做的事遗憾。(未做)
regret doing 对做过的事遗憾、后悔。(已做)
5 cease doing/to do

cease to do 长时间，甚至永远停做某事。
cease doing 短时停止做某事，以后还会接着做。
6 try doing/to do

try to do努力，企图做某事。
try doing 试验，试着做某事。
7 go on doing/to do

go on to do做了一件事后，接着做另一件事。
go on doing 继续做原来做的事。
8 be afraid doing/to do

be afraid to do不敢，胆怯去做某事，是主观上的原因不去做，意为"怕"；
be afraid of doing担心出现doing的状况、结果。 doing 是客观上造成的，意为"生怕，恐怕"。
9 be interested doing/to do

interested to do 对做某事感兴趣，想了解某事。
interested in doing 对某种想法感兴趣，doing 通常为想法。
10 mean to doing/to do
mean to do 打算、想
mean doing意味着
11 begin(start) doing/to do

begin / start to do sth
begin / start doing sth.
1) 谈及一项长期活动或开始一种习惯时，使用doing.
How old were you when you first started playing the piano?
2)
begin, start用进行时时，后面动词用不定式to do
I was beginning to get angry。
3)
在attempt, intend, begin, start 后接 know, understand, realize这类动词时，常用不定式to do。

I begin to understand the truth。
4)
物作主语时
It began to melt.
12 感官动词 + doing/to do

感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do 表示动作的完整性，真实性； +doing 表示动作的连续性，进行性

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（14）active and passive voice
Reasons to Generally Avoid Passive Voice
Overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
Further Suggestions for Using Passive and Active Voices
1. Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.

Unnecessary shift in voice	Revised
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.	Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.

2. Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice. A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.

Dangling modifier with passive voice	Revised
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)	To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.

3. Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software. Many grammar checkers flag all passive constructions, but you may want to keep some that are flagged. Trust your judgment, or ask another human being for their opinion about which sentence sounds best.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（15）Apostrophe & Hyphens
Apostrophe
The apostrophe has three uses:
1.to form possessives of nouns
2.to show the omission of letters
3.to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters
Forming Possessives of Nouns
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.
·add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):
the owner's car
·add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:
the children's game
the geese's honking
·add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:
houses' roofs
·add 's to the end of compound words:
my brother-in-law's money
·add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:
Todd and Anne's apartment
Showing omission of letters
Here are some examples:
don't = do not
I'm = I am
he'll = he will
who's = who is
shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not
could've= could have (NOT "could of"!)
'60 = 1960
Forming plurals of lowercase letters
Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters that appear in lowercase; here the rule appears to be more typographical than grammatical.

p's and q's = The expression was used commonly to mean, "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thankyous."
Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.
wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.
Proofreading for apostrophes
Hyphens
1.Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street
2.Use a hyphen with compound numbers:
forty-six
3.Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:
re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
4.Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband
mid-1980s
5.Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables: pref-er-ence
6.For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen
7.For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:
plan-ning
driv-ing
8.Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line.

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2010年1月10日复习内容
将GMAT写作论证论据素材大全看到149页。