1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by rushtosummer——学贵有恒

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（16）Parallel Structure
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Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
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Words and Phrases With the -ing form (gerund) of words:
Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.
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With infinitive phrases:
Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.
OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle.
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Do not mix forms.
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A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
Example:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
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Lists after a Colon
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Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.
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Proofreading Strategies to Try:
1.
Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
2.
If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
3.
Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do you hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（17）Commas
Extended Rules for Using Commas
1. Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
2. Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a. Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, until, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
b. Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room.
c. Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause.
That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
4. Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
5. Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
6. Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)
7. Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
8. Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
9. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
10. Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
11. Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
12. Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
13. Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
14. Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
15. Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
16. Commas vs. Semicolons in Compound Sentences
Comma (,)
Use a comma after the first independent clause when you link two independent clauses with one of the following coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Semicolon (;)
Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（18）Dangling Modifiers
Dangling Modifiers and How To Correct Them
A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on. (Dangling modifier)
Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:
1. Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause
3. Combine the phrase and main clause into one

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（19）Capital Letters
Use capital letters in the following ways:
1. The first words of a sentence
2. The pronoun "I"
3. Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)
4. Family relationships (when used as proper names)
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books
God the Father, the Virgin Mary, the Bible, the Greek gods, Moses, Shiva, Buddha, Zeus
Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
5. Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
6. Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
7. The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

Halloween, October, Friday, winter, spring, fall
Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.

The Fall 1999 semester
8. The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
9. The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
10.
The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.
11. Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
12.
Periods and events (but not century numbers)

Victorian Era,
Great Depression, Constitutional Convention
13. Trademarks

Pepsi, Honda, IBM, Microsoft Word
14. Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)
Freudian, NBC, pasteurize

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（20）Spelling
Spelling: Common Words that Sound Alike
Forms to Remember
Accept, Except
Affect, Effect
A memory-help for affect and effect is RAVEN: Remember, Affect is a Verb and Effect is a Noun.
Advise, Advice
Conscious, Conscience
·conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving:
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
·conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good:
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.
Idea, Ideal
Its, It's
Lead, Led
·lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element:
The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.
·led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct:
The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.
Than, Then
Their, There, They're
To, Too, Two
We're, Where, Were
Your, You're
I/E Rule
Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight
Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species, sufficient
-ible, -able Rule

-ible	-able
If the root is not a complete word, add -ible. aud + ible = audible Examples: ·visible ·horrible ·terrible ·possible ·edible ·eligible ·incredible ·permissible	If the root is a complete word, add -able. accept + able = acceptable Examples: ·fashionable ·laughable ·suitable ·dependable ·comfortable If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e and add -able. excuse - e+ able = excusable Examples: ·advisable ·desirable ·valuable ·debatable

Some exceptions:
·contemptible
·digestible
·flexible
·responsible
·irritable
·inevitable

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2010年1月11日
复习内容：
将GMAT写作论证论据素材大全看到175页。

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（21）HOCs\LOCs
Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)
The most important parts of your paper, often called "Higher Order Concerns (HOCs)," are the "big picture" elements such as thesis or focus, audience and purpose, organization, and development.
"Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)," such as sentence structure and grammar.
Some HOCs
Thesis or focus:
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Does the paper have a central thesis?
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Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about?
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Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss.
Audience and purpose:
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Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?
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Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?
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Why would someone want to read this paper?
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Does the purpose match the assignment?
Organization:
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Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way?
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Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization.
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Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part?
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Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?
Development:
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Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed?
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Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others?
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Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.
Some LOCs
Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling
For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.
Rushtosummer的学习笔记（21）HOCs\LOCs
Higher Order Concerns (HOCs) and Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)
The most important parts of your paper, often called "Higher Order Concerns (HOCs)," are the "big picture" elements such as thesis or focus, audience and purpose, organization, and development.
"Lower Order Concerns (LOCs)," such as sentence structure and grammar.
Some HOCs
Thesis or focus:
·
Does the paper have a central thesis?
·
Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about?
·
Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss.
Audience and purpose:
·
Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?
·
Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?
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Why would someone want to read this paper?
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Does the purpose match the assignment?
Organization:
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Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way?
·
Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization.
·
Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part?
·
Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?
Development:
·
Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed?
·
Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others?
·
Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.
Some LOCs
Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling
For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（22）Sentence Clarity
Improving Sentence Clarity
Go from old to new information
Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know. Then they can link what's familiar to the new information you give them. As that new information becomes familiar, it too becomes old information that can link to newer information.
Transitional words
Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses
Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion.
Use active voice
Use parallel constructions
When you have a series of words, phrases, or clauses, put them in parallel form (similar grammatical construction) so that the reader can identify the linking relationship more easily and clearly.
Avoid noun strings
Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."
Avoid multiple negatives
Choose action verbs over forms of be
When possible, avoid using forms of be as the main verbs in your sentences and clauses. This problem tends to accompany nominalization. Instead of using a be verb, focus on the actions you wish to express, and choose the appropriate verbs.
Avoid unclear pronoun references
Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.
Sentence Fragments
Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause. One of the easiest ways to correct them is to remove the period between the fragment and the main clause. Other kinds of punctuation may be needed for the newly combined sentence.
Fragment:
Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
No main verb
Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.
No Subject
Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
The fragments with no subjects are also known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（23）Relative Pronouns
Introduction and General Usage in Defining Clauses
Relative pronouns are that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, and why.
In English, the choice of the relative pronoun depends on the type of clause it is used in. There are two types of clauses distinguished: defining (restrictive) relative clauses and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses. In both types of clauses the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive.
Relative pronouns in defining clauses
Defining relative clauses (also known as restrictive relative clauses) provide some essential information that explains the main clause. They are opened by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main clause.
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses:

Function in the sentence	Reference to
	People	Things / concepts	Place	Time	Reason
Subject	who, that	which, that
Object	(that, who, whom)*	(which, that)*	where	when	why
Possessive	Whose	whose, of which

In American English, whom is not used very often. Whom is more formal than who and is very often omitted in speech.
General remarks: That, Who, Which compared
The relative pronoun that
can only be used in defining clauses. It can also be substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things). That is often used in speech; who and which are more common in written English.
Some special uses of relative pronouns in defining clauses
that / who
Referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may be used to refer to someone in general. However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred.
that / which
There are several cases when that is more appropriate than and is preferred to which:
After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing);
After verbs that answer the question WHAT? For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write, etc. In this case, the whole relative clause functions as the object of the main clause.
After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree;
After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.;
If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE;

Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses
Non-defining relative clauses (also known as non-restrictive, or parenthetical, clauses) provide some additional information which is not essential and may be omitted without affecting the contents of the sentence. All relative pronouns EXCEPT "that" can be used in non-defining clauses; however, the pronouns MAY NOT be omitted. Non-defining clauses ARE separated by commas.
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses:

Function in the sentence	Reference to
	People	Things / concepts	Place	Time	Reason
Subject	who	which
Object	who, whom	which	where	when	why
Possessive	whose	whose, of which

Some Special Uses of Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses
a.which
If you are referring to the previous clause as a whole, use which
b.of whom, of which
Use of whom for persons and of which for things or concepts after numbers and words such as most, many, some, both, none
Defining vs. Non-Defining and ESL Tips
Defining vs Non-Defining Clauses: Difference in Meaning
the following summary may be helpful if you need to make a quick decision:
1.Use that if the main clause poses the question WHAT? answered by the relative clause;
2.Do not use that presenting non-essential, additional information (that is, in non-defining relative clauses); use who or which instead;
3.Use who to refer to people;
4.Use which to refer to things or to refer to the previous clause as a whole;
5.If you choose between who or that, use who in writing;
6.If you choose between which and that, use which in writing;
7.Do not put a comma before that.
Sentence Punctuation Patterns
Pattern One: Simple sentence
Independent clause [ . ]
Pattern Two : Compound Sentence
Independent clause [ , ] coordinating conjunction independent clause [ . ]
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Pattern Three: Compound Sentence
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Pattern Five: Complex Sentence
Dependent marker dependent clause[ , ] Independent clause[ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Pattern Six: Complex Sentence
Independent clause dependent marker dependent clause [ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Pattern Seven
First part of an independent clause [ , ] non-essential clause or phrase, rest of the independent clause [ . ]
Pattern Eight
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（24）Punctuation
Comma
Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
Use a comma to separate elements in a series.
Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)
Use a comma with quoted words.
Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
Use a comma in a number.
Use a comma in a personal title.
Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
Avoid comma splices (two independent clauses joined only by a comma).
Semicolon
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.
Colon
Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive, or other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting: To Whom It May Concern:
Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
Parenthesis
Parentheses are used to emphasize content. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.
Dash
Dashes are used to set off or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word
that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.
Quotation Marks
Note that commas and periods are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons and semicolons are placed outside.
Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
Do not use quotation marks in indirect or block quotations.
Italics
Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.
Italicize foreign words.
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
Italicize a word when referring to that word.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（25）A versus An
How do you know when to use the indefinite articles?
"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.
With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h.
an honorable peace
an honest error
"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:
With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.
a union
a united front
a unicorn
a used napkin
a U.S. ship
a one-legged man
Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter.

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（26）Use Articles
Using Articles
the = definite article
a/an = indefinite article
The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of a group.
"A/an" is used to refer to a non-specific or non-particular member of the group.
Remember the rule of “a/an” also applies when you use acronyms:
Introductory Composition at Purdue (ICaP) handles first-year writing at the University. Therefore, an ICaP memo generally discusses issues concerning English 106 instructors.
Another case where this rule applies is when acronyms start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds:
An MSDS (material safety data sheet) was used to record the data.
If the noun is modified by an adjective, the choice between a and an
depends on the initial sound of the adjective that immediately follows the article
Geographical use of the
There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.
Do not use the before:
·
names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
·
names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
·
names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
·
names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
·
names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
·
names of continents (Asia, Europe)
·
names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands
Do use
the before:
·
names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
·
points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
·
geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
·
deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula
Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
·
Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
·
Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
·
Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

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:) 66# 一团棉花糖

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2010年1月12日
复习内容：
将GMAT写作论证论据素材大全看到217页。