1006G[REBORN FROM THE ASHES组]备考日记 by rushtosummer——学贵有恒

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平安夜正准备上来写日志，本本就出问题起动不了了，真是多灾多难啊
不过还是报备一下昨天复习的内容
单词背了5页
看issue例题到100题

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今天的复习内容是：
单词背了6页
看ISSUE到150题~~

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（6）下
四、如何写出好的主题句？（思维的步骤）
1.Rank with justification　考虑重要性
Most important to least important
2.Contrasts (of perspectives of sources) 对比，考虑流行和反对观点
Although newspapers at the time claimed ……, the most significant cause/explanation/reason, etc. is ……
3.Perception versus reality; 感觉与现实
4.Good versus bad reasons:
5.Cause and Effect: 因果关系
6.Challenge:质疑，否定
以上都是形成转折关系的
7.提出系列问题：
• What should the audience/reader do/feel/believe?
• Who are the major players on both/each side and how did they contribute to?
• Which are the most important?
• What was the impact of?
• Can I compare? How is X like or unlike Y?
• What if? Can I predict?
• How could we solve/improve/design/deal with?
• Is there a better solution to?
• How can you defend?
• What changes would you recommend to?
• Was it effective, justified, defensible, warranted?
• Why did this happen? Why did it succeed? Why did it fail?
• What should be? What are/would be the possible outcomes of?
• What are the problems related to?
• What were the motives behind?
• Why are the opponents protesting?
• What is my personal response to?
• What case can I make for?
• What is the significance of?
• Where will the next move(s) occur?
• How is this debate likely to affect?
• What is the value or, what is/are the potential benefit(s) of?
• What are three/four/five reasons for us to believe?
五、对于主题的头脑风暴：
As you read look for:
Interesting contrasts or comparisons or patterns emerging in the information
Is there something about the topic that surprises you?
Do you encounter ideas that make you wonder why?
Does something an "expert" says make you respond, "no way! That can be right!" or "Yes, absolutely. I agree!"
Create a list of sample questions to guide your research:
六、How to Tell a Strong Thesis Sentence from a Weak One.
1. A strong thesis takes some sort of stand.明确表明立场！
2. A strong thesis justifies discussion.留给大家质疑和讨论的余地．
A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial. Readers will be interested in reading the rest of the essay to see how you support your point.
3. A strong thesis expresses one main idea.表达一个主要观点
Readers need to be able to see that your paper has one main point. If there are several points, it is good to show that the ideas are related. Hint: a great many clear and engaging thesis statements contain words like “because,” “since,” “so,” “although,” “unless,” and “however.”
4. A strong thesis statement is specific.具体而不抽象
narrows the subject to a more specific and manageable topic

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12月26日复习内容
背单词5页
看ISSUE例题到200题
继续做作业

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rushtosummer的学习笔记（7）
Topic Sentences and Signposting

Topic sentences and signposts make an essay's claims clear to a reader. Good essays contain both. They occupy a middle ground in the writing process.
Topic sentences

They reveal the main point of a paragraph and show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay's thesis, telegraph the point of a paragraph, and tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows. Topic sentences also establish their relevance right away, making clear why the points they're making are important to the essay's main ideas. They argue rather than report.
Forms of Topic Sentences
Sometimes topic sentences are actually two or even three sentences long. If the first makes a claim, the second might reflect on that claim, explaining it further. Think of these sentences as asking and answering two critical questions: How does the phenomenon you're discussing operate? Why does it operate as it does?
1.
Complex sentences.

Topic sentences at the beginning of a paragraph frequently combine with a transition from the previous paragraph. This might be done by writing a sentence that contains both subordinate and independent clauses, as in the example below.（利用复合句，联系上下文的作用）Complex sentence employs a useful principle of transitions: always move from old to new information.

2.
Questions.（提问）
Questions, sometimes in pairs, also make good topic sentences (and signposts). Questions are by definition a form of inquiry, and thus demand an answer. Good essays strive for this forward momentum.
3.
Bridge sentences.

Like questions, "bridge sentences" (the term is John Trimble's) make an excellent substitute for more formal topic sentences. Bridge sentences indicate both what came before and what comes next (they "bridge" paragraphs) without the formal trappings of multiple clauses.
4.
Pivots.

Topic sentences don't always appear at the beginning of a paragraph. When they come in the middle, they indicate that the paragraph will change direction, or "pivot." This strategy is particularly useful for dealing with counter-evidence. The pivot always needs a signal, a word like "but," "yet," or "however," or a longer phrase or sentence that indicates an about-face. It often needs more than one sentence to make its point.
Signposts
Signposts, as their name suggests, prepare the reader for a change in the argument's direction. They show how far the essay's argument has progressed within the claims of the thesis.
Signposts operate as topic sentences for whole sections in an essay. (In longer essays, sections often contain more than a single paragraph.) They inform a reader that the essay is taking a turn in its argument: delving into a related topic such as a counter-argument, stepping up its claims with a complication, or pausing to give essential historical or scholarly background. Because they reveal the architecture of the essay itself, signposts remind readers of what the essay's stakes are: what it's about, and why it's being written.

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12月27日复习内容：
背单词5页
将ISSUE例题看完了~~

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（8）
·
段落间的逻辑顺序
1.
Climactic Order (Order of Importance)
Items are arranged from least important to most important. Typical transitions would include more important, most difficult, still harder, by far the most expensive, even more damaging, worse yet, and so on.
A variation of climactic order is called psychological order. In this pattern, then, you decide what is most important and put it at the beginning or the end; next you choose what is second most important and put it at the end or the beginning (whichever remains); the less important or powerful items are then arranged in the middle. If the order of importance followed 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, with 5 being most important, psychological order might follow the order 4, 3, 1, 2, 5.
In an analysis of issues related to a topic, you can follow an ascending or climactic order, looking at smaller factors or arguments first, then moving up to the more crucial factors. Your last section could begin, "The most serious difficulty with…, however, is…"
A possible outline template for an analytical paper (ascending order)
Working Title (*optional here. You may want to wait until after your first draft)
Introductory Paragraph
·
What do I need to say to set up my research question? Background?
·
Research Question (stated within a sentence, not as a question. E.g., "In light of .., it seems worthwhile to consider just what the effects of ….")
_________________________
·
(You may want to outline what's to come below briefly)
Transition (you don't have to write these out now but you should know what they'd roughly be)
Reason #3 = _________________________
·
one possible answer to the question + explication/summary
·
strengths and weaknesses of the position
Transition
Reason #2 = _________________________
·
another possible answer + explication/summary (especially how it addresses weaknesses of the previous paragraph or completely counters it).
Transition
Reason #1 = _________________________
·
best answer so far what does it say?
·
why is it a better consideration of the research question? Or is it really?
Transition
Concluding Paragraph
·
sum up what different angles have shown are: research question
·
critically evaluate what is still needed in the field, or if you looked at three equally strong cases, analyze why one is still more convincing
·
look at the implications
2.
If you are comparing or contrasting two or more viewpoints, there are basically two ways to go about it.
If the two views you are discussing are relatively simple to explain and analyze, try a longitudinal method by which you discuss all aspects of view A and then moved on to discuss all aspects of view B.
But suppose that the arguments are getting complicated, and you’re afraid your reader will have forgotten what the first position said before you have time to discuss it in the second position. In a complex situation, you’ll need a cross-sectional approach, which deals with both sides of each sub-topic in turn:
How do you cover the ground with multiplying your outline headings? You do it by using fewer main headings and adding subheadings to them.  Thus you group your points, arguments, etc. under 3 or 4 main categories and let subheadings pick up the detail.  This makes a tighter structure that has more of a chance of achieving unity in the paper.
3.
Descending order
4.
General to specific order
5.
Known to unknown
6.
Problem to solution
7.
Concept to example
8.
Cause and effect
9.
Contrast and compare
10.
IMRaD: Introduction- Materials and Methods -Results – Discussion
11.
Flow of mind
·
如何处理复杂顺序
一．三“W”法：Answering Questions:
The Parts of an Essay
A typical essay contains many different kinds of information, often located in specialized parts or sections. Even short essays perform several different operations: introducing the argument, analyzing data, raising counter-arguments, concluding.
Introductions and conclusions have fixed places, but other parts don't.
Counter-argument, for example, may appear within a paragraph, as a free-standing section, as part of the beginning, or before the ending.
Background material (historical context or biographical information, a summary of relevant theory or criticism, the definition of a key term) often appears at the beginning of the essay, between the introduction and the first analytical section, but might also appear near the beginning of the specific section to which it's relevant.
"What?"
What evidence shows that the phenomenon described by your thesis is true? To answer the question you must examine your evidence, thus demonstrating the truth of your claim. This "what" or "demonstration" section comes early in the essay, often directly after the introduction. But be forewarned: it shouldn't take up much more than a third (often much less) of your finished essay.
If it does, the essay will lack balance and may read as mere summary or description.
"How?"
How does the thesis stand up to the challenge of a counter-argument? How does the introduction of new material—a new way of looking at the evidence, another set of sources—affect the claims you're making? Typically, an essay will include at least one "how" section. This section usually comes after the "what," but keep in mind that an essay may complicate its argument several times depending on its length, and that counter-argument alone may appear just about anywhere in an essay.
"Why?"
Why does your interpretation of a phenomenon matter to anyone beside you? This question addresses the larger implications of your thesis. It allows your readers to understand your essay within a larger context. In answering "why", your essay explains its own significance.
二．文章地图法Mapping an Essay
Essay maps ask you to predict where your reader will expect background information, counter-argument, close analysis of a primary source, or a turn to secondary source material. Essay maps are not concerned with paragraphs so much as with sections of an essay. They anticipate the major argumentative moves you expect your essay to make. Try making your map like this:
*
State your thesis in a sentence or two, then write another sentence saying why it's important to make that claim. Indicate, in other words, what a reader might learn by exploring the claim with you. Here you're anticipating your answer to the "why" question that you'll eventually flesh out in your conclusion.
*   Begin your next sentence like this: "To be convinced by my claim, the first thing a reader needs to know is . . ." Then say why that's the first thing a reader needs to know, and name one or two items of evidence you think will make the case. This will start you off on answering the "what" question. (Alternately, you may find that the first thing your reader needs to know is some background information.)
*   Begin each of the following sentences like this: "The next thing my reader needs to know is . . ."
Once again, say why, and name some evidence. Continue until you've mapped out your essay.
The order in which the ideas appear is not a rigid one.
Be wary of paragraph openers that lead off with "time" words ("first," "next," "after," "then") or "listing" words ("also," "another," "in addition"). Although they don't always signal trouble, these paragraph openers often indicate that an essay's thesis and structure need work: they suggest that the essay simply reproduces the chronology of the source text (in the case of time words: first this happens, then that, and afterwards another thing . . . ) or simply lists example after example ("In addition, the use of color indicates another way that the painting differentiates between good and evil").

rushtosummerUID: 2735551

12月末到1月初因为回家，耽误了复习，挺难受的。以后会认真复习的：）

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2010年1月2号：
复习内容：将argument题库看到136例~~

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（9） 段落内部的关系
一、段落的基本概念：
1. 段落的三要素：
·
一个独立的观点－和Thesis密切相关
·
一个合理的逻辑顺序
·
没有无关细节
注意：段落的结构和整体文章的结构是一致的，段落组织联系的关系就和文章是一样的
2. 段落的长短
长短适度，根据话题和论述的需要
·
过短的段落说明信息不足，论证不充分，观点的选择比较肤浅，论述的范围比较窄。
·
过长的段落说明信息冗余，或者不相关细节过多，讨论过宽。
二、段落的组成结构
1. the topic sentence
首先它实际上是本段话题的Thesis，起到和全文的Thesis一样的作用。
其次，它是全文的Thesis的进一步的推广和具体化；
一般来说，TS总是在文章的开头的第一或者第二句话。
2. supporting evidence / analysis
必须在论证和论据之间找到一个平衡
3. the conclusion (observation)
结论句总是在文章的最后一句或者倒数第二句。
结论句除了总结上文的论述，还要在此总结上做好向下一个分论点的过度。
三、段落组成的内容
基本原则：
·
Orient your reader to the subject.
·
Tie your ideas together.
·
Take it easy through technically dense passages.
·
Arrange your ideas in a logical sequence.
方法：
1.
Use orienting words and phrases:
of course, as you know, until now, obviously, normally, previously, everyone is familiar with, remember that
2.
Let the new amplify the old:
As you link the old with the new, avoid the traditional chronological approach that lists the old things before the new. Usually, you are interested in the old merely as a contrast with the new.
Background information is most useful if it is strategically placed to reinforce and contrast with your message, not as a single lump at the beginning.
3.
Add explantory words and phrases:
Generally, the more complex the ideas you have to present, the more explanatory material you will need.
It's a good idea to put in more explanations than you think you need, because your writing is often read by people outside your expected audience.
四、段内句子连接
原则：
·
Unity-所有句子讲同一个主题
·
Coherence－句子之间相互关联，共同构成有机整体
·
Connection－适当的连接句子
1.
利用逻辑连接词连接段落
Connective words that describe relationships:
also, however, although, incidentally, therefore, besides, likewise, thus, meanwhile, morever, usually, furthermore, next, whatever, generally, yet, accordingly, nevertheless, instead, in contrast, for example.
Connectives that give a sense of time:
first, secondly, finally, now, once, when, ultimately, eventually, lastly, later, meanwhile, previously, then, soon, formerly, sometimes.
Other Connective phrases:
to begin with, on the other hand, in brief, in general, in summary, more specifically, instead of, in addition to, in other words, another way to, for the same reason, no matter what, such a , that’s what (why), in fact, what’s more, in the same way, on the contrary, conversely, as a result, summing up, if so / not.
2.
利用重复
(1). 使用代词：
this, that, these, which, their, his, its, her等
(2). 核心词重复
All the sentences in a paragraph should be logically related.
(3). 利用强调词
Useful intensives:
Especially, as much as, even if / though, increasingly, by far, so...that, more importantly, highly, only, particularly, in fact, very, significantly, quite, such, most, unique, at all, above all, indeed, in any case.
CAUTION: Misusing or overusing intensives (most notoriously, the word very) can weaken your writing. Use them like garlic -- sparingly.

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第9讲练习：
Global Airlines carried as much as three-million passengers last year, in contrast, only one-million passengers flew Global two years ago. Their planes have averaged 80-percent full last year. Meanwhile, their record has always been accident-free since 1950. This increase may due to that they expanded their routes into the Pacific Northwest and Canada. While, older, unprofitable routes were dropped. Besides, the new DC-12 aircraft proved much more fuel-efficient than the older 737's. On the other hand, passengers seem to like on-time flights and automatic ticketing. As a result, their profits were up 60 percent, in spite of increased fuel costs.

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2010年1月3日复习内容：
argument例题看完
看完6篇例文和评分标准

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（10）如何有效的论证
l
如何使用论据论证？
1.
Offer evidence that agrees with your stance up to a point, then add to it with ideas of your own.
2.
Present evidence that contradicts your stance in order to argue against (refute) it and therefore strengthen your position.
3.
Use sources against each other, as if they are experts on a panel discussing your proposition
4.
Use quotations to support your assertion, not merely to state or restate your claim.
In order to use evidence effectively, you need to integrate it smoothly into your paragraph:
o State your claim.
o Give your evidence, remembering to relate it to the claim.
o Comment on the evidence to show how it supports the claim
论证的段落首尾都有明显的和中心联系的句子。几乎每一个句子都有逻辑连接词连接。
l
Discussing your evidence’s significance develops and expands a paper. Remember that your job during the course of your essay is to persuade your readers that your claims are feasible and the most effective way of interpreting the evidence.
l
Questions to Ask Yourself When Revising Your Paper
1) Do I avoid generalizing in my paper by specifically explaining how my evidence is representative?
2) Have I offered my reader evidence to substantiate each assertion I make in my paper?
3) Do I thoroughly explain why/how my evidence backs up my ideas?
4) Do I provide evidence that not only confirms but also qualifies my paper’s main claims?
5) Do I use evidence to test and evolve my ideas, rather than to just confirm them?
6) Do I cite my sources thoroughly and correctly?

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Rushtosummer的学习笔记（11）Strategies for Writing a Conclusion
Conclusions are often the most difficult part of an essay to write. A writer needs to keep in mind that the conclusion is often what a reader remembers best.
A conclusion should
·
Stress the importance of the thesis statement.（重现主题句）
·
Give the essay a sense of completeness.（完善全文）
·
Leave a final impression on the reader.（给读者一个深刻的印象）
n
Suggestions
·
Answer the question "So what?" （强调文章的重要性）
Show your readers why this paper was important. Show them that your paper was meaningful and useful. Ask yourself the question “so what?” or “why should anybody care?”
·
Synthesize,（综合全面的观点） don't summarize
Show them how the points you made and the support and examples you used were not random, but fit together.
·
Redirect your readers
Give your reader something to think about, perhaps a way to use your paper in the "real" world. If your introduction went from general to specific, make your conclusion go from specific to general. Think globally. Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study.
·
Create a new meaning
You don't have to give new information to create a new meaning. By demonstrating how your ideas work together, you can create a new picture. Often the sum of the paper is worth more than its parts.
·
Point to broader implications.
n
Strategies
·
Echoing the introduction:（呼应开头）
Echoing your introduction can be a good strategy if it is meant to bring the reader full-circle. If you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay was helpful in creating a new understanding.
·
Challenging the reader:（挑战读者的思维）
By issuing a challenge to your readers, you are helping them to redirect the information in the paper, and they may apply it to their own lives.
·
Looking to the future:（展望未来）
Looking to the future can emphasize the importance of your paper or redirect the readers' thought process. It may help them apply the new information to their lives or see things more globally.
·
Posing questions:（提出问题）
Posing questions, either to your readers or in general, may help your readers gain a new perspective on the topic, which they may not have held before reading your conclusion. It may also bring your main ideas together to create a new meaning.
n
Strategies to avoid
·
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing." Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.
·
Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
·
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.
·
Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.
·
Making sentimental, emotional appeals (out of character with the rest of an analytical paper).
·
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.
n
Four Kinds of Ineffective Conclusions
1.
The "That's My Story and I'm Sticking to It" Conclusion.
This conclusion just restates the thesis and is usually painfully short. It does not push the ideas forward. People write this kind of conclusion when they can't think of anything else to say.
2.
The "Sherlock Holmes” Conclusion.
Sometimes writers will state the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.
The reader, however, does not expect a mystery, but an analytical discussion of your topic in an academic style, with the main argument (thesis) stated up front.
3.
The "America the Beautiful"/"I Am Woman"/"We Shall Overcome" Conclusion.
This kind of conclusion usually draws on emotion to make its appeal, but while this emotion and even sentimentality may be very heartfelt, it is usually out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.
4.
The "Grab Bag" Conclusion.
This kind of conclusion includes extra information that the writer found or thought of but couldn't integrate into the main paper.

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2010年1月4日复习内容
GRE写作教程看到222页~~