1006G 备考日记 by ieyangj08——行胜于言

ieyangj08UID：2743219

TOPIC: ARGUMENT53 - Thirteen years ago, researchers studied a group of 25 infants who showed signs of mild distress when exposed to unfamiliar stimuli such as an unusual odor or a tape recording of an unknown voice. They discovered that these infants were more likely than other infants to have been conceived in early autumn, a time when their mothers' production of melatonin-a hormone known to affect some brain functions-would naturally increase in response to decreased daylight. In a follow-up study conducted earlier this year, more than half of these children-now teenagers-who had shown signs of distress identified themselves as shy. Clearly, increased levels of melatonin before birth cause shyness during infancy and this shyness continues into later life.

WORDS: 512 (424)         TIME: 上午 12:28:23          DATE: 2006-7-20  修改稿


While the author establishes his conclusion on the basis of a study spanning thirteen years, the argument, however, to me seems a wholly ramshackle 难修复的，摇晃的 one needs to be further scrutinized.  开头简短有力

To begin with, the study conducted years ago is statistically unreliable as it stands. On the one hand, the author fails to render the evidence indicating that the chosen group of 25 infants is basically the same in some other important characters, such as the gender, the age, etc. If these critical characters vary between the two groups, the comparison can only be unfair.  Also, whether the subject is representative of the overall group is dubious, since 25 constitutes such a little portion that it could lend little credence to the subsequent deduction. In view of these statistical unreliability, it is unreasonable to draw any conclusion based on the 25 chosen infants.  好文

Even assuming that the study is substantiated enough, the causality established between the shyness and the chemical secretion of melatonin is unverified, in that the mild distress is probably the symptom of some other feelings, such as dread, or discomfort, rather than the shyness. Besides, due to lack of valid scientific evidence, we cannot preclude the possibility that the melatonin could only work to the mother who created this secretion, while it works little to the infants. Thus, without ruling out all the alternatives, the facts in the argument alone amounts to scant evidence supporting the claimed causality.

Thirdly, conceding the shyness during infancy is related the melatonin, whether the correlation would continue into their later life is open to doubt. The teenagers’ subjective feelings cannot serve as the justifiable evidence tesifying the actual existence of shyness. Perhaps the children make up the fact which misleads the judge of the researchers. Or perhaps the children say so in order to be accord with others. If so, maybe some scientific equipment may be employed in order to measure the existence of the so-called shyness accurately and effectively. Also, there is no evidence that the melatonin continues to be responsible for the shyness. As infants grow up, other external factors would work. For example, the growth environment, includes the family relationship, friends they make, the interests they gravitate to, etc. It seems that many external factors could better explain the shyness than the melatonin does.

In conclusion, the suggestion in the argument is fallacious due to lack of valid evidence and justifiable deduction. To enhance the assertion, more detailed information concerning the sample characters, the efficacy of measurement of the shyness should be provided.

文章展开充分，文笔很好

我的思路
1 调查可信度。未说明调查者其他特征，年龄、性别等。25个样本太少，不具有代表性。
2 内向的原因未必是M的增多。遗传因素、性格等。
3 未能说明持续整个一生。13岁后，随着社交增多可能会有所改变。

ieyangj08UID：2743219

第四次作业终于做完了。30篇Argument，每篇看前先自己分析一下题目，这部分比较占用时间，说明对题库的分析还不熟。有些题目遇到多次，第二次遇见时仍不能清晰回忆起自己上一次的分析，说明题库分析需要多遍记忆。分析题目需要透彻，攻击逻辑推理上的缺陷。论证要严密，开头、段落中心句尤其要注意，要避免推理上的跳跃思维。对语言的控制需要多加练习和积累。

ieyangj08UID：2743219

Active and Passive Voice

Further suggestions for using passive and active voices
1) Avoid starting a sentence in active voice and then shifting to passive.
Unnecessary shift in voice
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but it was still ordered frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but he was still laughed at by the other students.
Revised
Many customers in the restaurant found the coffee too bitter to drink, but they still ordered it frequently.
He tried to act cool when he slipped in the puddle, but the other students still laughed at him.
2) Avoid dangling modifiers caused by the use of passive voice.  
Dangling modifier with passive voice
To save time, the paper was written on a computer. (Who was saving time? The paper?)
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, consultants were hired to break the bad news. Who was seeking to lay off workers? The consultants?)
Revised
To save time, Kristin wrote the paper on a computer.
Seeking to lay off workers without taking the blame, the CEO hired consultants to break the bad news.
3) Don't trust the grammar-checking programs in word-processing software.  

verbs-voice and mood
1）indicative mood 陈述语气   I need some help.
Examples:He was here.  I am hungry.  She will bring her books.
2）imperative mood 祈使语气  Help me!
Examples:Be here at seven o'clock. (Understood: You be here at seven o'clock.)   Cook me an omelette. (Understood: You cook me an omelette.)  Bring your books with you. (Understood: You bring your books with you.)
3）subjunctive mood 虚拟语气 If I were smart, I'd call for help.
Examples: If he were here... (Implied: ...but he's not.)  I wish I had something to eat. (Implied: ...but I don't.)  It would be better if you had brought your books with you. (Implied: ...but you haven't brought them.)

ieyangj08UID：2743219

Apostrophe 撇号

The apostrophe has three uses:
1）to form possessives of nouns
2）to show the omission of letters
3）to indicate certain plurals of lowercase letters 小写字母

1 Forming Possessives of Nouns
1）To see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example:
the boy's hat = the hat of the boy  three days' journey = journey of three days
2）If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed!
room of the hotel = hotel room   door of the car = car door   leg of the table = table leg
Once you've determined whether you need to make a possessive, follow these rules to create one.
1）add 's to the singular form of the word (even if it ends in -s):   the owner's car      James's hat  
2）add 's to the plural forms that do not end in -s:   the children's game     the geese's honking
3）add ' to the end of plural nouns that end in -s:  houses' roofs        three friends' letters
4）add 's to the end of compound words:  my brother-in-law's money
5）add 's to the last noun to show joint possession of an object:  Todd and Anne's apartment
2 Showing omission of letters 表示省略
don't = do not   I'm = I am    he'll = he will    who's = who is    shouldn't = should not
didn't = did not    could've= could have (NOT "could of"!)    '60 = 1960
3 Forming plurals of lowercase letters
p's and q's = "Be careful, don't make a mistake." Today, the term also indicates maintaining politeness, possibly from "mind your pleases and thankyous."   Nita's mother constantly stressed minding one's p's and q's.
three Macintosh G4s = three of the Macintosh model G4     There are two G4s currently used in the writing classroom.
many & s = many ampersands    That printed page has too many & s on it.
the 1960s = the years in decade from 1960 to 1969   The 1960s were a time of great social unrest.
4 Don't use apostrophes for possessive pronouns or for noun plurals.
wrong: his' book
correct: his book
wrong: The group made it's decision.
correct: The group made its decision.
wrong: a friend of yours'
correct: a friend of yours
wrong: She waited for three hours' to get her ticket.
correct: She waited for three hours to get her ticket.
5 Proofreading for apostrophes
A good time to proofread is when you have finished writing the paper.  If you tend to leave out apostrophes, check every word that ends in -s or -es to see if it needs an apostrophe.

Hyphens  连字符

1.Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:
a one-way street   chocolate-covered peanuts  well-known author
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:
The peanuts were chocolate covered.    The author was well known.
2.Use a hyphen with compound numbers:
forty-six    sixty-three     Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.
3.Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:
re-sign重签 a petition (vs. resign辞职 from a job)    semi-independent (but semiconscious)    shell-like (but childlike)
4.Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all- ; with the suffix -elect; between a prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters:
ex-husband  self-assured  mid-September  all-inclusive  mayor-elect  anti-American  T-shirt  pre-Civil War  mid-1980s
5.Use a hyphen to divide words at the end of a line if necessary, and make the break only between syllables:
pref-er-ence   sell-ing    in-di-vid-u-al-ist
6.For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:
mass-
produced
self-
conscious
7.For line breaks in words ending in -ing, if a single final consonant in the root word is doubled before the suffix, hyphenate between the consonants; otherwise, hyphenate at the suffix itself:
plan-ning    run-ning   driv-ing   call-ing
8.Never put the first or last letter of a word at the end or beginning of a line, and don't put two-letter suffixes at the beginning of a new line:
lovely (Do not separate to leave ly beginning a new line.)
eval-u-ate (Separate only on either side of the u; do not leave the initial e- at the end of a line.)

很细致的语法讲解，好严谨啊

ieyangj08UID：2743219

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or."
1 Words and Phrases With the -ing form (gerund) of words: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling.  Parallel

2 With infinitive phrases 不定式:  Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle.  Parallel   OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle. Parallel

3 Do not mix forms.
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle. Not Parallel
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.  Parallel
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner. Not Parallel
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly. Parallel
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.  Not Parallel
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.  Parallel

4 Clauses
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism.
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game. Not Parallel
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. Parallel
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game. Parallel
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive) Not Parallel
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions. Parallel

5 Lists After a Colon. Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form.
The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs. Not Parallel
The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs. Parallel

6 Proofreading Strategies to Try
Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

这篇非常实用

ieyangj08UID：2743219

commas

Commas use
1）Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.
The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.
Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2）Use commas after introductory a) clauses, b) phrases, or c) words that come before the main clause.
a） Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.
While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.
Because her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.
If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.
When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.
However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect: She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken.
Incorrect: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Correct: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. (this comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme contrast)
b） Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).
Having finished the test, he left the room.
To get a seat, you'd better come early.
After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.
The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.
c）Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well.
Well, perhaps he meant no harm.
Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning.
However, you may not be satisfied with the results.

3） Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses, phrases, and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence.  
Clause: That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet.
Phrase: This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on the other hand, is rather bland.
Word: I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have over-exerted yourself.

4） Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence, such as clauses beginning with that (relative clauses). That clauses after nouns are always essential. That clauses following a verb expressing mental action are always essential.
That clauses after nouns:
The book that I borrowed from you is excellent.
The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.
That clauses following a verb expressing mental action:
She believes that she will be able to earn an A.
He is dreaming that he can fly.
I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.
They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.
Examples of other essential elements (no commas):
Students who cheat only harm themselves.
The baby wearing a yellow jumpsuit is my niece.
The candidate who had the least money lost the election.
Examples of nonessential elements (set off by commas):
Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.
My niece, wearing a yellow jumpsuit, is playing in the living room.
The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.
Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this recipe.
Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.
Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game.
It is up to you, Jane, to finish.
She was, however, too tired to make the trip.
Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

5）Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses written in a series.
The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.
The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

6）Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.
Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal ("co"-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:
·Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
·Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?
If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma.  
He was a difficult, stubborn child. (coordinate)
They lived in a white frame house. (non-coordinate)
She often wore a gray wool shawl. (non-coordinate)
Your cousin has an easy, happy smile. (coordinate)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful 3) summer sun beat down on them. (1-2 are coordinate; 2-3 are non-coordinate.)
The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them. (Both 1-2 and 2-3 are coordinate.)

7） Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.
He was merely ignorant, not stupid.
The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human.
You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you?
The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

8）Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer back to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. (If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not "free" and must remain "bound" to the word it modifies.)
Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously. (correct)
Incorrect is a waved at Nancy, laughing joyously. (Who is laughing, Lisa or Nancy?)
Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy. (correct)
Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously. (correct)

9） Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.
Birmingham,Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.
July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life. Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC?
Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.
(When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year: "The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.")

10）Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation.
John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow."
"I was able," she answered, "to complete the assignment."
In 1848, Marx wrote, "Workers of the world, unite!"

11）Use commas wherever necessary to prevent possible confusion or misreading.
To George,Harrison had been a sort of idol.

12）Don't use a comma to separate the subject from the verb.
Incorrect:An eighteen-year old in California, is now considered an adult.
Incorrect:The most important attribute of a ball player, is quick reflex actions.

13）Don't put a comma between the two verbs or verb phrases in a compound predicate.
Incorrect:We laid out our music and snacks, and began to study.
Incorrect:I turned the corner, and ran smack into a patrol car.

14）Don't put a comma between the two nouns, noun phrases, or noun clauses in a compound subject or compound object.
Incorrect (compound subject):The music teacher from your high school, and the football coach from mine are married.
Incorrect (compound object):Jeff told me that the job was still available, and that the manager wanted to interview me.

15）Don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).
Incorrect (extreme contrast):She was late for class, because her alarm clock was broken. (incorrect)
Incorrect:The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.
Incorrect:She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar.

Commas After Introductions
1）Introductory Clauses
Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause.  Introductory clauses start with adverbs like after, although, as, because, before, if, since, though, until, when, etc.
If they want to win, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)
Because he kept barking insistently, we threw the ball for Smokey. (introductory dependent clause, main clause)
2）Introductory Phrases
To stay in shape for competition, athletes must exercise every day. (introductory infinitive phrase 不定式短语, main clause)
Barking insistently, Smokey got us to throw his ball for him. (introductory participial phrase 分词短语, main clause)
A popular and well respected mayor, Bailey was the clear favorite in the campaign for governor. (introductory appositive phrase 同位短语, main clause)
The wind blowing violently, the townspeople began to seek shelter. (introductory absolute phrase 独立短语, main clause)
After the adjustment for inflation, real wages have decreased while corporate profits have grown. (introductory prepositional phrases 介词短语, main clause)
3）Introductory Words
Introductory words like however, still, furthermore, and meanwhile create continuity from one sentence to the next.
The coaches reviewed the game strategy. Meanwhile, the athletes trained on the Nautilus equipment.
Most of the evidence seemed convincing. Still, the credibility of some witnesses was in question.

Semicolon (;)
1）Use a semicolon when you link two independent clauses with no connecting words.  
I am going home; I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to camp for the night.
2）You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently, otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc.  
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore, they decided to camp for the night.

Commas with Nonessential Elements
Rule: Use commas before and after nonessential words, phrases, and clauses, that is, elements embedded in the sentence that interrupt it without changing the essential meaning. If you leave out the element or put it somewhere else in the sentence, does the essential meaning of the sentence change? If so, the element is essential; if not, it is nonessential.
Nonessential: The average world temperature, however, has continued to rise significantly. (word)
Essential: The sixth-century philosopher Boethius was arrested, tortured, and bludgeoned to death. (word)
Nonessential: Company managers, seeking higher profits, hired temporary workers to replace full-time staff. (phrase) 该点写作时很实用
Essential: The person checking tickets at the counter asked for a form of identification. (phrase)
Nonessential: My uncle, who is eighty years old, walks three miles every day. (clause)
Essential: The woman who interviewed you is my sister. (clause)

Conquering the Comma Powerpoint Presentation
·placement in compound sentences
·placement after introductory elements
·placement with dependent phrases and clauses
·placement around nonessential elements
·placement in a series
·placement with adjectives

ieyangj08UID：2743219

Dangling Modifiers 垂悬修饰语

1 A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence. A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail about a concept.
Having finished the assignment, Jill turned on the TV.
Incorrect usage: Having finished the assignment, the TV was turned on.

2 Strategies for revising dangling modifiers:
1) Name the appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause:
Incorrect: Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed.
Correct: Having arrived late for practice, the team captain needed a written excuse.
2) Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by naming the doer of the action in that clause:
Incorrect:Without knowing his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
Correct: Because Maria did not know his name, it was difficult to introduce him.
3) Combine the phrase and main clause into one:
Incorrect: To improve his results, the experiment was done again.
Correct: He improved his results by doing the experiment again.

3 More examples of dangling modifiers and their revisions:
Incorrect: After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
Revised: After reading the original study, I find the article unconvincing.
Incorrect: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
Revised: Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, you should be able to relax at home.
Incorrect: The experiment was a failure, not having studied the lab manual carefully.
Revised: They failed the experiment, not having studied the lab manual carefully.

具体写作中很有用

ieyangj08UID：2743219

Capital Letters

Use capital letters in the following ways:
1) The first words of a sentence
When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.
2) The pronoun "I"
The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.
3) Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)
Worrill Fabrication Company
Golden Gate Bridge
Supreme Court
Livingston, Missouri
Atlantic Ocean
Mothers Against Drunk Driving
4）Family relationships (when used as proper names)
I sent a thank-you note to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?
5）The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books
God the Father
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
the Greek gods
Moses
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus
Exception: Do not capitalize the non-specific use of the word "god."
The word "polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
6）Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.
7）Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.
8）The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)
Halloween
October
Friday
winter
spring
fall
Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.
The Fall 1999 semester
9）The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages
Costa Rica
Spanish
French
English
10）The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
Emerson once said, "A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds."
11）The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)
One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.
12）Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
Green Bay Packers
African-Americans
Anti-Semitic
Democrats
Friends of the Wilderness
Chinese
13）Periods and events (but not century numbers)
Victorian Era
Great Depression
Constitutional Convention
sixteenth century
14）Trademarks
Pepsi
Honda
IBM
Microsoft Word
15）Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)
Freudian
NBC
pasteurize 巴士牛奶灭菌
UN
french fries
italics 斜体字

写作中经常用到

ieyangj08UID：2743219

Spelling

Affect, Effect
·affect = verb meaning to influence:
Will lack of sleep affect your game?
·effect = noun meaning result or consequence:
Will lack of sleep have an effect on your game?
·effect = verb meaning to bring about, to accomplish: 带来、完成
Our efforts have effected a major change in university policy.
  
Conscious, Conscience
·conscious= adjective meaning awake, perceiving: 清醒的，有意识的
Despite a head injury, the patient remained conscious.
·conscience = noun meaning the sense of obligation to be good: 良心
Chris wouldn't cheat because his conscience wouldn't let him.

Idea, Ideal
·idea = noun meaning a thought, belief, or conception held in the mind, or a general notion or conception formed by generalization:
Jennifer had a brilliant idea — she'd go to the Writing Lab for help with her papers!
·ideal = noun meaning something or someone that embodies perfection, or an ultimate object or endeavor: 榜样
Mickey was the ideal for tutors everywhere.
·ideal = adjective meaning embodying an ultimate standard of excellence or perfection, or the best: 理想的
Jennifer was an ideal student.

Lead, Led
·lead = noun referring to a dense metallic element: 铅
The X-ray technician wore a vest lined with lead.
·led = past-tense and past-participle form of the verb to lead, meaning to guide or direct: 过去式、过去分词，表示指引
The evidence led the jury to reach a unanimous decision.

I/E Rule
Write I before E
Except after C
Or when it sounds like an A
As in "neighbor" and "weigh"
i before e: relief, believe, niece, chief, sieve, frieze, field, yield
e before i: receive, deceive, ceiling, conceit, vein, sleigh, freight, eight
Exceptions
seize, either, weird, height, foreign, leisure, conscience, counterfeit, forfeit, leisure, neither, science, species, sufficient

-ible, -able Rule
1）If the root is not a complete word, add -ible.
aud + ible = audible
·visible
·horrible
·terrible
·possible
·edible
·eligible
·incredible
·permissible
2）If the root is a complete word, add -able.
accept + able = acceptable
·fashionable
·laughable
·suitable
·dependable
·comfortable
If the root is a complete word ending in -e, drop the final -e and add -able.
excuse - e+ able = excusable
·advisable
·desirable
·valuable
·debatable
3）Some exceptions:
·contemptible
·digestible
·flexible
·responsible
·irritable
·inevitable

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HOCs\LOCs

Higher Order Concerns (HOCs): thesis or focus, audience and purpose, organization, and development. Lower Order Concerns(LOCs):sentence structure and grammar.

Some HOCs
1) Thesis or focus:
·Does the paper have a central thesis?
·Can you, if asked, offer a one-sentence explanation or summary of what the paper is about?
·Ask someone to read the first paragraph or two and tell you what he or she thinks the paper will discuss.
2)Audience and purpose:
·Do you have an appropriate audience in mind? Can you describe them?
·Do you have a clear purpose for the paper? What is it intended to do or accomplish?
·Why would someone want to read this paper?
·Does the purpose match the assignment?
3) Organization:
·Does the paper progress in an organized, logical way?
·Go through the paper and jot down notes on the topics of the various paragraphs. Look at this list and see if you can think of a better organization.
·Make a brief outline. Does the organization make sense? Should any part be moved to another part?
·Ask someone to read the paper. At the end of each paragraph, ask the person to forecast where the paper is headed. If the paper goes in a direction other than the one forecasted by the reader, is there a good reason, or do you need to rewrite something there?
4) Development:
·Are there places in the paper where more details, examples, or specifics are needed?
·Do any paragraphs seem much shorter and in need of more material than others? (For more help, see our handout on paragraphing.)
·Ask someone to read the paper and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.

Some LOCs
Sentence structure, punctuation, word choice, spelling
·Are there a few problems that frequently occur? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those.
·Read the paper aloud watching and listening for anything that sounds incorrect.
·Ask yourself why you put punctuation marks in certain places. Do you need to check any punctuation rules? (For more help see our handouts on punctuation.)
·For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning.

在写作中非常有用

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Sentence Clarity & Fragments

Improving Sentence Clarity
1) Go from old to new information
Introduce your readers to the "big picture" first by giving them information they already know.  
clear: Every semester after final exams are over, I'm faced with the problem of what to do with books of lecture notes (new information). They (old) might be useful some day, but they just keep piling up on my bookcase (new). Someday, it (old) will collapse under the weight of information I might never need.
unclear:   Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. The rapid disappearance of the Indian culture (new) is the topic of a recent movie (old) I saw.
adjusted:Lately, most movies I've seen have been merely second-rate entertainment, but occasionally there are some with worthwhile themes. One recent movie (old) I saw was about the rapid disappearance of the Indian culture. (new)
2) Transitional words 衔接词
I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces, too many layers of clothes to put on, and days when I'll have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.
3) Be careful about placement of subordinate clauses 从属分句
Avoid interrupting the main clause with a subordinate clause if the interruption will cause confusion:
clear (subordinate clause at the end):
Industrial spying is increasing rapidly because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information.
clear (subordinate clause at the beginning):
Because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, industrial spying is increasing rapidly.
not as clear (subordinate clause embedded in the middle):
Industrial spying,because of the growing use of computers to store and process corporate information, is increasing rapidly.
4) Use active voice
clear (active): The committee decided to postpone the vote.
not as clear (passive): A decision was reached to postpone the vote.
5) Use parallel constructions
clear (parallel): In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs, (2) to know what precautions to take, and (3) to decide when to seek shelter.
not as clear (not parallel): In Florida, where the threat of hurricanes is an annual event, we learned that it is important (1) to become aware of the warning signs. (2) There are precautions to take, and (3) deciding when to take shelter is important.
6) Avoid noun strings
Try not to string nouns together one after the other because a series of nouns is difficult to understand. One way to revise a string of nouns is to change one noun to a verb.
unclear (string of nouns): This report explains our investment growth stimulation projects.
clearer: This report explains our projects to stimulate growth in investments.
7) Avoid overusing noun forms of verbs
Use verbs when possible rather than noun forms known as "nominalizations."
unclear (use of nominalization):
The implementation of the plan was successful.
clearer:
The plan was implemented successfully.
8) Avoid multiple negatives
Use affirmative forms rather than several negatives because multiple negatives are difficult to understand.
unclear (multiple negatives, passive):
Less attention is paid to commercials that lack human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
clearer:
People pay more attention to commercials with human interest stories than to other kinds of commercials.
9) Choose action verbs over forms of be
Unclear (overuse of be verbs):
One difference between television news reporting and the coverage provided by newspapers is the time factor between the actual happening of an event and the time it takes to be reported. The problem is that instantaneous coverage is physically impossible for newspapers.
Clearer:
Television news reporting differs from that of newspapers in that television, unlike newspapers, can provide instantaneous coverage of events as they happen.
10) Avoid unclear pronoun references
Be sure that the pronouns you use refer clearly to a noun in the current or previous sentence. If the pronoun refers to a noun that has been implied but not stated, you can clarify the reference by explicitly using that noun.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):
With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Clearer:
With the spread of globalized capitalism, American universities increasingly follow a corporate fiscal model, tightening budgets and hiring temporary contract employees as teachers. This trend has prompted faculty and adjunct instructors at many schools to join unions as a way of protecting job security and benefits.
Unclear (unclear pronoun reference):
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer, which may be her career choice.
Clearer:
Larissa worked in a national forest last summer; forest management may be her career choice.


Sentence Fragments
1）·Fragment: Purdue offers many majors in engineering. Such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
Possible Revision: Purdue offers many majors in engineering, such as electrical, chemical, and industrial engineering.
·Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking off the field in the middle of a game, leaving her team at a time when we needed her.
·Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working out too well.
·Fragment: The current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands. Which is why we believe the proposed amendments should be passed.
Possible Revision: Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete as it stands, we believe the proposed ammendments should be passed.
2）No main verb
·Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.
Possible Revisions:
Direct object: She told a story with deep thoughts and emotions.
Appositive: Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper," a story with deep thoughts and emotions, has impressed critics for decades.
·Fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
Possible Revisions:
Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.
Direct object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.
·Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.
Possible Revisions:
Direct object: I've noticed a record of accomplishment beginning when you were first hired.
Main verb: A record of accomplishment began when you were first hired.
3）No Subject
·Fragment: With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
Possible Revisions:
Remove preposition: The ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell the product.
·Fragment: By paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
Possible Revisions:
Remove preposition: Paying too much attention to polls can make a political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
·Fragment: For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
Possible Revisions:
Remove preposition: Doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil fired.
Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a competitor.

这篇在写作中非常有用

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Relative Pronouns & Sentence Punctuation Patterns

Relative pronouns 关系代词 are that, who, whom, whose, which, where, when, and why.  

The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses:

Function in the sentence         People           Things / concepts           Place         Time         Reason
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
       Subject                       who, that             which, that
       Object                  (that, who, whom)*     (which, that)*           where         when          why
    Possessive                        whose             whose, of which
   
Relative pronouns in defining clauses
1) Relative pronoun used as a subject:
This is the house that had a great Christmas decoration.
It took me a while to get used to people who eat pop-corn during the movie.
2) Relative pronoun used as an object:
a)  As can be seen from the table, referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in the object position:
This is the man (who / that) I wanted to speak to and whose name I'd forgotten.
The library didn't have the book (which / that) I wanted.
I didn't like the book (which / that) John gave me.
This is the house where I lived when I first came to the US.
b) whom: In American English, whom is not used very often. Whom is more formal than who and is very often omitted in speech:
Grammatically Correct: The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.
Common in Speech: The woman (who) you have just spoken to is my teacher.
However, whom may not be omitted if preceded by a preposition: I have found you the tutor for whom you were looking.
3) Relative pronoun used as a possessive:
Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun is in English. It can be used with both people and things:
The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a suite in a hotel.
The book whose author is now being shown in the news has become a bestseller.

General remarks: That, Who, Which compared
1)That is often used in speech; who and which are more common in written English.
William Kellogg was the man that lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children. - spoken, less formal
William Kellogg was the man who lived in the late 19th century and had some weird ideas about raising children. - written, more formal
2) the sentence with which is more formal than the one with that:
The café that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed. - less formal
The café which sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed. - more formal

Some special uses of relative pronouns in defining clauses
1) that / who
Referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may be used to refer to someone in general:
He is the kind of person that/who will never let you down.
I am looking for someone that/who could give me a ride to Chicago.
However, when a particular person is being spoken about, who is preferred:
The old lady who lives next door is a teacher.
The girl who wore a red dress attracted everybody's attention at the party.
2)that / which
There several cases when that is more appropriate than and is preferred to which:
a)  After the pronouns all, any(thing), every(thing), few, little, many, much, no(thing), none, some(thing):
The police usually ask for every detail that helps identify the missing person. - that used as the subject
Marrying a congressman is all (that) she wants. - that used as the object
b) After verbs that answer the question WHAT? For example, say, suggest, state, declare, hope, think, write, etc.  
Some people say (that) success is one percent of talent and ninety-nine percent of hard work.
The chairman stated at the meeting (that) his company is part of a big-time entertainment industry.
c) After the noun modified by an adjective in the superlative degree: 形容词最高级修饰的名词之后
This is the funniest story (that) I have ever read! - that used as the object
d) After ordinal numbers, e.g., first, second, etc.:
The first draft (that) we submitted was really horrible. - that used as the object
e) If the verb in the main clause is a form of BE:
This is a claim that has absolutely no reason in it. - that used as the subject


The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining clauses:

Function in the sentence     People        Things / concepts      Place          Time          Reason
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
          Subject                    who                 which
           Object               who, whom            which                where         when           why
        Possessive                whose        whose, of which
   
1）Relative pronoun used as a subject:
The writer, who lives in this luxurious mansion, has just published his second novel.
2）Relative pronoun used as an object:
The house at the end of the street, which my grandfather built, needs renovating.
3）Relative pronoun used as a possessive:
William Kellogg, whose name has become a famous breakfast foods brand-name, had some weird ideas about raising children.

Some Special Uses of Relative Pronouns in Non-Defining Clauses
1）which
If you are referring to the previous clause as a whole, use which: My friend eventually decided to get divorced, which upset me a lot.
2）of whom, of which
Use of whom for persons and of which for things or concepts after numbers and words such as most, many, some, both, none:
I saw a lot of new people at the party, some of whom seemed familiar.
He was always coming up with new ideas, most of which were absolutely impracticable.

Defining vs. Non-Defining and ESL Tips
They have two sons who are doctors. there are more sons in the family. e.g.: They have two sons who are doctors and one who is an architect.
They have two sons, who are doctors. there are no more sons in the family.

summary  
1) Use that if the main clause poses the question WHAT? answered by the relative clause;
2) Do not use that presenting non-essential, additional information (that is, in non-defining relative clauses); use who or which instead;
3) Use who to refer to people;
4) Use which to refer to things or to refer to the previous clause as a whole;
5) If you choose between who or that, use who in writing;
6) If you choose between which and that, use which in writing;
7) Do not put a comma before that.

Sentence Punctuation Patterns

Pattern One: Simple sentence
Independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Pattern Two : Compound Sentence
Independent clause [ , ] coordinating conjunction independent clause [ . ]
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, but they don't know the reasons for it.

Pattern Three: Compound Sentence 写作中可用
Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; they are unsure of its cause.

Pattern Four: Compound Sentence
Independent clause [ ; ] independent marker [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
Examples of independent markers are the following: therefore, moreover, thus, consequently, however, also.
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma; therefore, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern Five: Complex Sentence 写作中可用
Dependent marker dependent clause[ , ] Independent clause[ . ]
Examples of dependent markers are as follows: because, before, since, while, although, if, until, when, after, as, as if.
Example: Because doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma, they have called for more research into its causes.

Pattern Six: Complex Sentence
Independent clause dependent marker dependent clause [ . ]
Example: Doctors are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma because it is a common, treatable illness.

Pattern Seven
First part of an independent clause [ , ] non-essential clause or phrase, rest of the independent clause [ . ]
Example: Many doctors, including both pediatricians and family practice physicians, are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma.

Pattern Eight
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]
Example: Many doctors who are concerned about the rising death rate from asthma have called for more research into its causes.

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Punctuation 标点

When speaking, we can pause or change the tone of our voices to indicate emphasis. When writing, we use punctuation to indicate these places of emphases.  
Independent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb and can stand alone; a complete sentence
Dependent clause: a clause that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; an incomplete sentence

Comma
1）Use a comma to join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
The new house has a large fenced backyard, so I am sure our dog will enjoy it.
2）Use a comma after an introductory phrase, prepositional phrase, or dependent clause.
To get a good grade, you must complete all your assignments.
Because Dad caught the chicken pox, we canceled our vacation.
After the wedding, the guests attended the reception.
3）Use a comma to separate elements in a series.  
On her vacation, Lisa visited Greece, Spain, and Italy.
In their speeches, many of the candidates promised to help protect the environment, bring about world peace, and end world hunger.
4）Use a comma to separate nonessential elements from a sentence.  
John's truck, a red Chevrolet, needs new tires.
When he realized he had overslept, Matt rushed to his car and hurried to work.
5）Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that are equal and reversible).
The irritable, fidgety crowd waited impatiently for the rally speeches to begin.
The sturdy, compact suitcase made a perfect gift.
6）Use a comma after a transitional element (however, therefore, nonetheless, also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition)
For example, the Red Sox, Yankees, and Indians are popular baseball teams.
If you really want to get a good grade this semester, however, you must complete all assignments, attend class, and study your notes.
7）Use a comma with quoted words.
"Yes," she promised. Todd replied, saying, "I will be back this afternoon."
8）Use a comma in a date.
October 25, 1999
Monday, October 25, 1999
25 October 1999
9）Use a comma in a number.
15,000,000
1614 High Street
10）Use a comma in a personal title.
Pam Smith, MD
Mike Rose, Chief Financial Officer for Operations, reported the quarter's earnings.
11）Use a comma to separate a city name from the state.
West Lafayette, Indiana
Dallas, Texas

Semicolon
1）Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
2）Use a semicolon to join 2 independent clauses when the second clause begins with a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile, nonetheless, otherwise) or a transition (in fact, for example, that is, for instance, in addition, in other words, on the other hand, even so).
Terrorism in the United States has become a recent concern; in fact, the concern for America's safety has led to an awareness of global terrorism.
3）Use a semicolon to join elements of a series when individual items of the series already include commas.
Recent sites of the Olympic Games include Athens, Greece; Salt Lake City, Utah; Sydney, Australia; Nagano, Japan.

Colon 冒号
1）Use a colon to join 2 independent clauses when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
2）Use a colon after an independent clause when it is followed by a list, a quotation, appositive 同位语, or other idea directly related to the independent clause.
Julie went to the store for some groceries: milk, bread, coffee, and cheese.
In his Gettysburg Address, Abraham Lincoln urges Americans to rededicate themselves to the unfinished work of the deceased soldiers: "It is for us the living rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation under God shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth."
I know the perfect job for her: a politician.
3）Use a colon at the end of a business letter greeting.
To Whom It May Concern:
4）Use a colon to separate the hour and minute(s) in a time notation.
12:00 p.m.
5）Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse 行 in a Biblical reference.
Matthew 1:6

Parenthesis 圆括号
Parentheses are used to emphasize content. They place more emphasis on the enclosed content than commas. Use parentheses to set off nonessential material, such as dates, clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.
Muhammed Ali (1942-present), arguably the greatest athlete of all time, claimed he would "float like a butterfly, sting like a bee."

Dash
1）Dashes are used to set off  引出 or emphasize the content enclosed within dashes or the content that follows a dash. Dashes place more emphasis on this content than parentheses.
Perhaps one reason why the term has been so problematic—so resistant to definition, and yet so transitory in those definitions—is because of its multitude of applications.
In terms of public legitimacy—that is, in terms of garnering support from state legislators, parents, donors, and university administrators—English departments are primarily places where advanced literacy is taught.
The U.S.S. Constitution became known as "Old Ironsides" during the War of 1812—during which the cannonballs fired from the British H.M.S. Guerriere merely bounced off the sides of the Constitution.
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
2）Use a dash to set off an appositive 同位的phrase that already includes commas. An appositive is a word that adds explanatory or clarifying information to the noun that precedes it.
The cousins—Tina, Todd, and Sam—arrived at the party together.

Quotation Marks
1）Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods 句号 are placed inside the closing quotation mark, and colons 冒号 and semicolons are placed outside. The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on the situation.
He asked, "When will you be arriving?" I answered, "Sometime after 6:30."
2）Use quotation marks to indicate the novel, ironic, or reserved use of a word.
History is stained with blood spilled in the name of "justice."
3）Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, song titles, short stories, magazine or newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapter titles, short films, and episodes of television or radio shows.
"Self-Reliance," by Ralph Waldo Emerson
"Just Like a Woman," by Bob Dylan
"The Smelly Car," an episode of Seinfeld

Italics 斜体
1）Underlining and Italics are often used interchangeably. Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, academic journals, films, television shows, long poems, plays of three or more acts, operas, musical albums, works of art, websites, and individual trains, planes, or ships.
Time
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
The Metamorphosis of Narcissus by Salvador Dali
Amazon.com
Titanic
2）Italicize foreign words.
Semper fi, the motto of the U.S. Marine Corps, means "always faithful."
3）Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis.
The truth is of utmost concern!
4）Italicize a word when referring to that word.
The word justice is often misunderstood and therefore misused.

Punctuation in Types of Sentences
1）Simple: composed of 1 independent clause. No standard punctuation.
2）Compound: composed of 2 or more independent clauses.
a)  Join 2 independent clauses by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
Road construction can be inconvenient, but it is necessary.
b）Join 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town: parts of Main, Fifth, and West Street are closed during the construction.
c)  Join 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
Road construction in Dallas has hindered travel around town; streets have become covered with bulldozers, trucks, and cones.
3)Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 1 or more independent clauses. Join an introductory dependent clause with the independent clause by a comma.
Because road construction has hindered travel around town, many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work.
Many people have opted to ride bicycles or walk to work because road construction has hindered travel around town.
4) Compound-Complex: composed of 1 or more dependent clauses and 2 or more independent clauses.
a) Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so).
When it is filtered, water is cleaner, and it tastes better.
b) Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a colon when you wish to emphasize the second clause.
Whenever it is possible, you should filter your water: filtered water is cleaner and tastes better.
c) Join an introductory dependent clause with an independent clause with a comma. Separate 2 independent clauses by a semicolon when the second clause restates the first or when the two clauses are of equal emphasis.
When it is filtered, water is cleaner and tastes better; all things considered, it is better for you.

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Articles: A versus An

1 "A" goes before all words that begin with consonants. 辅音
·a cat ·a dog ·a purple onion ·a buffalo ·a big apple
With one exception: Use "an" before unsounded h.
·an honorable peace ·an honest error

2"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels: 元音
·an apricot ·an egg ·an Indian ·an orbit ·an uprising
With two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.
·a union ·a united front ·a unicorn ·a used napkin ·a U.S. ship ·a one-legged man

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看了几天语法，比较仔细，所以比较慢。看30篇Argument时感觉出语法的重要性。这次主要从写作中可以应用和学习的角度出发，的确学到很多东西。今天起单词要按照计划复习了，今天的任务是3个list，关机，开始背单词。