1006G 备考日记 by ieyangj08——行胜于言

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伤心的痛 好，一起加油：） 121# 伤心的痛

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How to Use Articles (a/an/the)

What is an article? Basically, an article is an adjective. Like adjectives, articles modify nouns.
English has two articles: the and a/an. The is used to refer to specific or particular nouns; a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.    the = definite article      a/an = indefinite article

Count and Noncount Nouns
1）The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to sail over water" (any water).
"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor" (any milk).
2）"A/an" can be used only with count nouns.
"I need a bottle of water."
"I need a new glass of milk."

Do not use the before:
·names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States
·names of cities, towns, or states: Seoul, Manitoba, Miami
·names of streets: Washington Blvd., Main St.
·names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes
·names of mountains: Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn
·names of continents (Asia, Europe)
·names of islands (Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

Do use the before:
·names of rivers, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific
·points on the globe: the Equator, the North Pole
·geographical areas: the Middle East, the West
·deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas: the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Black Forest, the Iberian Peninsula

Omission of Articles
Some common types of nouns that don't take an article are:
·Names of languages and nationalities: Chinese, English, Spanish, Russian
·Names of sports: volleyball, hockey, baseball
·Names of academic subjects: mathematics, biology, history, computer science

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Count and Noncount Nouns

Some/Any: Some and any countable and uncountable nouns.
·"There is some water on the floor."
·"There are some Mexicans here."
·"Do you have any food?"
·"Do you have any apples?"
Little/Few: Little modifies only uncountable nouns.
·"He had little food in the house."
·"The doctor had little time to think in the emergency room."
Few modifies only countable nouns.
·"There are few doctors in town."
·"Few students like exams."
A lot of/lots of: uncountable and countable
·"They have lots of (much) money in the bank."
·"A lot of (many) Americans travel to Europe."
·"We got lots of (many) mosquitoes last summer."
·"We got lots of (much) rain last summer."
A little bit of:A little bit of is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.
·"There is a little bit of pepper in the soup."
·"There is a little bit of snow on the ground."
Enough: countable and uncountable
·"There is enough money to buy a car."
·"I have enough books to read."
Plenty of: countable and uncountable
·"They have plenty of money in the bank."
·"There are plenty of millionaires in Switzerland."
No: countable and uncountable
·"There is no time to finish now."
·"There are no squirrels in the park."

Uncountable Sense/Countable Sense
1)Art is often called limitation of life. I read a book aout the folkarts of Sweden.
2)Life is precious. A cat has nine lives.
3)Religion has been a powerful force in history. Many religions are practiced in the United States.
4)She has beautiful skin.The hull of a kayak is made of animal skins.
5)Dr. Moulton is an expert in ancient Greek sculpture. We have several sculptures in our home.
6)We use only recycled paper in our office.Where are those important papers?

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Categories of Uncountable Nouns

Abstract              Material                   Generic               Non-Plurals with -s
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
advice                   meat                       fruit                       mathematics
help                       rice                       wildlife                      economics
information           bread                    equipment                   physics
knowledge             cake                     machinery                    civics 公民
trouble                 coffee                    furniture                      ethics
work                  ice cream                     mail                         mumps 腮腺炎
enjoyment             water                    luggage                      measles 麻疹
fun                         oil                        jewelry                        news
recreation             grass                     clothing                       tennis
relaxation               hair                       money                   (other games)

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Independent and Dependent Clauses

Dependent Marker Word
A dependent marker word is a word added to the beginning of an independent clause that makes it into a dependent clause.
When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, it was very noisy.
Some common dependent markers are: after, although, as, as if, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, whatever, when, whenever, whether, and while.

Connecting dependent and independent clauses
1. Coordinating Conjunction
and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating conjunction:
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz, but it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.
2. Independent Marker Word
An independent marker word is a connecting word used at the beginning of an independent clause. These words can always begin a sentence that can stand alone. When the second independent clause in a sentence has an independent marker word, a semicolon is needed before the independent marker word.
Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz; however, it was hard to concentrate because of the noise.
also, consequently, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore.

Some Common Errors to Avoid
1 Comma Splices
Incorrect: I like this class, it is very interesting.
·Correct: I like this class. It is very interesting.
·(or) I like this class; it is very interesting. 学习
·(or) I like this class, and it is very interesting.
·(or) I like this class because it is very interesting. 学习
·(or) Because it is very interesting, I like this class. 学习
2 Fused Sentences
Fused sentences happen when there are two independent clauses not separated by any form of punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon to separate the two sentences.
Incorrect: My professor is intelligent I've learned a lot from her.
·Correct: My professor is intelligent. I've learned a lot from her.
·(or) My professor is intelligent; I've learned a lot from her. 学习
·(or) My professor is intelligent, and I've learned a lot from her.
·(or) My professor is intelligent; moreover, I've learned a lot from her. 学习
3 Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments happen by treating a dependent clause or other incomplete thought as a complete sentence. You can usually fix this error by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing the dependent marker.
Incorrect: Because I forgot the exam was today.
·Correct: Because I forgot the exam was today, I didn't study.
·(or) I forgot the exam was today.

Run-ons - Comma Splices - Fused Sentences
·Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.
·1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word.
·_________________________, and _________________________.
·He enjoys walking through the country, and he often goes backpacking on his vacations.
·2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).

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Adjective or Adverb

The Basic Rules: Adjectives
Adjectives modify nouns.  adjectives answer the following questions:·Which?  ·What kind of? ·How many?
·"The tall girl is riding a new bike." Tall tells us which girl we're talking about. New tells us what kind of bike we're talking about.
·"The tough professor gave us the final exam." Tough tells us what kind of professor we're talking about. Final tells us which exam we're talking about.
·"Fifteen students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam." Fifteen and twelve both tell us how many students; midterm and final both tell us which exam.

The Basic Rules: Adverbs
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. The most common question that adverbs answer is how.(They can also answer the questions when, where, and why.)
·"She sang beautifully." Beautifully is an adverb that modifies sang. It tells us how she sang.
·"The cellist played carelessly." Carelessly is an adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the cellist played.
·"That woman is extremely nice."  
·"It was a terribly hot afternoon."   

Some other rules:
Most of the time, adjectives come before nouns. However, they come after the nouns they modify, most often when the verb is a form of the following:·be ·feel ·taste ·smell ·sound ·look ·appear ·seem
·"The dog is black."  ·"Brian seems sad."  ·"The milk smells rotten."  ·"The speaker sounds hoarse."
Be sure to understand the differences between the following two examples:
"The dog smells carefully." Here, carefully describes how the dog is smelling.  
"The dog smells clean." Here, clean describes the dog itself.  

Avoiding Common Errors
1.Bad or Badly?
"I feel bad." describe how you feel  
"I feel badly"  you are unable to feel/have done something wrong
2.Good or Well?
"My mother looks good." she appears healthy.
"I feel really good today."  I am happy or healthy.
"I did well on my exam."
"She plays tennis well."
3.Sure or Surely?
Sure is an adjective, and surely is an adverb.  
"He is sure about his answer." Sure describes he.
"The Senator spoke out surely." Here, surely describes how the senator spoke.
"Surely, you're joking."  You must be joking.
4.Near or Nearly?
Near can function as a verb, adverb, adjective, or preposition. Nearly is used as an adverb to mean "in a close manner" or "almost but not quite."  
"I'll be seeing you in the near future."  
"The cat crept near."  adverb  
"Don't worry; we're nearly there."  
"My graduation neared."  verb
"I want the couch near the window." preposition

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Appositives 同位语

1）My brother's car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy of my friends.
2）The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took her nephew on a hospital tour.
An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.
3）A bold innovator, Wassily Kadinsky is known for his colorful abstract paintings.
4）The first state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, Delaware is rich in history.
5）A beautiful collie, Skip was my favorite dog.

Punctuation of appositives
1）The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches. essential information
2）John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.not essential information
3）John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John Kennedy the unfaithful husband. both essential

对写作很有用

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Irregular Verbs

Present                   Past                      Past Participle
---------------------------------------------------------------
be                       was, were                      been
become                 became                     become
begin                      began                       begun
blow                        blew                        blown
break                     broke                        broken
bring                    brought                      brought
build                       built                           built
burst 爆炸、炸裂      burst                          burst
buy                      bought                       bought
catch                     caught                       caught
choose                   chose                        chosen
come                      came                          come
cut                          cut                             cut   
deal                       dealt                           dealt
do                           did                            done
drink                      drank                         drunk
drive                      drove                         driven
eat                          ate                            eaten
fall                          fell                              fallen
feed                        fed                              fed
feel                         felt                              felt
fight                     fought                         fought
find                      found                           found
fly                          flew                            flown
forbid                  forbade                       forbidden
forget                  forgot                        forgotten
forgive                forgave                        forgiven
freeze                   froze                           frozen
get                        got                            gotten
give                      gave                            given
go                        went                            gone
grow                    grew                           grown
have                     had                              had
hear                    heard                           heard
hide                      hid                             hidden
hold                     held                              held
hurt                     hurt                              hurt
keep                   kept                              kept
know                   knew                            known
lay                       laid                                laid
lead                     led                                 led
leave                   left                                left
let                        let                                 let
lie                        lay                                lain
lose                     lost                               lost
make                   made                            made
meet                    met                              met
pay                      paid                              paid
quit                      quit                              quit
read                     read                             read
ride                      rode                            ridden
run                       ran                               run
say                       said                              said
see                       saw                             seen
seek                   sought                          sought
sell                        sold                             sold
send                     sent                             sent
shake                  shook                           shaken
shine                   shone                            shone
sing                      sang                             sung
sit                         sat                                sat
sleep                   slept                             slept
speak                  spoke                           spoken
spend                 spent                             spent
spring                 sprang                          sprung
stand                   stood                            stood
steal                     stole                             stolen
swim                   swam                            swum
swing挥舞、摆动    swung                            swung
take                     took                              taken
teach                   taught                           taught
tear 撕扯               tore                                torn
tell                       told                                 told
think                 thought                           thought
throw                threw                              thrown
understand       understood                     understood
wake               woke (waked)                  woken (waked)
wear                    wore                               worn
win                      won                                 won
write                   wrote                              written

Present                                                  Past                                          Past Participle
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lie, lying (to tell a falsehood)        I lied to my mother.                               I have lied under oath.
lie, lying (to recline)                     I lay on the bed because I was tired.       He has lain in the grass.
lay, laying (to put, place)             I laid the baby in her cradle.                  We have laid the dishes on the table.

Example sentences:
After laying down his weapon, the soldier lay down to sleep.
Will you lay out my clothes while I lie down to rest?

Present                                 Past                                                     Past Participle
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
sit                                I sat in my favorite chair.               You have sat there for three hours.
set (to put or place)       I set my glass on the table.            She has set her books on my desk again.

Example sentences:
Let's set the table before we sit down to rest.

Present                               Past                                                                   Past Participle
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
rise                 The balloon rose into the air.                                    He has risen to a position of power.
raise       They raised their hands because they knew the answer.      I have raised the curtain many times.

Example sentences:
The boy raised the flag just before the sun rose.

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复制过来的表格格式全没了，很傻的一个一个编辑：（

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Numbers

Writing Numbers
most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for other numbers:
Words
over two pounds; six million dollars; after thirty-one years; eighty-three people
Figures
after 126 days; only $31.50; 6,381 bushels; 4.78 liters

Days and Years
December 12, 1965 or 12 December 1965
A.D. 1066
in 1900
in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
the eighties, the twentieth century
the 1980's or the 1980s
Time of Day
8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning
4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon
Addresses
16 Tenth Street
350 West 114 Street
Identification Numbers
Room 8
Channel 18
Interstate 65
Henry VIII
Page and Division of Books and Plays
page 30
chapter 6
in act 3, scene 2 (or) in Act III, Scene ii
Decimals and Percentages
a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton
Large Round Numbers
four billion dollars (or) $4 billion
16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million

Notes on Usage
Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.
The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.
Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.
two apples, six oranges, and three bananas
NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed
Write out numbers beginning sentences.
Six percent of the group failed.
NOT: 6% of the group failed.
Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.
Unclear: The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who were born in the city.  
Clearer: The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who were born in the city.

很有用

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Prepositions

One point in time
On is used with days:
·I will see you on Monday.
·The week begins on Sunday.
At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
·My plane leaves at noon.
·The movie starts at 6 p.m.
In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:
·He likes to read in the afternoon.
·The days are long in August.
·The book was published in 1999.
·The flowers will bloom in spring.

Extended time
uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from—to, from-until, during,(with)in
·She has been gone since yesterday. (She left yesterday and has not returned.)
·I'm going to Paris for two weeks. (I will spend two weeks there.)
·The movie showed from August to October. (Beginning in August and ending in October.)
·The decorations were upfrom spring until fall. (Beginning in spring and ending in fall.)
·I watch TV during the evening. (For some period of time in the evening.)
·We must finish the project within a year. (No longer than a year.)

Place
uses the following prepositions: to talk about the point itself: in, to express something contained: inside, to talk about the surface: on, to talk about a general vicinity, at.
·There is a wasp in the room.
·Put the present inside the box.
·I left your keys on the table.
·She was waiting at the corner.
Higher than a point
uses the following prepositions: over, above.
·He threw the ball over the roof.
·Hang that picture above the couch.
Lower than a point
uses the following prepositions: under, underneath, beneath, below.
·The rabbit burrowed under the ground.
·The child hid underneath the blanket.
·We relaxed in the shade beneath the branches.
·The valley is below sea-level.
Close to a point
uses the following prepositions: near, by, next to, between, among, opposite.
·She lives near the school.
·There is an ice cream shop by the store.
·An oak tree grows next to my house.
·The house is between Elm Street and Maple Street.
·I found my pen lying among the books.
·The bathroom is opposite that room.

To introduce objects of verbs
English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare
·She took a quick glance at her reflection.
·You didn't laugh at his joke.
·I'm looking at the computer monitor.
·We rejoiced at his safe rescue.
·That pretty girl smiled at you.
·Stop staring at me.
Of: approve, consist, smell
·I don't approve of his speech.
·My contribution to the article consists of many pages.
·He came home smelling of alcohol.
Of (or about): dream, think
·I dream of finishing college in four years.
·Can you think of a number between one and ten?
·I am thinking about this problem.
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish
·Did someone call for a taxi?
·He hopes for a raise in salary next year.
·I'm looking for my keys.
·We'll wait for her here.
·You go buy the tickets and I'll watch for the train.
·If you wish for an "A" in this class, you must work hard.

TO: signifies orientation toward a goal
We flew from New York to Paris. (OR) We flew to Paris.
We flew from New York to Paris to see our father.
ON + TO = onto: signifies movement toward a surface
IN + TO = into: signifies movement toward the interior of a volume
The frog jumped onto the lilypad.
The milk went into the glass.

Prepositions of Spatial Relationship
Above        Write your name above the line.
Across       Draw a line across the page.
Against      She leans against the tree.
Ahead of    The girl is ahead of the boy.
Along        There is lace along the edge of the cloth.
Among      He is among the trees.
Around      Draw a circle around the answer.
Behind       The boy is behind the girl.
Below         Write your name below the line.
Beneath      He sat beneath the tree.
Beside        The girl is standing beside the boy.
Between     She is between two trees.
From          He came from the house.
In front of      The girl is in front of the boy.
Inside         He is inside the house.
Near          There is a tree near the house.
Off             His hat is off.
Out of        He came out of the house.
Through     She went through the door.
Toward       She is walking toward the house
Under         He is hiding under the table
Within        Please mark only within the circle.

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Pronouns 代词

1. Agree in number
If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.
If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.
Remember: the words everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person, etc. are singular and take singular pronouns.
Everybody ought to do his or her best. (NOT: their best)
Neither of the girls brought her umbrella. (NOT: their umbrellas)
2. Agree in person
If you are writing in the "first person" ( I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the "second person" ( you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the "second person," don't switch to "first" or "third."
When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework ready.
(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)
3. Refer clearly to a specific noun.
Don't be vague or ambiguous.
NOT: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the motorcycle or the tree?)
NOT: I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who are "they"?)

Pronouns as Subjects    Pronouns as Objects    Pronouns that show Possession
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I                                              me                               my (mine)
you                                         you                             your (yours)
he, she, it                            him, her, it                his, her (hers), it (its)
we                                           us                               our (ours)
they                                      them                            their (theirs)
who                                      whom                               whose
The pronouns This, That, These, Those, and Which do not change form.

Some problems of case:
1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you can see which case you want.
Not: Bob and me travel a good deal. (Would you say, "me travel"?)
Not: He gave the flowers to Jane and I. (Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)
Not: Us men like the coach. (Would you say, "us like the coach"?)
2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:
He is taller than I (am tall).  Not: He is taller than me. (Would you say, "than me am tall"?)
This helps you as much as (it helps) me.
She is as noisy as I (am).
3. In formal and semiformal writing:
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
Formal: It is I.
Informal: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: Who am I talking to?

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Subject/Verb Agreement

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
She and her friends are at the fair.
2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
The book or the pen is in the drawer.
3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.
4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception:the first person and second person pronouns I and you.
He doesn't like it.
They don't like it.
5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
6. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Each of these hot dogs is juicy.
Everybody knows Mr. Jones.
Either is correct.
7. Nouns such as civics 公民, mathematics, dollars, measles 麻疹, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: the word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.
8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers 镊子, trousers, and shears 大剪刀 require plural verbs. (There are two parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.
9. In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.
10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular and take a singular verb, such as: group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
Exception: The crew are preparing to dock the ship. referring to the individual efforts of each crew member
11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as well do not change the number of the subject.  The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

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Verb Tenses

Simple Present: They walk
Present Perfect: They have walked
Simple Past: They walked
Past Perfect: They had walked
Future: They will walk
Future Perfect: They will have walked

Controlling Shifts in Verb Tense
1. Do not shift from one tense to another if the time frame for each action or state is the same.
1) The ocean contains rich minerals that washed down from rivers and streams.
Corrected: The ocean contains rich minerals that wash down from rivers and streams.
2) About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announces the approaching storm.
Corrected: About noon the sky darkened, a breeze sprang up, and a low rumble announced the approaching storm.
3) Yesterday we had walked to school but later rode the bus home.
Corrected: Yesterday we walked to school but later rode the bus home.
2.Do shift tense to indicate a change in time frame from one action or state to another.
1) The children love their new tree house, which they built themselves.
2) Before they even began deliberations, many jury members had reached a verdict.
3) Workers are installing extra loudspeakers because the music in tonight's concert will need amplification.